名词与名词化结构
汉英翻译名词化结构
汉英翻译名词化结构汉英翻译名词化结构是翻译中一种常见的表达方式，尤其在中英两种语言的差异性较大的词汇和表达方式中更加常见。
名词化结构是指将非名词类语言元素翻译成名词，如将汉语中的动词、形容词、副词、动态词等语言元素通过翻译转变为英文的名词形式，这种语言转换方式就是名词化结构。
在汉英翻译中，名词化结构的使用非常广泛，尤其是在行业、科技、文化等领域的涉及描述和解释较多的内容时，名词化结构的使用更加适合。
具体来说，名词化结构的特点在于用名词化表达方式取代了传统的动词、形容词、副词等语言形式，通过这种方式能够比较清晰、明了地表达所涉及的内容，增强表达的权威性和规范性，帮助读者准确理解翻译的含义和具体描述。
在汉英翻译中，使用名词化结构表达具体情况和描述有诸多优点。
其一，名词化结构能够让语言表达更加简明、清晰，而且更具英语语言特点，符合英语语境的表达方式。
例如，在翻译中经常出现的“抽象名词”，将汉语中草草解释的概念解释得更加准确，并减少翻译者和读者之间的猜疑。
其二，名词化结构可以让词汇表达更加正式、专业化。
在某些行业中，比如科学技术等领域的翻译中，翻译人员会用更多硬性的、严谨的词汇形式，来解释专业名词和概念。
而这个过程，在使用名词化结构的情况下，被体现得更加规范和专业。
其三，名词化结构的使用能够让翻译理解更加准确，消除模糊、多义、歧义等不利于翻译的因素，有助于加深读者对文本的理解和思考。
尤其是对中英两种语言文化背景、语言习惯的差异性有所适应之后，名词化结构可以在理解和表达上提供更多可能性，产生更多的翻译技巧和思路。
需要指出的是，不合适的使用名词化结构在翻译中也会产生诸多问题。
如果在所有语言元素都转换为名词的过程中，忽略了语言原本最重要的特点和意义，就造成了翻译的功效和适应性大大降低。
而如果在使用名词化结构中固执的排斥了原本应该使用动词、形容词、副词等词汇的情况，也会导致翻译的不准确和失误。
因此，在实际的汉英翻译过程中，准确对待名词化结构对翻译的作用和影响，根据文本和信息的不同，掌握恰当的表达方式，才能发挥名词化结构的最大功能和效果。
浅谈英语中的名词化结构
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科技英语的翻译
名词代替动词）： 二. 名词化结构 (名词代替动词）： 名词代替动词
Laser is one of the most sensational development in recent years because of its applicability to many fields of science and its adaptability to practical use. (激光是近年最惊人的科学成就之一，因为它可以应 用于多学科领域，也适合各种实际用途。）
科技英语文体： 科技英语文体：
If electron moves, it produces a magnetic field.
如果电子运动的话，就会产生磁场。 如果电子运动的话，
If air is passed through a drying agent the moisture will be moved.
The earth attracts the moon and the moon the earth.
常用的省略句型有： 常用的省略句型有： As compared above 如前所述 As indicated in Fig. X 如图所示 As previously mentioned 前已提及 If possible 如果可能 If required 如果需要 When needed 需要时 When in use 在使用时
F. 有限的时态种类： 有限的时态种类：
多用陈述句，少用感叹句和疑问句。 多用陈述句，少用感叹句和疑问句。 时态以一般现在时为主，有时也用一般过去时或完成时 时态以一般现在时为主，
G. 条件句和祈使句较多
条件句常用于提出各种前提，条件和场合，为了避 条件句常用于提出各种前提，条件和场合， 免武断，从假定，猜测，建议和怀疑的角度出发，需要 免武断，从假定，猜测，建议和怀疑的角度出发， 时还用虚拟语气，文字显得更委婉和谨慎。 时还用虚拟语气，文字显得更委婉和谨慎。
名词化结构范本
名词化结构范本名词化结构是一种语法现象，它把动词、形容词、副词等转化为名词形式，从而起到名词的作用。
本文将通过一些实例来介绍名词化结构的用法和表达方式。
1. 简单名词化结构简单名词化结构是最常见的一种形式，它通常是将动词转化为名词形式。
比如，"to run"（跑步）可以转化为"running"（跑步）作为名词使用：例句1: Running is a great way to stay fit and healthy.这个句子中，“running”作为主语，起到了名词的作用。
例句2: I enjoy running in the park.这个句子中，“running”作为宾语，表示一种行为或活动。
2. 形容词名词化结构形容词也可以通过加上后缀的方式转化为名词。
比如，"dangerous"（危险的）可以转化为"danger"（危险)：例句3: We should be aware of the dangers of smoking.这个句子中，“dangers”作为宾语，表示一种状态或情况。
例句4: The job involves a lot of physical dangers.定的属性。
3. 名词化的副词结构除了动词和形容词，副词也可以通过转化为名词的方式来使用。
比如，"carefully"（小心地）可以转化为"carefulness"（小心）：例句5: The success of this project depends on the carefulness of our team.这个句子中，“carefulness”作为介词“of”的宾语，表示一种性质或特点。
例句6: Her carefulness in handling delicate equipment is admirable.这个句子中，“carefulness”作为主语的定语，修饰名词“handling”，表达一种方式或方式。
词语结构类型分类
词语结构类型分类词语是由单词构成的，它们在组合过程中形成了各式各样的组合方式，这就形成了词语的结构类型。
下面我来谈谈这个问题。
(1)名词性结构名词性结构又称为名词化结构。
一个句子里可以有一个主语和若干个谓语动词。
如果主语不是名词，谓语动词与主语之间要用介词。
例如：如果我有一个苹果，那么我有一个苹果；如果你有一个朋友，那么你有一个朋友。
(陈述句)[答案]A(2)动词性结构有一种特殊情况。
有时主语虽然不是名词，但它后面必须跟上一个动词，构成一个谓语动词和宾语的短语，即动宾结构。
这类结构也常见于被动语态。
例如：她去散步了，他看书去了。
(陈述句) [答案]B(3)形容词性结构形容词性结构是指除名词、代词、数词、形容词之外的其他词类的结构。
在形容词性结构中，主语和谓语都是形容词。
一般的说，形容词放在名词或者代词的前边，谓语动词与它在意义上相当的形容词连用。
例如：妹妹张开了笑脸，花儿绽开了笑脸。
(陈述句) [答案]C(4)副词性结构副词性结构是指动词、形容词、副词之外的其他词类的结构。
在副词性结构中，副词经常作状语，修饰动词、形容词、形容词性结构等，如：早上好！(陈述句)[答案]A(5)叹词性结构叹词性结构由叹词构成，在主语或者谓语动词后加叹词。
如：来吧，孩子们，快来吧！(陈述句)[答案]D词语结构类型，是指词语按照一定的原则，在组合中表现出的各自的属性，即一定的结构模式。
常见的有以下几种：(1)同位语、同位结构(名词同位)。
同位语是名词前边的修饰语，如果不是名词，就是名词短语或短句。
在有些句子里，同位语还可以修饰动词或动词短语。
例如：我读《论语》，《孟子》我也读了。
(2)定语、定语结构(形容词性定语)。
定语是用来限定或修饰名词或代词的。
有些形容词前面加定语。
例如：一头牛的尾巴是卷的，像一根鞭子。
(3)状语、状语结构(动词性状语)。
状语是用来修饰、限制谓语的。
在状语的前面或者后面，常常有补语。
例如：这支笔很锋利。
名词化结构举例
名词化结构是指将一个句子或短语转换为一个名词，通常是将其作为主语、宾语、表语、补语或介词宾语。
以下是一些名词化结构的例子：1. 动名词（Gerund）：将动词加上-ing形式，表示动作或状态。
例如：Swimming is my favorite sport.（游泳是我最喜欢的运动。
）2. 不定式（Infinitive）：将动词原形前面加上to，表示目的或意图。
例如：To learn a new language takes time and effort.（学习一门新语言需要时间和努力。
）3. 分词（Participle）：将动词加上-ed或-ing形式，表示被动或进行中的动作。
例如：The broken vase needs to be replaced.（破碎的花瓶需要被替换。
）4. 从句（Subordinate Clause）：将一个完整的句子作为名词的主语、宾语、表语等成分。
例如：What he said was true.（他说的是真的。
）5. 复合名词（Compound Noun）：将两个或多个单词组合在一起形成一个新词。
例如：A bookcase is a piece of furniture used for storing books.（书柜是用来存放书籍的家具。
）6. 形容词性物主代词（Adjective Possessive Pronoun）：表示所属关系的代词，如my, your, his, her, its, our, their等。
例如：My car needs an oil change.（我的车需要换油。
）7. 名词性从句（Noun Clause）：将一个句子作为名词的主语、宾语、表语等成分。
例如：That he arrived late was not his fault.（他迟到不是他的错。
）。
名词化结构在科技英语中的运用及其翻译
名词化结构在科技英语中的运用及其翻译摘要名词化结构是科技英语的主要文体特点之一。
本文分析了科技英语名词化结构的特点、原因以及构成 ,并讨论了不同构成的翻译方法。
关键词:科技英语名词化结构行为名词AbstractNominalization is one of the most important stylistic features of EST. This paper mainly analyses the characteristic, cause and formation of the nominalization of EST, and also presents different ways of translation. Key words: EST nominalization action nounR•夸克等编著的《当代英语语法》( A Grammar of Contemporary English) 在论述科技英语中复杂的语法现象时 ,提到了科技英语的两个最显著特点 : 广泛使用名词化结构和大量使用被动语态。
大量名词化结构的使用是科技英语语篇词汇语法层最典型的特点之一。
名词化结构同时又体现了英汉两种语言和思维方面的差异。
这种差异成为英汉翻译不可忽视的问题。
现从英语名词化结构的主要特点入手, 分析这类词语在汉译时的困难, 提出了归化处理的翻译策略。
一、名词化结构的主要特点英语名词化结构的大量使用减少了英语篇中功能词的使用, 有利于突出英语语篇的主题信息。
从系统功能语法的交际功能角度讲, 名词化结构体现的是事实或过程作为参与者, 避免或减少了施动者人的参与。
这是因为科技英语语篇的主要用途是科技工作者以书面语言形式给读者提供和交流信息, 语篇内容往往是新的科研成果, 科研方法或实验操作过程。
为了使得提供信息易被受话人理解,保证所提供信息的客观和真实性, 科技工作者作为发话人往往不出现在信息交流中, 而是以事实或过程作为参与者。
科技英语的名词化
3)中性名词﹢行为名词（﹢介词短 语）
• 在结构可以将宾语(介词宾语)转换成谓语。 Rockets have found application for the exploration of the universe. • 火箭已经用来探索宇宙。 • 此句Rockets have found application for the exploration of the universe.＝ People have applied rockets to explore the universe. 此结构中谓语动词含义空泛，在句子中只起语法作用，翻译时可以不 译。类似的动词有：do , keep ,have, make, take, pay, show, perform ，… 等。又如: • Curved rails offer resistance to the movement of the train. • 弯曲的钢轨阻碍火车运行。 句中offer是中性名词，几乎不表示什么意义，只起连接作用。此句可 以改为：Curved rails resist the movement of the train.
• 动词名词化的结果是科技英语中行为名词 的出现频率大大增加.这些行为名词可以由 动词加上–ment,–sion,–xion,–ment,– ance,–ence等后缀构成。这类名词除表示 行为动作外，还可表示状态、手段、结果 及存在，其中以–ment为后缀的词还能表示 事物或工具。例如：
医学英语文体的特点终结版
医学英语的文体特点1．句法特点1.1名词化所谓名词化，是指在其他文体里用动词、形容词较多，而在像医学英语这类科技英语中则常常把动词、形容词转化为名词或名词短语。
例如：the application of acupuncture to the treatmemt of these diseases 较之apply acupuncture to treat these diseases更多见于医学英语文献中。
名词化结构的常用形式包括：(1)名词十of十短语，如：the flow of blood from the heart to the infected area.这种形式多用于表示行为对象。
(2)用by引导的短语表示行为执行者，如：the intake of sufficient blood by the infecteted Area(3)保留原来动词或形容词的搭配关系，如：this association of radiation with benign and malignant thyroid diseases.（放射疗法与良性和恶性甲状腺疾病的这种联系）/The importance of irradiation as an etiologic factor in the development of human thyroid carcinoma is well documented．辐射作为一种致癌因素，在成人甲状腺癌产生中的重要作用已被充分证明。
总之，名词化结构是由名词化的词作中心词，加上不同的修饰语构成的短语，其形式不外乎以下几种：（1）前置十中心词transient obstruction 暂时阻塞/ intravaecular coagulation 血管内凝血/ preoperative cardiac cathererization 术前心导管梭查（2）中心词+后置production of the platelet plug 血小板栓的形成/ overview of platelet function 血小板功能概述/ release from platelets of several medicators 从血小板释放出来的几种介质（3）前置+中心词+后置the increased use of noninvasive cardiovascular technology 更多地应用非创伤性心血管诊断技术/lower concentration of megnesium in their heart muscle 较低的心肌镁的含量（4）of短语前移selection of material→material selection / removal of the needle→the needle removal(5)复杂的名词化结构名词化结构中的中心词或所修饰成分枝节旁生，叠加修饰，包括别的短语或从句，从而形成一个较长的名词化结构，如：a decision making process used for the development of a new therapy for which there is a human need 为研制人类所需要的一种新疗法而进行的决策过程/ the exponential rise in the quantity of medical literature being published in this rapidly developing filed在这个快速发展的领域中，医学文献出版数量呈指数的增长医学英语等科技文体因为大量使用名词化结构，使得原本要用一个句子所要表达的内容以短语的形式表现，从而使句子结构紧凑，表达简洁，例如:Although/because/ when/ after/ before/ while/the specimen /is/ was/ has been examined under the microscope这种带连词的分句，可分别简化为：in spite of/ because of/ on/ after/ before examination of the specimen under the microscope/ during examining the specimen under the microscope不仅如此，名词化的使用还可使文章更具严密性。
地道英语内参：为什么老外喜欢用名词表达
为什么老外喜欢用名词化表达名词化的结构名词化结构主要是以英语名词短语代替汉语一个句子,它可以避免人称主语,从而防止句子结构过于臃肿。
法律英语常用结构复杂的长句。
从句子特征来看,还是名词结构占优势,而不是从句或动词的优势。
（1）The buyer shall furnish ocean vessels for the transportation of the rice under this contract.（2）The buyers shall give the notice of the vessel’s name beforehand.（3）The storage of the rice shall be done in the way stated.（4）A certificate is needed attesting the existence of such event.1.动词的名词化作为一种专用英语,简洁和客观是经贸英语的灵魂,故在一般英语中用动词表示的内容,经贸英语却惯于将动词名词化,并由此产生一个名词化结构,让原来的施动意义隐含在结构的深层里。
把动词名词化,表述从“动”转为“静”,语言变得更为客观;使用动词名词化结构,可以替代一个从句甚至一个句子,语言变得更为简洁。
1.1动词名词化的基本形式就形态变化而言,经贸英语动词的名词化通常有两种:一是后缀派生法,即把-al, -sion, -tion, -ment等后缀分别加在不同的动词词尾,在句法研究中这种词称为动词派生名词(deverbal noun);二是零位派生法(zero derivation),也就是说不借助后缀直接由动词转化为名词,本文将这种词称为动词转类名词(conversion noun)。
例如:(1) the conclusion of difficult negotiations(2) the formulation of export sales contracts(3) the participation in GATT(4) the involvement in international economy and trade activities(5) a decline in industrial production and a marked upturn in inflation(6) the fall in the growth rate of the world economy1.2动词名词化结构的两种形态动词名词化时,动词原来所带的客体和主体转化为名的修饰语或附加成分后,就构成了一个动词名词化结构,常见的形式有两种:一是动词原来所带的客体由一个介词(其中及物动词介词of)或不定式符号to引导,接在动词派生名词或动词类名词后面,形成一个后置修饰语,而主体往往以名词的格形式转化为动词派生名词或动词转类名词的前置修饰语例如:(7) Recently China reduced tariffs substantially.(8) China’s recent substantial reduction of tariffs(9) Ericsson studied the target market carefully.(10) Ericsson’s careful study of the target market(11) The new-to-export firm failed to treat international distributors on an equal basis with domestic counterparts.(12) the new-to-export firm’s failure to treat international distributors on a equal basis with domestic counterparts二是客体和主体均转化为后置修饰语,客体在前,由一个介词(其中及物动词由介词of)或不定式符号to引导;主在后,通常由介词by引导。
名词化结构在科技英语中的应用和翻译策略
名词化结构在科技英语中的应用和翻译策略伍燕杰摘要：名词化结构是科技英语的一个独特表现形式，其包含复合名词、动词或形容词产生的名词化结构等。
基于名词化结构的特点，认真分析其翻译策略，将之翻译为主谓结构、动宾结构子类的句子，以准确、无误的表现科技信息。
本文对科技英语中的名词化结构进行了如下分析，并从名词化结构转变为名词词组；名词化结构转化为动宾或主谓结构；名词化结构转变为独立的从句等三个方面论述了科技英语中名词化结构的翻译策略。
关键词：名词化结构；科技英语应用;翻译策略一、引言在英语文体中，科技英语占据重要部分，其本身专业名词、科技术语、被动语态颇多，而其中最突出的特征就是名词化结构，受到了业界人士的广泛关注。
他们从不同的视角对其进行了深入的分析，杨林从语用功能的角度深入探讨了名词化结构的基本概念、特征，并对其翻译中如何处理名词化结构做了深入研究，郭侃俊则对科技英语中的名词化功能及其翻译技巧做了深入探究，如上的这些研究为更好地理解科技英语提供了有效依据。
但，基于科技英语文体的严谨性、周密性以及句式严整等特点，如何转变名词化结构深化理解值得深入探究，而如何将其准确的翻译为汉语被大家更好地理解，是当今科技人员的重点研究方向。
二、科技英语中的名词化结构分析众多研究者针对科技英语中的名词化做了不同的解析，有的将名词化解释为名词的转化，有的则在语法中对名词化结构的概念进行了分析。
无论怎样，这些学者对于名词化的解释都突出了词性转化这一观点。
但是，本文中提到的名词化结构是指名词连用、具有修饰成分组成的具有名词性的词组亦或者是动词、形容词等转化为的名词词组或句子。
（一）单纯的名词化结构由一个或多个名词集中修饰一个名词被称为单纯的名词化结构。
比如，radio frequency sensor（射频敏感器），ramp function(斜坡函数)，regional planning model（区域规划模型），power system automation(电力系统自动化)。
科技英语的句法特点
Unit 8
Gears
• A gear is a form of disk, or wheel, having teeth
around its periphery for providing a positive drive by meshing these teeth with similar teeth on another gear or rack.
• All the other gear forms — bevel gears, helical •
gears, and worm gears — are modifications of the spur gears. The general principle, or the principle on which gear teeth are formed, is practically the same in all the forms of gears in use.
• This results in reduced dynamic effects and attendant
用这种方法加工锻件会浪费一些材料。
用名词化结构表述如下：
The machining of forgings by this method
entails some loss of material.
2. 非人称语气（Impersonal）（无生 命的第三人称语气）
由于科技文章所描述和所讨论的是科学发现或 科技事实。重视事物自身的性能、特征和规律，重 视研究方法及获得结果的真实性，而不是报告这些 结果或自然规律是由谁发现或完成的。例如：
如果两个斜齿轮轴之间的夹角小于90°,……
• The advantage of helical gears lies in the gradual
名词化结构英语语言变化功能分析
名词化结构英语语言变化功能分析作者：李利来源：《校园英语·上旬》2016年第09期【摘要】英语语篇中名词化是一种重要的语意和语法之间的变化桥梁。
合理的使用英语的名词化修饰，可以大大简化英语语法结构，将语意精炼的表述出来。
随着经济全球化时代的到来，英语交流成为必备的人际交际方式之一。
本文浅析了名词化结构应用在英语语言的必要性，针对英语语言名词化结构的组成方式，有效分析了名词化英语语言变化的功能特点。
【关键词】英语语法结构名词化语言变化功能分析一、名词化结构应用在英语语言的必要性1.有利于简化语言结构表达。
英语教学主要包括：听说读写。
由于名词化结构是从英语语法中提炼出来的重要英语语句表现与变换方式，研究名词化结构在英语语言中的应用，有利于实现将英语语言中的长短句、难句进行浓缩或结构整合。
在保障语意不发生变化的前提下，简化英语语言的结构表达。
例如：My brother teaches algebra.可以转换成My brother is an algebra teacher. 都可以称这名词化。
只有将其放在一个完整的句子中方可看出简化的好处。
2.有利于推动英语语言教改。
中职院校对于英语教学一直在尝试英语语言教学改革。
由于英语语句的长难句，句子成分复杂，句子结构冗繁。
学生在接触时，很难有效吸收相关的名词化转换知识要点。
教师在开展课程中，获得的教学效果一般。
研究分析名词化结构在英语语言中的应用形式和结构特点，可以辅助教师更好的开展名词化结构语言内容的教学。
通过将抽象化的名词性结构具体化，有利于不断丰富教学方式，进而推动语言教学改革。
3.有利于提升学生英语水平。
关于名词化结构的英语语篇难度系数较高，学生理解起来存在一定的困难。
由于英语语言可以借助实际交流、沟通的方式丰富学生学习英语的环境和手段，培养学生学习英语的热情，特别是关于语法结构的学习，借助名词化结构的语言应用，可以让学生在交流沟通中体会和理解名词化语言变化的特点以及名词化结构的关键点和学习方式方法的选择，进而不断提升英语学习质量和效率。
名词化结构举例 -回复
名词化结构举例-回复什么是名词化结构？名词化结构是指将其他词类（如动词、形容词、副词）转化为名词的过程。
这种转化能够赋予名词化的词汇更强的表达能力和广泛的应用范围。
以下是几个常见的名词化结构的例子及其用法。
1. 动词的名词化a) open（动词）-> opening（名词）例句：The opening of the store attracted a large crowd.（商店的开业吸引了很多人。
）b) study（动词）-> study（名词）例句：I need to find a quiet place for my study.（我需要找一个安静的地方学习。
）c) hope（动词）-> hope（名词）例句：I have high hopes for my future career.（我对我的未来事业抱有很大的希望。
）2. 形容词的名词化a) expensive（形容词）-> expense（名词）例句：Traveling to exotic destinations can be a significant expense.（去异国旅行可能会是一笔可观的开支。
）b) tired（形容词）-> tiredness（名词）例句：His tiredness was evident after working for long hours.（在长时间工作后，他的疲劳显而易见。
）c) poor（形容词）-> poverty（名词）例句：Many people are trapped in a cycle of poverty and struggle to escape.（许多人陷入贫困循环并努力摆脱。
）3. 副词的名词化a) quickly（副词）-> quickness（名词）例句：His quickness in solving problems impressed everyone.（他解决问题的迅速给大家留下了深刻印象。
学术英语知识
气象专业学术英语知识讲座第一讲学术英语的一般特征第二讲名词短语与名词化结构第三讲时态与语态用法第四讲转述语与转述动词第五讲评价与作者立场第六讲语篇互动机制：元话语第七讲主位结构分析第八讲语篇衔接手段第九讲体裁分析与论文引言部分的CARS模型第十讲摘要、论文方法、结果和讨论部分的宏观结构气象专业学术英语知识讲座第一讲学术英语及其一般特征学术英语(EAP)的基本概念、主要研究问题、教学特征及研究发展简史与普通英语的主要区别（文体正式、高度的专业性、词汇特点（学术英语词汇表、概念外壳名词）、句法特点、模糊语的运用）主要流派（系统功能语法、体裁分析方法）批判性阅读与写作第二讲名词化结构积木结构名词化结构（基本类型，功能）第三讲语态与时态被动语态的运用主动语态运用的时机学术语篇中常用的三种时态时态的语用（语篇）功能？条件句中的时态第四讲主位结构分析系统功能语法的基本概念主位、述位主位化主位推进模式摘要语篇中的主位推进第五讲衔接与连贯基本概念衔接手段第六讲论文引言的宏观结构及其语言特征学术论文的宏观结构CARS模型及其语步识别转述语（转述语分型：完整式转述与非完整式转述，转述动词及其分类，转述动词时态的语法隐喻）第八讲摘要的宏观结构及其语言特征摘要定义、作用及类型宏观结构（语步模式）及其语言特征（时态、语态）标题语言学特征第九讲论文主体部分的宏观结构及其语言特征方法部分（基本内容及语步模式，对数值模式或资料的描述，数值模拟的描述，对天气形势/天气过程的描述，学术语篇中的祈使句，时态）结果部分（基本内容及语步模式，指称研究结果，叙述研究结果，说明或评论研究结果，图表说明，时态）讨论部分（基本内容及语步模式，常用句型，句子副词，时态）结论部分（基本内容及语步模式，时态）第十讲学术语篇中的互动机制：元话语学术语篇的互动性Hyland元话语理论模式学术语篇中元话语的功能（说服的三种手段：气质、动情和说理）作者立场（基本概念、认知型立场标记语、态度型立场标记语、方式型立场标记语）Features of academic writingIntroductionAcademic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form of the language. There are eight main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately.ComplexityWritten language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.FormalityAcademic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.PrecisionIn academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.ObjectivityWritten language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs).ExplicitnessAcademic writing is explicit about the relationships int he text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.AccuracyAcademic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and "phonemics"; general English does not.HedgingIn any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a ‘hedge’.ResponsibilityIn academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.ComplexityWritten language is relatively more complex than spoken language.Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases. They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical variation.Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, morelong sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.The following features are common in academic written texts:Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of prepositional phrases, Participles, Passive verbs,Lexical density, Lexical complexity, Nominalisation, Attributive adjectivesExamplesHalliday (1989, p.79) compares a sentence from a spoken text:You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that they'll be able to run more safely and more quickly than they would otherwise, no matter how bad the weather gets.with a typical written variant:The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster train running in the most adverse weather conditions.The main difference is the grammar, not the vocabulary.Other equivalents are given below (p.81):FormalityIn general this means in an essay that you should avoid:a. colloquial words and expressions: "stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of",b. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"c. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"d. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in reports.e. asking questions.PrecisionIn academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do not use "a lot of people" when you can say "50 million people".For example:Chemists had attempted to synthesize quinine for the previous hundred years but all they had achieved was to discover the extreme complexity of the problem.The volatile oily liquid beta-chloro-beta-ethyl sulphide was first synthesized in 1854, and in 1887 it was reported to produce blisters if it touched the skin. It was called mustard gas and was used at Ypres in 19I7, when it caused many thousands of casualties.It is approximately eight inches in length and runs from the urinary bladder, through the prostate gland, under the front of the pelvis, and, passing throughthe corpus spongiosum, it ends at the tip of the glans penis in an opening called the urethral meatus .ObjectivityThis means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic writing, in particular. Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs should be based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is important to make this clear.1. Compare these two paragraphs:The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing. Researchers have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain, 1980; Oller, 1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language proficiency than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a long time. Some researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how language works. I think that language is something we use for communicating, not an object for us to study and we remember that when we teach and test it. Which is the most objective?2. In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore unnecessary to make this explicit.Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."Write: "This is a very interesting study."Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago." Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."3. ExamplesClearly this was far less true of France than ...This is where the disagreements and controversies begin ...The data indicates that ...This is not a view shared by everyone; Jones, for example, claims that .... . .very few people would claim ...It is worthwhile at this stage to consider ...Of course, more concrete evidence is needed before ...Several possibilities emerge ...A common solution is ...Academic writing is explicit in several ways.1. It is explicit in its signposting of the organisation of the ideas in the text (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad & Finegan, 1999, pp. 880-882). As a writer of academic English, it is your responsibility to make it clear to your reader how various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it clear.The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because the current account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those which he knew from the history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the relation of production was characterized by the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lord's control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his own family. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin, refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.For more information see Writing Paragraphs: Signalling.2. It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text.If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it. Do THIS in academic writingMcGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.NOTAlthough Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.NOTResearchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.AccuracyIn academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do not confuse, for example, "phonetics" and "phonology" or "grammar" with "syntax".Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly" , "gathering" or "conference".Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".HedgingIt is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to convey facts and information. However it is now recognised that an important feature of academic writing is the concept of cautious language, often called "hedging" or "vague language". In other words, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.Language used in hedging:1. Introductoryverbs: e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest2.Certain lexical verbs e.g. believe, assume, suggest3. Certain modalverbs:e.g. will, must, would, may, might, could4.Adverbs of frequency e.g. often, sometimes, usually4. Modal adverbs e.g. certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly,perhaps, conceivably,5.Modal adjectives e.g. certain, definite, clear, probable, possible6.Modal nouns e.g. assumption, possibility, probability7. That clauses e.g. It could be the case that .e.g. It might be suggested that .e.g. There is every hope that .8. To-clause +adjective e.g. It may be possible to obtain .e.g. It is important to develop .e.g. It is useful to study .EXAMPLESCompare the following:1.It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economicconcepts was less strong than it is now.The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was lessstrong than it is now.2.The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to mostwomen today.The lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self-denying to mostwomen today.3.Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not,there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence noevolution.Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not,there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence noevolution.4.Yet often it cannot have been the case that a recalcitrant trustee remainedin possession of the property entrusted to him.Yet a recalcitrant trustee did not remain in possession of the propertyentrusted to him.5.Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland indicatesa separating out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic populationdrifting westwards and vice versa.Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland shows aseparating out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic populationdrifting westwards and vice versa.6.By analogy, it may be possible to walk from one point in hilly country toanother by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight linebetween the points would cross a valley.By analogy, one can walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight line between thepoints would cross a valley.7.There are certainly cases where this would seem to have been the onlypossible method of transmission.There are cases where this would have been the only possible method of transmission.8.Nowadays the urinary symptoms seem to be of a lesser order.Nowadays the urinary symptoms are of a lesser order.ResponsibilityIn academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source text. You must also be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make.This is done by paraphrasing and summarising what you read and acknowledging the source of this information or ideas by a system of citation.Citing sourcesIntroductionOne of the most important aspects of academic writing is making use of the ideas of other people. This is important as you need to show that you have understood the materials that you have studied and that you can use their ideas and findings in your own way. In fact, this is an essential skill for every student. Spack (1988, p. 42) has pointed out that the most important skill a student can engage in is "the complex activity to write from other texts", which is "a major part of their academic experience." For this reason, any academic text you read or write will contain the voices of other writers as well as your own.In your writing, however, the main voice should be your own and it should be clear what your point of view is in relation to the topic or essay question. The object of academic writing is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject, for you to present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people’s ideas, rather than reproducing their words. If your view is not clear, you will be told you have not answered the question or something similar. It is essential therefore that it must always be clear whose voice is speaking.There are two main ways in which you can show your view (Tadros, 1993): negatively•lack of mention of any other writerpositively•first person pronouns ("I")•comments and evaluations ("two major drawbacks", "of no great merit", " as X insightfully states", )It will always be assumed that the words or ideas are your own if you do not say otherwise. When the words or ideas you are using are taken from another writer, you must make this clear. If you do not do this and use another person's words or ideas as if they were your own, this is Plagiarism and plagiarism is regarded as a very serious offence.The ideas and people that you refer to need to be made explicit by a system of citation. The object of this is to supply the information needed to allow a user to find a source.You need to acknowledge the source of an idea unless it is common knowledge in your subject area. It is difficult sometimes to know whether something is common knowledge in your subject or needs acknowledging. In general, if your lecturer, in lectures or handouts, do not acknowledge the source you can assume that it is common knowledge within your subject.The object of academic writing is therefore for you to present your ideas in your own way. To help you do this, however, you will need to use the ideas of other people and when you do this, you need to say where the words and ideas are from.There are several reasons for this (See Thompson, 1994, pp. 178-187 for more information).1. You need to show that you are aware of the major areas of thought in your specificsubject. This allows you to show how your contribution fits in, by correctingprevious research, filling gaps, adding support or extending current research orthinking.2. You need to support the points you are making by referring to other people's work.This will strengthen your argument. The main way to do this is to cite authors that agree with the points you are making. You can, however, cite authors who do notagree with your points, as long as you explain why they are wrong. Do not make a statement that will cause your reader to ask, "Who says?"3. If you are a student, you need to show that you have read and understood specifictexts. You need to show that you have read around the subject, not just confinedyour reading to one textbook or lecture notes.4. You must not use another person's words or ideas as your own so you need to saywhere they are from.You usually do this by reporting the works of others in your own words. You can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same, summarise if you want to make the text shorter or synthesise if you need to use information from several sources. Do not forget, though, that the central line of argument, the main voice, should be your own. This means that you will need to comment on or evaluate any other works that you use. If you do not do this, you will be accused of being too descriptive, of not being critical or analytical enough, or of not producing a clear argument.There are many ways of refering to other writers - check with your department for specific information.•The most common system is called the Harvard system. There is no definitive version of the Harvard system and most universities have their own. But the oneused here - the American Psychological Association style - is well known andoften used, especially in social sciences and business (American PsychologicalAssociation, 1983, 1994, 1999, 2001, 2010).•If you are a humanities student, click here or see Gibaldi (2003) and Modern Languages Association (1998) for another version of the author-date system.•Many scientists use a numerical system, often called the Vancouver style or BS 1629. Click here or see International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (1991) for more information.^Citing - APA styleThere are two ways in which you can refer to, or cite, another person's work: a) by reporting or b) by direct quotation.a) ReportingThis simply means reporting the other writer's ideas into your own words.You can either paraphrase if you want to keep the length the same or summarise if you want to make the text shorter. See Reporting: Paraphrase & Summary for more information. There are two main ways (Swales, 1990, p. 148) of showing that you have used another writer's ideas:integralAccording to Peters (1983) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.Evidence from first language acquisition indicating that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks was given by Peters (1983).OR non-integralEvidence from first language acquisition (Peters, 1983) indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.Lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks (Peters, 1983).depending on whether or not the name of the cited author occurs in the citing sentence or in parenthesis.If you want to refer to a particular part of the source:According to Peters (1983, p. 56) evidence from first language acquisition indicates that lexical phrases are learnt first as unanalysed lexical chunks.(At end of essay)ReferencesPeters, A (1983). The units of language acquisition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.^b) Direct QuotationOccasionally you may want to quote another author's words exactly. For example:Hillocks (1982) similarly reviews dozens of research findings. He writes, "The available research suggests that teaching by written comment on compositions is generally ineffective" (p. 267).(At end of essay)ReferencesHillocks, G. (1982). The interaction of instruction, teacher comment, and revision in teaching the composing process. Research in the Teaching of English, 16, 261-278.If you do so, keep the quotation as brief as possible and quote only when it is necessary. You must always have a good reason for using a quote - and feeling unable to paraphrase or summarise is never a good reason. The idea of an essay is for you to say something for yourself using the ideas of the subject; you present ideas you have learned in your own way. The emphasis should be on working with other people’s ideas, not reproducing their words. Your paper should be a synthesis of information from sources, expressed in your own words, not a collection of quotations. Any quote you use should not do your job for you, but should add something to the point you are making. The quote should support your point, by quoting evidence or giving examples or illustrating, or add the weight of an authority. It should not repeat information or disagree with your point.Please note, though, that some subjects, for example chemistry, hardly ever use direct quotation (Robinson, Stoller, Costanza-Robinson & Jones, 2008, p. 545). Check with your department.Reasons for using quotations:1. quote if you use another person's words: you must not use another person'swords as your own;2. you need to support your points, quoting is one way to do this;3. quote if the language used in the quotation says what you want to say particularlywell.Reasons for not using quotations:1. do not quote if the information is well-known in your subject area;2. do not use a quotation that disagrees with your argument unless you can prove itis wrong;3. do not quote if you cannot understand the meaning of the original source;4. do not quote if you are not able to paraphrase the original;5. do not use quotations to make your points for you; use them to support yourpoints.If you decide to use a quotation, you must be very careful to make it clear that the words or ideas that you are using are taken from another writer.This can be done in several ways, either integral or non-integral: Widdowson (1979, p. 5) states that "there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect."According to Widdowson (1979),"there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect" (p. 5).According to Widdowson, "there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect" (1979, p. 5).According to one researcher, "there is a good deal of argument in favour of extending the concept of competence to cover the ability to use language to communicative effect" (Widdowson, 1979, p. 5).(In all cases at end of essay)ReferencesWiddowson, H. G. (1979). Explorations in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.When you are using a direct quotation of a single phrase or sentence, quotation marks should be used around the words, which must be quoted exactly as they are in the original. However, note the following:1. You may wish to omit some of the author’s original words that ar e not relevant toyour writing. In this case, use three dots (...) to indicate where you have omittedwords. If you omit any of the author’s original words, make sure you do not changethe meaning.He stated, "The ‘placebo effect,’ ... disappeared when be haviours were studied in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were studied.2. If you need to insert material (additions or explanations) into a quotation, usebrackets, ([...]).Smith (1982) found that "the placebo effect, which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when [his own and others’] behaviours were studied in this manner" (p. 276).3. If the material quoted already contains a quotation, use single quotation marks forthe original quotation (‘...’).He stated, "The ‘placebo effect,’ ... disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner" (Smith, 1982, p. 276), but he did not clarify which behaviours were studied.4. If the direct quotation is long - more than two or three lines, it should be indentedas a separate paragraph with no quotation marks.According to Smith (1982, p. 276):The "placebo effect," which had been verified in previous studies, disappeared when behaviours were studied in this manner. Furthermore, the behaviours were never exhibited again, even when real drugs were administered. Earlier studies were clearly premature in attributing the results to the placebo effect.(In all cases at end of essay)ReferencesSmith, G. (1982). The placebo effect. Psychology Today, 18, 273-278.^Secondary sourcesIn all cases, if you have not actually read the work you are referring to, you should give the reference for the secondary source - what you have read. In the text, you should then use the following method:According to Jones (as cited in Smith, 1982, p. 276), the ....。
名词化结构
名词化结构分类(根据修饰词不同)
acute bacterial peritonitis 急性细菌性腹膜炎
special strengthening filler material 特殊的强化用的填料 low average stress values 较低的平均应力值
a non-uniform temperature field非均匀的温度场
名词化结构分类(根据修饰词不同)
英语修辞一般来说遵守以下原则：限定词—描绘性 形容词—表示大小、新旧的形容词—表示颜色的形 容词—表示类别的形容词—表示类别的名词—中心 名词：基术语序是：专有性—泛指性—名词；次要 意义—重要意义—名词；程度弱—
程度强—名词。大—小—名词。意思愈具体、物质 性愈强， 与中心名词的关系愈密切的就愈靠近中心名词。例 如：
a mechanically worked surface layer经过机械加T的表层 a precise differential air pressure meter一只精密的差动气压 表 a reversing variable-displacement reciprocating pump可反 置的变容积往复式工作泵
Regulation of the temperature can normally be effected by the application of a thermo-couple.
使用名词化结构的动因
另外，用名词替代动词也可避免了与动词相关的人 称和时态。例如：
例7．While it is being compacted, considerable lateral pressure is exerted by the concrete． 在压实过程中．混凝土加上了相当的侧压力。
法律英语语篇名词化结构及其汉译
１ ．引言
或指从一个 底层小 句得 出一个名 词短语 的派生过 程。 ” 胡壮 麟（ ９６ ３ ） 为名词 化就 是“ 过程和特 性经过 １９ ：６ 认 将 隐喻化 ， 不再是 小句 中的过程 或修饰 语 ， 而是 以名词形
容置疑的权威性。由于英汉两种语 言所体现 的中西方文化及 民族思 维的差异 ， 翻译 法律 英语 语篇 中的名词化结构 在 时， 应厘 清语 句不 同成份之 间的逻辑关 系， 以使译 文符合 汉语 的思 维和表达 习惯 。
关键词 ： 法律 英 语 语 篇 ； 词 化 ； 译 名 汉 中 图 分 类 号 ： ０９ Ｈ ５ 文献标识码 ： Ａ 文 章 编 号 ：６３９ ７ （０ ０ ０ － ７ －４ １７ — ６ ２ １ ）２０ １ ８ ０ ０
度增大 ” 的一种 表达形 式 。换 言之 ， 词化本 身是 一个 名
派生或者转化过程 ， 名词化结构可 以由派生基本 词或从 属 向心结构 即修 饰语 加 中心词构 成 ， 属于名 词类 ， 当 充 句子 的一个语法成份 ， 只有在句法系统 中才有 意义 。
２ ２名 词 化 结 构 与 法 律 英 语 语 篇 的 关 系 ．
词特征 ， 从而减少 及 物性小 句 ， 自然 语义 句的信 息密 使
成 的具有约束性的民族语言 的社 团分支 ， 它包 括规范性
法律文件用语 以及法 律工作 者在 执法 过程 中使用 的一 整套规范化的法律公务用语 ” 肖云枢 ２ ０ ４ ） 其 “ （ ００： ， 最 ６
贴 切 的 英 文解 释是 ‘ ｎ ｉ ｒ ｈ ｗ” （ 光 汉 １９ ： Ｅ ｇｓ ｆ ｅｌ ’ 王 ｌ ｈｏｔ ａ ９ ２
名词与名词化结构
名词化结构的用法
Breaking up the larger molecules of the heavier liquids in the petroleum mixture into the smaller, lighter molecules of gasoline is carried out in huge refinery tanks by certain materials called catalysts. A detailed model of the photodegradation with TiO2 as catalyst is presented.
名词化结构的用法
2 用介词连接－作介词宾语 The method of transfer metal to the workpiece depends on the magnitude of the current. the method by which metals transferred to the work-piece
The distillates need to be recovered now.
差异
如果有逻辑主语， 第一、二类名词的逻辑主语都跟在其后 the combination of hydrogen ions the combining of hydrogen ions 第三、四类名词的逻辑主语提高前面
名词化结构的用法
2 用介词连接－作介词宾语 However, in the presence of air, surface oxides may form within the engine. if air is present
名词化结构的用法
3 用中性动词（empty word）过渡 中性动词make, take, give, get, do, have等 意义份量轻、接近中性动词的动词perform, achieve, obtain, carry out, establish, present等
名词化
名词化结构分析编辑名词化，作为用某一语法类别或语法结构去代替另一语法类别或语法结构的形式，在本质上涉及到一系列的变化过程。
下面几个小节将分别描述名词化过程中级的变化、语义功能的变化和部分语义成分的变化。
名词化结构的级变化如表二所示，韩礼德把语义分成三级，分别为“言辞列”（sequence）、“言辞”（figure）和“成分”（element）。
言辞是对事件的语义表达，因为人类经验主要由发生的事构成，语法通过小句的构建把这些发生的事件转换为语义。
若干表示事件的言辞构成言辞列，由小句组体现。
级阶理论容许向下移动的“级转移”（rank shift），即一个已知单位可移至下一级，但下级单位不能上移。
名词化结构用名词或名词词组代替了一致式中的小句或句组，因此“级转移”是名词化的重要内容。
例如，在下面的两个句子中：(4a) The driver drove the bus too fast down the hill, so the brakes failed.(4b) The driver’s overrapid downhill driving of the bus caused brake failure.(4a)是一致式，(4b)通过语法隐喻把(4a)的两个小句向下转移为两个名词性词组结构。
名词化的语义功能变化伴随着级向下转移，名词化结构产生了有别于一致式结构的功能意义变化(changes in status)。
韩礼德（1995a）指出，我们在进行语义分析时，要看语义功能、语法功能和语法类别三个方面的变化。
就上例而言，动词drive转化成driving时，语义功能由process 转化为entity，语法功能由transitivity转化为thing ，语法类别则由动词转化为名词。
而too fast转化为overrapid后，语义功能由circumstance转化为quality，语法功能由manner转化为epithet，语法类别则由副词转化为形容词。
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Curved rails offer resistance to the movement of the train.
Curved rails resist the movement of the train.
offer 只取句法作用，语义由名词化结构表示
A
13
名词化结构的用法
3 用中性动词（empty word）过渡
for hydrogen ions to combine with chloride ions in the solution
The distillates need to be recovered now.
A
5
差异
如果有逻辑主语， 第一、二类名词的逻辑主语都跟在其后 the combination of hydrogen ions the combining of hydrogen ions
the combining of hydrogen ions with chloride ions in the solution
The recovering of distillates is also performed in the vacuum unit
A
3
动名词（gerund）
examining the object with an ordinary microscope
第三、四类名词的逻辑主语提高前面
分词用名词或代词的所有格作逻辑主语
hydrogen ions’ combining
不定式用for引出逻辑主语
for hydrogen ions to combine
A
6
差异
动作名词 action n. examination combination
动词性名词 verbal n. the examining the combining
hydrogen ions’ combining with chloride ions in the solution
Recovering distillates is also performed in the vacuum unit.
A
4
不定式（infinitive）
to examine the object with ordinary microscope
中性动词make, take, give, get, do, have等 意义份量轻、接近中性动词的动词perform,
achieve, obtain, carry out, establish, present等
A
12
名词化结构的用法
3 用中性动词（empty word）过渡
主动语态：中性动词＋名词化结构＋介词短语
A
10
名词化结构的用法
2 用介词连接－作介词宾语
However, in the presence of air, surface oxides may form within the engine.
if air is present
A
11
名词化结构的用法
3 用中性动词（empty word）过渡
被动语态：名词化结构（作主语）＋中性动词 （被动语态）＋状语
Tapping or removing the molten iron from the furnace is done every 4 or 5 hours.
The molten iron is tapped or removed from the furnace every 4 or 5 hours.
名词化（nominalization）
名词化主要指表示动作或状态的抽象名词， 或起名词作用的非谓语动词
一般由动词派生，也包括由形容词加后缀ability, -ity, -ness等构成的名词
可分为四大类：动作名词、名词性动名词、 动名词和不 Nhomakorabea式A
1
动作名词（action noun）
an examination of the object with an ordinary microscope
动名词 gerund examining combining
不定式 infinitive to examine to combine
动词性 名词性
A
7
名词化结构的用法
1 直接作句子的主语、宾语和表语
A
8
名词化结构的用法
2 用介词连接－作介词宾语
By opening the valves 11 and 12, residual gas from the adsorber 2 flows into the evacuated adsorber 1.
While the valves 11 and 12 are opened,
A
9
名词化结构的用法
2 用介词连接－作介词宾语
The method of transfer metal to the workpiece depends on the magnitude of the current.
the method by which metals transferred to the work-piece
A detailed model of the photodegradation with TiO2 as catalyst is presented.
A
14
名词化结构的用法
Breaking up the larger molecules of the heavier liquids in the petroleum mixture into the smaller, lighter molecules of gasoline is carried out in huge refinery tanks by certain materials called catalysts.
the combination of hydrogen ions with chloride ions in the solution
Recovery of distillates is also performed in the vacuum unit.
A
2
动词性名词（verbal noun）
the examining of the object with an ordinary microscope