跨文化交际11-Gender differences in Communication
北京大学出版社《跨文化交际》unit7_Cross-gender_communication(跨性别交际)
Football; Basketball;
Interactions with other people such as peers, teachers…
Learn from medias, books, history, culture…
• Mother-daughter interaction: same sex
• A survey has been conducted to ask the same questions to males and females: “If you had a car, what would be the first thing you like to do with it?” Most females’ answers were like this: “If I had a car, the first thing I prefer to do would be taking a ride. While most males answer more or less like this: “If I had a car, I would check the engine first.” or :” If I had a car, I would consider if I could clean it every Saturday.”
Men are from Mars， Women are from Venus.
---John Gray
The styles men and women use to communicate have been described as
debate vs. vs. relate rapport cooperative
《跨文化交际》课程教学大纲
《跨文化交际》课程教学大纲课程编号：ENGL2046课程类别：专业选修课程授课对象：英语专业、俄英双语、法英双语学生开课学期：英语第6学期、双语第8学期学分：2 学分主讲教师：指定教材：《跨文化交流入门》，浙江大学出版社，许力生主编，2004年。
《文化与交际》，暨南大学出版社，胡穗鄂编。
教学目的：目前我国经济快速增长，文化交流、旅游业蓬勃发展。
江、浙、沪地区外国独资、合资企业数量增多，与国际人员的经济文化交往日益增多。
跨文化交际现象已经成为苏州本地文化的一个重要方面。
但是，在众多的跨文化交际中，一些人员出现文化误解，或者表现出不自信，降低了交际的效益，直接的后果往往导致经济效益的降低。
苏州大学作为本地的人才高地，有责任、有条件在教学中培养学生的跨文化交际能力。
我们的毕业生主要从事文化、教育、经济活动，我们的课程也应适应这社会需要，帮助学生通过知识的获取、情感的开放和技能的培养形成以自我文化又和他国文化保持一定距离的跨文化意识，也就是说一种能以局外者的眼光看待自己文化的能力；局内者的眼光理解自己和他人的文化意识；培养学生在交际中对他国文化和本土文化怀有好奇、开放和宽容的态度。
从而在国际交往中提高交际的效益，提升个人的自信心。
本课程采用课堂教学、学期作业和网络平台相结合的教学形式。
课堂教学采用多种教学法综合进行教学。
课堂语言为英语。
采用理论与实践活动相结合的方式，与学生互动探讨理论。
参插角色扮演、小组讨论、全班讨论的活动方式，进行情景模拟实验、引导学生发表观点。
另外有录音、录像供学生观摩讨论。
学期作业的形式是一篇千字以上的论文，内容是运用学到的某些跨文化交际的理论概念对现实生活案例、本土文化和外国文化进行阐释、分析、比较和反思。
学生必须自己选题、规划。
文章材料包括文字、图片、音频和视频，教师的工作是建议、修改、监督和评估，创造机会，帮助学生完成学期论文。
该课程有两个网站：一个是在外国语学院服务器上的课程资源网站，网站上有该课程的教学大纲、进度表、备课教案，另设有通知板、网上跨文化交际咖啡俱乐部、学习工具等帮助学生完成科目的服务性网站。
跨文化交际--性别差异
Gender differences in intercultural communication摘要：跨性别交际是跨文化交际的一种形式。
在男性与女性交际的过程中，尤其是在口头交际的过程中，他们在语言的使用上存在着许多方面的差异。
这些语言差异源于男性与女性不同的心理特征、性别角色、社会分工、社会偏见、以及权势和支配欲。
性别差异不仅是生物学上的差异，而主要是一种文化构建。
这些差异必定会给两性之间交际带来困难，甚至是交际失误。
因此，只有了解不同性别的交际规则，培养性别文化差异意识，才能避免由性别差异而导致的交际失误，成为成功的跨文化交际者。
关键词：跨性别交际差异原因建议PART I: Differences between men and women in communicationNowadays, it is necessary for men and women to communicate with each other every day. But their different communicative styles often bring about doubts, misunderstandings, even conflicts in their communication, especially in intercultural communication. The differences always lie in the following aspects:1) Different vocabularies:Women tend to use milder expletives, such as “Darn it!”; while men are m ore likely use vulgar words, such as “Damn” “Shit” to curse others.Women tend to use milder exclamations, such as “Oh, dear!” “Goddess”; while men are more likely to use “God!” “My god!”.Women often use some empty extravagant adjectives and hyperboles to express emotions instead of offering information, such as adorable, charming, cute, and lovely. It would be funny for men to say these words.Women are more likely to use euphemism. If men use “hell”, women often say “the other place”.2) Different sentences:Men and women often choose different sentences. Men tend to use declarative sentences and imperative sentences. They express their own opinions directly to require or demand something; while women often use interrogative questions, milder imperative sentences to express their opinions indirectly.Women are often more likely to use compound requests. For example “If you don’t have anything better to do, why don’t you clean your room?” Women are more likely to use this type of statement becau se they are socialized to be polite. Men tend to use more powerful language forms that get attention or make them seem to be more knowledgeable and capable. For instance, they are more likely to make statements what they believe, such as “This is the best pizza in this town.”3) Different styles:3.1. Establishing equal relationship:If one woman says to another woman: “My bike was stolen yesterday”, the listener would reply the same experience she has had and complain the bad luck. These words can eliminate the feeling of solitude of the speaker, which can create an interactive speech pattern. If men come across this situation, men would tell women they should call the police first. Men just want to offer a solution for women in trouble.3.2. Support and sympathy:In women’s conversation, there are filled with support and sympathy. They always care for others’ feeling. Men, however, only care for themselves instead of paying attention to women’s mood. Men treat conversation as a way to show to show up their capability, knowledge or talent.3.3. Power and social status:Men are supposed to be superior, so they speak with powerful style. When men talk with women, menoften control the turn of the topics and the sequence of the speakers. Men often interrupt the conversation or get the speech floor; men pay no attention to women by reacting with their minimal responses such as “mhm”.Compared with men, women are inferior and controlled by men. They speak with powerless style. When they talk with men, women are passive and modest by using interrogative sentences, tag sentences and so on. Women often treat these as a way to develop the conversation or draw attention of men.3.4. Continuation of conversation:By raising questions, women hope that others can continue the conversation. Whenever they finish a topic, they can turn to another smoothly. The principle of cooperation is well represented by women.Men often show they are busy by speaking a few words and then leaving hurriedly.3.5. Tone:W omen are more frequent to use super high and low tone. The tone can fully express the speakers’ emotion and is one of the characteristics of women. Women would like to answer questions with rising tone to show their uncertainty. Women are more frequent to use falling-raising tone and raising-falling-raising tone. The falling-raising tone shows hesitate-apologetic meaning and the raising-falling-raising tone an enthusiastic situation.4) Different strategies:4.1. Direct and indirect:Men tend to be direct w hen they express themselves, while women are often indirect. However, it isn’t always like this. In some cases, it is the women who are expecting direct statements and the men who are expressing themselves indirectly. The issue is not directness or indirectness; the issue is the current interpretive framework.4.2. Fit to specific environment:According to observation, in different conversation environment, women and men tend to speak differently. For example, in a business meeting, the most of the talk would be dominated by men. However, men tend to be sullen and silent when they are at home.4.3. Intimacy and independence:Here is an example. Josh, the husband, gets a call from an old friend who will be visiting the town that Josh lives in, and he immediately invites him to stay at their house. Later, when he tells Linda, the wife, she is upset because he didn’t discuss it with her before making the invitation. He tells her that he doesn’t want to be seen as asking his wife for permission in front of his old friend. From this example, we can see that what is of concern to the man is his independence while for the woman it is their intimacy. In other words, he is concerned for his status as being free to make up his own mind whereas she is concerned for their connection.4.4. Rapport and information:Men are more likely to use what gender communication expert Deborah Tannen calls “report-making language” that centers on facts, information, and getting the job done. Women are more likely to use “rapport-buildi ng language” which considers message content and the relationship between the people communicating.5) Different topics:Women prefer to talk about daily life, such as family, children, health, fashion and love; while men are interested in big and serious topics, such as politics, money, sports and sex.6) Different focus:Women are emotional and sometimes, exaggerate with metaphors. Men concern only the word, just interpret the literal meaning. Women just want to express a kind of feeling. Men may take it seriously because they can’t know the implication of women. That’s why men may misunderstand women.There are still many other differences between men and women. I would not say more here.PART II: Reasons for these differencesWhy are there so many differences? The factors that affect the differences are:1) Social factors:Men and women have different languages because they treat language as a social symbol. They choose the languages according to the social pressure, atmosphere and others. The language they choose is fit for their status. Even though men and women live in the same society, women tend to use formal language. Men are endowed with power and women cannot have the same stable social status as men, in most cases, women are inferior to men. Women need to show and protect their identity or social status. So, women obtain kind of potential prestige during the process of obtaining collective identification by using standard language form.2) Cultural factors:Men and women belong to different sub-cultural groups. The research shows that the different groups are formed when men and women are young, and they have different acting ways. These differences make them realize the gender identity.Language is affected by social-cultural factors. Women tend to use standardized language because standardized language is thought to be the language used by upper class with high reputation. The motivation of using the hypercorrect standardized language is thought to enter the upper class. This is obvious for women. Women have fewer rights for materials than men. Women tend to speak standardized language for two reasons: a> Women have the obligation of raising the offspring and spreading culture to them, so they know how important it is for the offspring to learn standardized language. b> Traditionally, women’s social status is not so stable as that of men, so it is necessary for women to mark and stabilize their social status. So they realize how important standardize language.3) Political reason:Lakoff explained the gender differences were caused by social inequality. Besides, as long as the power imbalance existed, women were in difficulty and confined doubly because the languages and behaviors were thought of defective. On the other hand, if women were near to or copy the speaking way of men, these women were discarded for they weren’t women.For example, one female accountant in one American accounting office is capable and makes great contributions to the office and is popular with her c lients, but can’t be promoted because her manner and behaviors are like those of men. This is not relevant to her work, but she is recommended speaking, walking and dressing up like a woman.4) Psychological reason:Boe explains the differences between men and women from the social-psychological point. She believes that women’s choice of language is closely related to their psychological development. This emphasizes that women would consider others first. This psychological tendency is a kind of socialized ability, that is, the ability to keep and maintain the friendly relationship with others. Cooperation is the premise of considering others. This psychological tendency is reflected on the use of language.PART III: Suggestions for successful intercultural communicationNow that we have already known the differences and the reasons of these differences, we should try to avoid the miscommunication between men and women. What we should do are:1) Accepting gender culture differences:To be aware of the existence of discrepancy between cultures is the first step to walk into the door of successful intercultural communication. We must observe and study the differences so that we can avoidmiscommunication skillfully. It is difficult for most people to tolerate the differences of other cultures in some specific aspects such as beliefs, values and attitudes. People often view others from their own perspectives, since judgment can not be made without individual’s experience. Therefore, it is important for us to suspend judgment. We should accept the existence of gender culture differences and try to explore constructively what happens and how our partner acts so that we might better understand each other. We need to view objectively aspects of other culture that differs from that of our own.2) Learning to be tolerant:The two gender cultures are different in many ways. We should be tolerant to these cultural differences. Keep in mind that we are both alike and different. We should grant similarities and recognize differences. By learning that men and women are different, we can become more sensitive to the fact that men and women’s values and goals may differ, and generally their verbal and nonverbal language will vary as well. Instead of becoming annoyed by a ma le’s aggressive communication style, we should recognize that it is a style which is as much a part of his identity as an ethnic cuisine or a religious tradition is part of culture. By accepting and appreciating both, we can better assess the potential consequences of our acts and be more tolerant of those others.3) Learning to respect:The task in improving intercultural communication is awareness and respect than evaluation. Plato says, “No law or ordinance is more than understanding”. A successful commu nicator should be aware of others, care for others, respect others, and should not be pre-occupied with thoughts over them.4) Learning to be open and flexible:Studying other culture’s communication teaches us not only about other cultures, but also about ourselves. If we are open to learn and grow, we can enlarge our own communication repertoire by incorporating more emphasized in other cultures.Openness implies a willingness to accept cultural differences and is not closed to new ideas. Flexibility implies a willingness to use various ways to communicate. We need to be flexible and adapt our communication style to each culture and situation that confronts us.CONCLUSION:This thesis has mainly discussed some aspects of gender differences and speech. After that, the reasons for the gender differences are explored. At last, this thesis put forward some suggestion on how to improve intercultural communication.REFERENCES:Coates, J. and D. Cameron(1988) Women in Their Speech Communities: New Perspectives on Language and Sex. London and New York: LongmanEckert, Penelope(1996) The Whole Woman: Sex and Gender Differences in Variation. In Brenneis许力生.《跨文化交流入门》[M] 浙江大学出版社，2004吴晓. 跨文化交际中的性别差异和话语风格[J] 东北财经大学，2006张维友. 《高级综合英语教程》[M] 高等教育出版社，2001颜丽娟. 跨文化交际中的语言性别差异之虞[J] 湖北经济学院，2011张聪. 英汉跨文化交际中的性别差异[J] 长春理工大学，2009。
跨文化交际(含教案)(高中英语选修课)
跨文化交际一、课程基本信息1、课程中、英文名称：跨化交文际、Cross-cultural Communication2、课程类别：专业专选课程3、课程学时：18学时4、学分：2分二、课程的目的与任务：跨文化交际作为一门学科涉及到文化和交际的各个层面，包括语言交际、非语言交际、人们之间的相互交往，以及不同文化之间的观念和信仰等。
该课程的目的在于通过不同文化差异的比较研究，分析跨文化交际案例，提高学生对文化差异的敏感性，提高不同文化语境中语言交际的能力，从而更好地适应不同文化环境。
使学生了解其他文化的社会文化习俗和价值观念；在语言学习的同时，更多关注相关国家的文化，特别是通过与本族文化的对比，提高跨文化交际能力，以适应社会发展和国际交流的需要,增加跨文化交际意识，并最终形成跨文化交际能力。
三、课程的重点和基本要求：（一）课程的重点本课程教学的重点是增强学生对跨文化交际中文化差异的敏感性，帮助学员解决在跨文化交际中因文化的差异而产生的种种问题。
通过典型实力分析，模拟交流联系，交际失误分析，英汉双向练习等多种形式，使学生认识语言，文化和交际三者之间的关系，加深对对象国文化的了解，掌握在处理跨文化交际中一些微妙问题时所需要的基本知识和技巧，提高跨文化交流的质量。
（二）．基本要求：1、了解跨文化交际研究的范围和目前发展的动向。
2、掌握跨文化交际研究的基本方法，并运用来解决一些实际问题。
3、奠定向该学科研究纵深发展的理论基础。
四、教学内容及要求本课程以语言学习为前提，强调在语言学习的过程中提高利用外语进行跨文化交际的能力，通过对交际与语言，语言与文化，文化与价值观的学习和讨论，提高跨文化交际意识；通过对文化现象的思考和讨论，反思语言学习过程，增加对文化差异的敏感性；通过课堂活动和案例学习，提高跨文化交际意识和能力，达到有效交流的目的。
1．通过学习，学生能够了解语言及非语言交际在跨文化交际中的重要作用及应用规则。
Gender difference男女交流方式的差异
sewing
Gathering wild fruit
communicate with other women
talkative, like shopping
2.What make the differences
physical reason
Men and women brain structure is different. The male brain is 11-12% bigger than female.
Imagine: thousands years ago, ancient men went out hunting, while women were waiting in the cave with their children.
2.What make the differences
Division of labor
Communication
1.Differences between the sexes 2.What make the differences?
3.We need mutual-undeLeabharlann standing4.jokes
4.jokes
Money A man will pay $10 for a $5 item he needs. A woman will pay $5 for a $10 item that she doesn't need, because it's on sale.
Communication differences between Men & Women
Women are from Venus
Men are from Mars
跨文化交际11-Gender differences in Communication(课堂PPT)
For Many Women
The comfort of home means the freedom to talk without worrying about how their talk will be judged.
12
The difference between public and private speaking, or report-talk and rapporttalk, can be understood in terms of status and connections.
tongue. ➢ The north sea will sooner be found
wanting water than a woman be at a loss for word.
2
Yet
Studies find that it is men who talk more ➢ at meetings ➢ in mixed-group discussions ➢ in classrooms where girls sit next to boys
13
Men and women are programmed to receive, process and impart information in quite different ways.
14
He: What would you like for your birthday?
She: I don’t care, anything’s OK.
23
➢ Men tend to stick to factual stuff like current affairs, sport, business, etc.
跨文化交际中西方文化交流的不同英语作文
跨文化交际中西方文化交流的不同英语作文In cross-cultural communication, the differences between Western and Chinese cultures can often lead to misunderstandings and miscommunication. One of the main differences is in the use of language and communication styles.In Western culture, direct communication is often valued, and people tend to be more explicit in their speech. They may not hesitate to express their opinions or give feedback, even if it may be considered harsh by others. This can sometimes be perceived as rude or confrontational in Chinese culture, where indirect communication and maintaining harmony are often more valued.Another difference is in the use of body language and nonverbal communication. In Western culture, people may use more gestures and maintain more eye contact during conversation, while in Chinese culture, it is common to use less direct eye contact and to be more reserved in body language.Moreover, cultural values and beliefs also play a significant role in cross-cultural communication. For example, individualism is often emphasized in Western culture, while collectivism is more valued in Chinese culture. This can lead to differences in decision-making processes and conflict resolution styles.In addition, the concept of time also differs between the two cultures. In Western culture, time is often seen as linear and something to be managed efficiently, while in Chinese culture, time is often seen as more fluid and flexible. This can lead to misunderstandings in terms of punctuality and deadlines.Overall, these differences in language, communication styles, cultural values, and concepts of time can create challenges in cross-cultural communication between Western and Chinese cultures. It is important for individuals to be aware of these differences and to make an effort to understand and adapt to the communication styles and cultural norms of others.在跨文化交际中，西方和中国文化之间的差异经常会导致误解和沟通不畅。
北京大学出版社《跨文化交际》unit7-Cross-gender-communication(跨性别交际)
define self in relation to others
Cooperative; sensitive
Confide; Share and express feelings
• Mother-son interaction: different sex • Son cannot imitate Mother; • Son has to develop a gender identity by
differentiating from the mother and establish selfhood.
Independent; reserved Define self independent of others
different ways men and women communicate in
昨天，今天，明天
• 白云: 我十分想见赵忠祥。 • 黑土: 来前的火车票谁给报了。
Think about it
• What jobs are supposed to be taken by males?
• What are the best jobs for females?
Think about it
Differences in communication styles
Men
Direct Interrupt more, swear more and argue more
Talk to express authority and confidence Value power and competency Offer solutions
3
To learn useful words and expressions about cross-gender communication and improve
(完整版)北京大学出版社《跨文化交际》unit7_Cross-gender_communication(跨性别交际)
successfully. Why?
When women are depressed， they either eat or go shopping； men invade another country.
• A survey has been conducted to ask the same questions to males and females: “If you had a car, what would be the first thing you like to do with it?” Most females’ answers were like this: “If I had a car, the first thing I prefer to do would be taking a ride. While most males answer more or less like this: “If I had a car, I would check the engine first.” or :” If I had a car, I would consider if I could clean it every Saturday.”
CGC
Cross-gender communication is a form of intercultural
communication. It occurs when there is a communication
跨文化交际11-Gender differences in Communication
Men and women often have very different ideas of what’s important and at what point “important” topics should be raised.
“My wife and I have an agreement: I make all the big decisions, but she gets to make the little ones. I decide what the United Nations should do, how to solve the world energy crisis, and who will win the next World Cup; she decides where we should live, what we should eat, how to educate the kids, and when we’ll retire.”
He: No, really, what do you want? I’d like to get you something nice.
She: You don’t have to get me anything, besides we can’t afford much right now.
He: Well, how about if we just go out for dinner together then?
Gender Difference in Communication
Who talks more, Women or Men?
Stereotype: Women talk too much.
跨文化交际(第十一次课crossgendercommunication)
3、How to facilitate cross-gender communication effectively?
According to “Gender, communication, and culture” by Julia T. Wood, There are six principles are constructive in achieving effective cross-gender communication. 1、 Suspend judgement 2、Recognize the validity of different Communication styles 3、Provide translation cues 4、Seek translation cues 5、Enlarge your own communication style 6、Suspend judgement
3)Handling conflicts and disagreements Men tend to argue more and find it interesting to disagree Women more often seek agreement and see disagreement as more threatening to relationships
测试,你是男脑还是女脑!!!!
1.剪指甲的时候，你一般哪只手先给另一只手剪？ a、左手给 右手剪——转2题 b、右手给左手剪——转3题 2.喜欢用电动剃须刀胜过刀片？ a、是——转4题 b、否——转3题 3.仔细看看自己的衣柜是什么样子？ a、很多件色彩不同的T恤 或者衬衫——转5题 b、只有一两个颜色的几件而已——转4题 4.如果没别人在家，你解决晚饭的方式是： a、出去吃或者泡 面、叫外卖--转6题 b、自己买点儿菜，下厨房--转7题 5.你的头发是： a、最普通的样式——转6题 b、酷酷的发型，染 色了，或者十分希望染色——转8题 6.电视中主人公身遭险境，你认为他会如何脱险？ a、自己突 然奋起，绝境求生——D b、被人所救，挺了过来——C c、外援突 然出现，或者是自然力量干扰了局面——转8题 7.你有不止一条名牌领带，而且大都是自己买的。 a、是——B b、 否——D 8.你对待紧身衣服的态度是： a、不喜欢也不想穿——D b、经常 穿紧身T恤或者毛衣之类的——A 测试结果：A女性型 B偏女性型 C半女性型 D男性型
跨文化交际的差异英文作文
跨文化交际的差异英文作文英文：Cross-cultural communication is a fascinating topicthat I have always been interested in. The differences in communication styles, nonverbal cues, and cultural norms can have a significant impact on how people from different cultures interact with each other. I have had several experiences that have highlighted these differences for me.For example, when I was studying abroad in China, I quickly learned that direct communication is not as common as it is in Western cultures. In China, people often use indirect communication and rely heavily on nonverbal cues to convey their messages. This was a big adjustment for me, as I was used to being more direct in my communication style. I remember one instance when I asked a local for directions, and instead of giving me a straightforward answer, they used vague language and hand gestures to point me in the right direction. It took some time for me to getused to this style of communication, but once I did, it became easier for me to navigate daily interactions in China.Another example of cross-cultural communication differences that I have encountered is the use of humor. In some cultures, humor is used as a way to break the ice and build rapport, while in others, it may be seen as inappropriate or offensive. I experienced this firsthand when I told a joke to a group of friends from different cultural backgrounds. While some of them laughed and found it funny, others seemed confused or even offended. This taught me the importance of being mindful of cultural differences when using humor as a form of communication.Overall, these experiences have taught me the importance of being open-minded and adaptable when communicating across cultures. It is crucial to be aware of and respectful towards the cultural norms and communication styles of others in order to build meaningful and effective relationships.中文：跨文化交际是一个我一直感兴趣的迷人话题。
Gender Differences in Chinese and American Communi
Gender Differences in Chinese and American Communication Space中美交际空间中的性别差异作者：牛乐平来源：《速读·下旬》2018年第10期Abstract：In people’s lives，no matter what you do，you will communicate with the opposite sex，such as parents，siblings，friends，bosses，subordinates，and so on.However，different gender has its own different kinds of gender culture.Men and women，according to their gender and cultural rules，standardize their communication behaviors.Thus，emergence of gender differences in communication can be seen everywhere.This thesis studies gender differences in communication space.Perhaps some behaviors are appropriate in one kind of gender culture，while they may be incomprehensible or baleful in another culture.Key Words：gender differences；Chinese and American communication space；intercultural communication摘要：在人们的生活中，不管做什么都会与异性进行交流，诸如父母、兄弟姐妹、同学朋友、上司下属，等等。
跨文化交际Terms Questions and case答案
跨文化交际1.Intercultural communication（跨文化交际）It refers to communication that takes place between people of different culture backgrounds, whose culture perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication events.2.Culture (from intercultural communication perspective)It is a system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted from generation to generation through learning. 3.High context （高语境）❖High Context CultureCultures in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people (or the ones in which most of information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message), are labeled high-context culture.4.Stereotype （文化定势）It refers to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.5.Taboo（禁忌语）It refers to prohibition of a set of behaviors that should be avoided because they are often offensive and impolite.6.Nonverbal communication (from narrow perspective) （非言语交际）It refers to intentional use of nonspoken symbols to communicate a specific message or the messages sent without using words.7.Chronemics（时间行为）It is the study of how people perceive and use time. Our understanding of time falls under a class of nonverbal communication called chonemics.8.Culture shock（文化休克）It refers to the traumatic experience that an individual may encounter when entering a different culture.9.Prejudice （文化偏见）It refers to the irrational (非理性的) dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.10.Euphemism（委婉语）It is taboo’s linguistic counterpart because it substitutes the offensive and disturbing vocabulary.petent CommunicationIt is interaction that is perceived as effective in fulfilling certain rewarding objectives and is also appropriate to the context in which the interaction occurs.1.Write your opinions about how your current educational setting embodies Chinese culturevalues?2.Summarize the stages of intercultural adaptation in your own words.（1）U-curve PatternHoneymoon Period：Crisis Period：Adjustment Period：Biculturalism Period：（2）W-curve PatternDescribe the process of reverse culture shock.3.Summarize the categories of nonverbal communication and explain what they are briefly.（1）Paralanguage：is the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning.（2）Silence：is a form of nonverbal communication that may be interpreted in various ways depending upon the situation, the duration of the silence, and the culture.（3）Chronemics：is the study of how people perceive and use time.（4）Proxemics：refers to the perception and use of space, including territoriality (领地感) and personal space. （5）others：Oculesics、Olfactics、Haptics、Kinesics、Chromatics 、Attire4.Give colors as examples and try to find out the different interpretation of the same colors indifferent cultures.nguage can be a big barrier in the intercultural communication. Try some examples to showhow language can be a problem in the intercultural communication and explain the reasons.（1）Lack of V ocabulary Equivalence（2）Lack of Idiomatic Equivalence（3）Lack of Grammatical-Syntactical Equivalence（4）Lack of Experiential Equivalence：Thanksgiving 文化大革命（5）Lack of Conceptual EquivalenceLanguage is the reflection of culture、values and the environment.6.Summarize the strategies you have learned on how to avoid culture shock and engaged inintercultural adaptation.（1）Study the host culture（2）Study the local environment（3）Learn basic verbal and nonverbal language skills（4）Develop intercultural relationships（5）Maintain an intimate social network（6）Assume the principle of difference/Remember your perceptual context（7）Anticipate failure events1、Coconut-skating （4）The case reflects the characteristics of culture----culture is learned and pervasive.We learn our culture in our early life through the process of socialization. Culture penetrates into every aspect of our life and influence the way we think and behave.The Philippine women must have learned this way of mopping from their own culture. People may invent different ways for things even as simple as the issue of floor mopping.2、Why Don’t You Eat The Pizza?（12）This case can reflect the problems appearing during intercultural communication.Culture can greatly influence people’s belief, value, norm and social practice. Ignoring cultural differences can affect communication and cause problems.In Malaysia, where most people are Muslims, people think the left hand is used only for cleaning the body and thus it is dirty and cannot be used to pass food. Knowing nothing about the cultural difference, the American student puts himself in an embarrassing situation.3、Different Responses to Noise （16）This case can reflect different culture can give different influences on human sensation and perception.No two of people can assume that their sensations and perceptions are the same, especially when they come from different cultures. Different social reality and living conditions can equip them with different way to sense and perceive the world.In this case, the German professor and Japanese professor have very different response to the noise produced by the same motor for the heating system because of their cultures and living habits.4、Who is the most beautiful woman? （19）This case reflects that people from different cultures have interprete the same sentence “Who is the most beautiful woman at the reception?” differently.Fred is from western culture and his understanding of a beautiful woman focus on the looking only. While in Philippine where power distance is high, people pay more attention to social status, so Manuel thinks the maid should not be considered as a member of the reception.5、A Danish Woman in New York （21）This case can reflect assuming similarity instead of difference.Assuming similarities instead of difference refers to the idea that people coming from another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is. When communicating with people from another culture, one is likely to regard and treat people as “his people” and to assume there must be only one way of doing things: that is “his way”.In this case, the Danish woman assumes that her behavior of leaving the baby alone which is common in Denmark is also appropriate in New York. Here, she assumes what is suitable in her own culture is also indisputable in another culture. That is why the small conflict happens.6、Success Story （25）This case can reflect different communication styles----direct and indirect styles.The direct and indirect styles differ in the extent to which communicators reveal their intentions through their tone of voice and the straightforwardness of their message. In the direct verbal style, statements clearly reveal the speaker’s intentions. In the indirect verbal style, verbal statements tend to hide the speaker’s actual intention. The speaker’s verbal style reflects his or her cultural and personal value.In this case, Mary and Ms. Goshima had very different communication styles. Mary’s tended to be direct while Ms Goshima tended to be indirect. Mary was expecting a much more direct response to her question. Ms. Goshima, however, was uncomfortable with the question and felt her response should be very indirect and establish a proper sense of modesty before revealing the answer to the question. Thus came the communicative problem.7、Are Americans Indifferent? （33）This case can reflect the difference in kinesics(身势语）, one of the categories of nonverbal communication, among cultures.The term kinesics refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body position, body movement, and forms of greeting and their relations to communication. Kinesics involves not only the actions but also the cultural interpretation of those actions in relation to the verbal communication uttered simultaneously.In this case, compared to most Chinese, Americans like to smile a lot and to have causal and rich facial expressions in their daily lives, even though they have some misfortune. Because of the different opinions about facial expressions in intercultural communication, the American lady talked about her father’s sickness and death in a smiling way to show she still has the optimistic way to treat the future life, which is misunderstood as being indifferent and selfish by the Chinese.8、Don’t Put Your Hand on My Arm（36）This case can reflect different cultures have different opinions to spatial relations.Different culture s have very different opinions about an individual’s unconsciously structuring the microspace immediately surrounding the physical body. Some cultures can have relatively close distance when communicating while other cultures cannot. Some western cultures consider body touch between people of the same gender to be cultural taboo and a symbol of being homosexual.In this case, Sam is from western cultures and knows the social taboo of body touch very clearly, so he wouldn’t let others misunderstand Martin’s close body distance and touch with him, even though Martin from Chile does not know the cultural taboo at all.9、Getting Frustrated （41）This case can reflect different norms in different cultures.Norms are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.In this case, much of the business done in Saudi Arabia depends on a middleman and having a middleman is a norm there. In addition, Saudis believe that God gave us multifunctional hands, and the left one and the right one have different functions. What is more, Saudis have a number of norms related to restricting male and female interactions. All these above make perfect sense to Saudis but not to Jay, an American businessman. Westerners’norms concerning these are totally different. Thus, Jay and Saudis had communicative problems.10、The Improvement Does Not Work（43）This case can reflect one of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientation----relational orientation.Relational orientation has three potential types: individualism, linearity and collaterality.In this case, following their individualistic orientations, Mr. Patterson and Mr. Wyman were perfectly comfortable with the idea of creating team leaders within the individual sales groups.However, as Park Young Sam mentions, doing so upset the harmony of the groups, which in turn led to poor performance. In the US, workers are often motivated by the opportunity for promotion and advancement as this serves the individualistic drive for individual achievement. In collectivistic cultures, however, workers may be motivated by being a part of a cohesive and productive team.11、When Shall We Meet for Dinner? （44）This case can reflect one of Hofstede’s value cultural dimensions----uncertainty avoidance.Uncertainty avoidance indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations.In this case, Kelly and Keiko are interacting about a dinner invitation. Kelly, from the US, possesses a relatively low avoidance index, while Keiko, from Japan, comes from a culture with a relatively high avoidance index. Coming from a high uncertainty-avoidant culture, Keiko would prefer to plan ahead to avoid uncertainty and prepare her script for the evening. Kelly, on the other hand, is perfectly comfortable making plans based on how the evening progresses. Without a plan, how will Keiko know how to act?12、A Gift from a Chinese （48）This case can reflect that a rules for gift giving are very different from culture to culture.Chinese people love giving gifts. Usually, the value of the gift is an indication of how important the receiver is in the sender’s eyes. Most people giving gifts are concerned about whether the gift will be seen as valuable enough. An inexpensive gift means a loss of face. Dongxie may have a practical reason in giving the ginseng to his manager, but most Chinese will take it as something usual for a subordinate to do this to a manager out of a sign of respect.North American companies do occasionally receive gifts out of appreciation for the friendship and assistance the manager may provide. Such gifts are treasured; however, the value usually is fairly small, a bottle of wine, a music CD, a small book, or other tokens.13、R efuse to Be Treated （50）This case can reflect culture’s influence on the health care context.In the case just described, the U.S. American medical team system for making sense of the situation demanded that people be seen in order of the seriousness of their injuries or illness. Each person was considered as worthwhile as the next, and so seriousness of injury appeared to be a natural way to determine who was seen first.However, the cultural system working for those on the Virgin Islands demanded that elders be seen and treated first. Their position, age, and wisdom demanded respect. For younger members of the community to go ahead of them in a time of crisis was seen as extremely disrespectful.The conflict centered on efforts by each side to do what they perceived as good and morally responsible. Because the U.S. Americans were in a better position to adapt than an entire community that had just suffered great loss and were under extreme stress, it was good that they were willing to do so. Sadly, this is not always the case.14、Doubts （52）This case can reflect the problems one may encounter during intercultural adaptation. When an individual enters a new culture, he may first experience excitement. But later more serious problems may come to him. When facing these problems, one may fell anxious and not know how to deal with the present situation.In this case, Wu Lian not only encounter language problem, and he also faces a lot of learning difficulties due to cultural differences. And besides, he also meets many difficulties in daily life. All these make him feel uncomfortable and stressed.The only way out for him is to learn more knowledge and skills to conquer these hindrances and become successful in intercultural adaptation.15、Missing China （55）This case can reflect reverse culture shock.When people return home after an extended stay in a foreign culture, they experience another round of culture shock in their native culture and they must proceed through the four stages of the U-curve pattern once again.In this case, John, whose comes from Canada, has been living in China for quite a long time and he has got familiar with the Chinese culture. Therefore, when he returns to Canada, he cannot adapt well to his native culture.。
Gender differences in language跨文化交际性别差异
Behavior
• 5. Women may take request in the form of a polite question; （polite words ：please and thanks…） （euphemism：I think, I guess, I’m afraid, you know, well, maybe, kind of, sort of…）
• Men are more likely to issue a direct command.
Behavior
• 6. Women interrupt more, but usually only to murmur encouraging prompts like “I see” and “really”.
Behavior
• 4. Men tend to take things at face value. Ask him a question and he’ll answer it. • Ask a woman and she’ll probably reply with another question.
• Men interrupt in order to hijack the conversation altogether.
Gender differences in language
Speech Patterns
• 1.Men speak in a louder voice. • Women speak in a softer voice . • 2.Men use loudness to emphasize points. • Women use pitch to emphasize points .
跨文化交际的差异
跨文化交际的差异跨文化交际的差异[摘要]由于汉英文化存在着截然不同的传统和风俗习惯，人们的生活方式、思维方式、价值观念、语言习惯等都有很大的差别，许多日常行为在两种语言的交际活动中也存在明显的文化差异。
本文旨在通过对比分析汉英文化中褒奖行为的异同点及常见的语用失误，使大家进一步了解语言只有在一定的文化背景下及语境中被正确使用，才能体现出它们的交际价值，这对我们的日常交际、英语教学及语言研究有极大的启示和帮助。
[关键词]跨文化交际汉英文化差异褒奖语及应答语用失误一、引言语言是文化的载体，是文化的一个密不可分的组成部分，它既反映文化，也受文化的影响。
语言使用除了受到结构规则，即语音、词汇、语法等的制约，还会受到使用规则的制约，这儿的使用规则即指语言所属的社会文化，社会文化决定语言使用是否得体。
由于文化的迁移，外语学习者常常会将自己的文化模式套入新的语言文化中，而“文化既有其统一性、延续性和共有性，又有其差异性和变化性。
”（胡文仲，1985）褒奖行为这种社会现象存在于每个社会群体，存在于各种不同的语言文化中，不同层面、不同程度地反映着人们的交际活动，它不仅可以缩短交际者之间的距离，而且可以联络感情，巩固和加强交际者之间的团结，起到社会润滑油的作用。
美国语言学家Pomerantz指出，褒奖语是一种支撑性行为（supportive action），也是一种评价性行为（assessment action），也就是说，称赞语不仅有称赞的性质，也有评价的性质。
下面让我们来探讨一下汉英文化在褒奖这一言语行为上的相似点及文化差异，并对由此产生的语用失误作一分析，这样可以使我们更好地了解在跨汉英文化交际时如何恰如其分地称赞对方并知道怎样对对方的称赞做出正确得体的语言回应，这对我们的日常交际、英语教学及语言研究都有极其重要的作用。
二、汉英文化中褒奖行为的相似点1．注重礼貌待人言语交际中所体现的礼貌程度，在一定意义上标志着一个社会的文明程度，反映着一个民族的精神风貌。
跨文化交际
商务跨文化交际“跨文化传播”的概念:什么是跨文化传播学呢？跨文化传播学是由美国人类学家、跨文化研究学者爱德华•霍尔在20世纪50年代建立的一门学科，其英文表达为“Intercultural Communication 或Cross-cultural Communication”，在我国也翻译为“跨文化交际学”或者“跨文化交流学”。
跨文化传播学作为传播学的一个分支学科，旨在研究来自不同文化背景的人们是如何进行交流以及研究如何提高跨文化交流技巧，跨越跨文化交流障碍的方法和途径。
跨文化传播学是一门跨领域的学科，融合了人类学、文化学、心理学以及传播学等领域的研究成果。
跨文化传播的主要理论见诸于有关文化差异（文化维度）的著作中，特别是吉尔特•••••霍夫斯泰德（Geert Hofstede）、哈里• C. 特兰狄斯（Harry C. Triandis）、方斯•特龙皮纳尔斯（Fons Trompenaars）、沙龙•施瓦兹(ShalomSchwartz)及克里佛德•吉尔兹（Clifford Geertz）等人的著作中。
目前，这些学者的相关理论已经广泛地运用到传播理论和传播情景中，特别是商务、管理和市场营销之中。
爱德华•霍尔（1914年5月16日出生于美国的密苏里州），社会学/文化人类学博士后。
20世纪50年代，爱德华•霍尔在美国美国政府部门的外派人员培训学院（Foreign Service Institute）任教，对外派出国人员进行跨文化技能培训。
期间，他提出了“高语境”和“低语境”文化，并撰写了几部非常畅销的有关跨文化传播的著作。
目录1，General Introduction…,2, What Does Cross-Cultural Communication Mean to Business People 3，How to Make Introduction4，How to Deal with Business Cards5，How to Schedule Visiting and Entertaining6，ABC for Gifts Exchanging ,7, Are There Any Differences in Male and Female’s Communication8，How Are Roles Females Playing in International Business?9, What Is the Range of Non-Verbal Communication in Business? … 10，Similar Encoding and Decoding of Non-Verbal Signals11，What Is Culture Conflict?12，What Is Culture Shock，and Acculturation13，What Is It Like at Negotiation Table14，The Device of Stereotyping in Cross—Cultural Communication 15，How Can We Be InternationalHofstede and his Five Cultural Dimensions"Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster." Prof. Geert Hofsted霍夫斯泰德, Emeritus Professor, Maastricht University. Increasing internationalization has led to an appreciation that cultural differences are a key factor in getting things done in business. Working in France, Japan or the USA, for example, requires totally different styles of managing and co-operating.Professor Geert Hofstede has developed a five-dimensional model which explains cultural differences in a unique and powerful manner.Description for each of Hofstede's Dimensions1.Power Distance权利距离Index (PDI) that is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that 'all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others'.2. Individualism (IDV) on the one side versus its opposite, collectivism, that is the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. The word 'collectivism' in this sense has no political meaning: it refers to the group, not to the state. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world.3. Masculinity (MAS) versus its opposite, femininity, refers to the distribution of roles between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The IBM studies revealed that (a) women's values differ less among societies than men's values; (b) men's values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other. The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values.4. Uncertainty Avoidance不确定性规避指数Index (UAI) deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man's search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions.5. Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus short-term orientation:长期观和短期观this fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars. It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth与真理无关，与传统美德有关. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift节俭，坚忍不拔（中国人）and perseverance and protecting one's 'face'; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations,. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage.CHINAGeert Hofstede analysis for China has Long-term Orientation (LTO) thehighest-ranking factor (118), which is true for all Asian cultures. This Dimension indicates a society's time perspective and an attitude of persevering; that is,overcoming obstacles with time, if not with will and strength. (see Asian countries graph below)The Chinese rank lower than any other Asian country in the Individualism (IDV) ranking, at 20 compared to an average of 24. This may be attributed, in part, to the high level of emphasis on a Collectivist society by the Communist rule, as compared to one of Individualism.The low Individualism ranking is manifest in a close and committed member 'group', be that a family, extended family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for fellow members of their group.U.S.AThere are only seven (7) countries in the Geert Hofstede research that have Individualism (IDV) as their highest Dimension: USA (91), Australia (90), United Kingdom (89), Netherlands and Canada (80), and Italy (76).The high Individualism (IDV) ranking for the United States indicates a society with a more individualistic attitude and relatively loose bonds with others. The populace is more self-reliant and looks out for themselves and their close family members.The next highest Hofstede Dimension is Masculinity (MAS) with a ranking of 62, compared with a world average of 50. This indicates the country experiences a higher degree of gender differentiation of roles. The male dominates a significant portion of the society and power structure. This situation generates a female population that becomes more assertive and competitive, with women shifting toward the male role model and away from their female role.The United States was included in the group of countries that had the Long Term Orientation (LTO) Dimension added. The LTO is the lowest Dimension for the US at 29, compared to the world average of 45. This low LTO ranking is indicative of the societies' belief in meeting its obligations and tends to reflect an appreciation for cultural traditions.The next lowest ranking Dimension for the United States is Power Distance (PDI) at 40, compared to the world Average of 55. This is indicative of a greater equality between societal levels, including government, organizations, and even within families. This orientation reinforces a cooperative interaction across power levels and creates a more stable cultural environment.IntrinsicThe last Geert Hofstede Dimension for the US is Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI), with a ranking of 46, compared to the world average of 64. A low ranking in theUncertainty Avoidance Dimension is indicative of a society that has fewer rules and does not attempt to control all outcomes and results. It also has a greater level of tolerance for a variety of ideas, thoughts, and beliefs."high context" and "low context"The general terms "high context" and "low context" (popularized by Edward Hall) are used to describe broad-brush cultural differences between societies.High context refers to societies or groups where people have close connections over a long period of time. Many aspects of cultural behavior are not made explicit because most members know what to do and what to think from years of interaction with each other. Your family is probably an example of a high context environment.Low context refers to societies where people tend to have many connections but of shorter duration or for some specific reason. In these societies, cultural behavior and beliefs may need to be spelled out explicitly so that those coming into the cultural environment know how to behave.Monochronic Time VS Polychronic TimeMonochronic TimeA monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into precise, small units. Under this system time is scheduled, arranged and managed.The United States is considered a monochronic society. This perception of time is learned and rooted in the Industrial Revolution, where "factory life required the labor force to be on hand and in place at an appointed hour". For Americans, time is a precious resource not to be wasted or taken lightly. "We buy time, save time,spend time and make time. Our time can be broken down into years, months, days, hours, minutes, seconds and even milliseconds. We use time to structure both our daily lives and events that we are planning for the future. We have schedules that we must follow: appointments that we must go to at a certain time, classes that start and end at certain times, work schedules that start and end at certain times, and even our favorite TV shows, that start and end at a certain time.”Monochronic Cultures* United States* Canada* Switzerland* Germany* ScandinaviaPolychronic TimeA polychronic time system is a system where several things can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to scheduling time. Unlike Americans and most northern and western European cultures, Latin American and Arabic cultures use the polychronic system of time.These cultures are much less focused on the preciseness of accounting for each and every moment. As Raymond Cohen notes polychronic cultures are deeply steeped in tradition rather than in tasks -- a clear difference from their monochronic counterparts. Cohen notes that "Traditional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary divisions of the clock face have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural life, and the calendar of religious festivities".Instead, their culture is more focused on relationships, rather than watching the clock. They have no problem being “late” for an event if they are with family or friends, because the relationship is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a much less formal perception of time. They are not ruled by precise calendars and schedules. Rather, “cultures that use the polychronic time system often schedule multiple appointments simultaneously so keeping on schedule is an impossibility.Polychronic Cultures* Saudi Arabia * Egypt * Mexico * Philippines Monochronic People Polychronic Peopledo one thing at a time do many things at onceconcentrate on the job are highly distractible and subject tointerruptionstake time commitments (deadlines, schedules) seriously consider an objective to be achieved,if possibleare low-context and need information are high-context and already haveinformationcommitted to the job are committed to people and humanrelationshipsadhere religiously to plans change plans often and easilyare concerned about not disturbing others; follow rules of privacy and consideration are more concerned with those who are closely related than with privacyshow great respect for private property; borrow and lend things often andseldom borrow or lend easilyemphasize promptness base promptness on the relationshipare accustomed to short-termrelationships have strong tendency to build lifetimerelationshipsGENDRE ROLESGender is a set of characteristics distinguishing between male and female, particularly in the cases of men and women. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity.StereotypesGeneralization of all national cultures. Use this kind of summary to have apre-impression of your customers. But never take any prejudice.Stereotypes make more sense when you consider the cultural roots of the group being stereotyped. For example:NATIONALITY: GERMANSTEROTYPE: The Germans are usually seen as rigid, somewhat humorless and obsessed with order formality. A smile does not come easily and business is taken seriously. They are particularly focused on detail.NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: Low-contest culture that values precise communication. Focuses on what is being said rather than who is saying it. Monochronic, that is, they are a very linear concept of time and prefer to do one thing at a time. The German culture is one of very high risk-avoidance.NATIONALITY: AMERICANSTEROTYPE: Brash, materialistic. A cowboy culture where individuals are obsessed with time and deadlines. A society played by crime and violence. NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: American culture is task-driven and places great value on individual achievement and thinking. Monochronic, with a very low risk-avoidance, which allows American to speak without thinking and often act without thinking, sometimes in a violent manner. It is a very masculine culture, which means that society appreciates assertiveness while respecting the goal or material acquisition.NATIONALITY: JAPANESESTEROTYPE: Very group-oriented, quiet, shy, reserved and highly respectful of status and position. Negotiate in groups or teams and avoid criticism of partners or proposals. Japanese will work their whole career at a singly company.NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: The Japanese culture is collectivist by nature, that is, group achievement and harmony comes before that of individual fulfillment. It is a high power-distance culture where workers do not seek personal decision-making powers. It is high risk-avoidance.NATIONALITY: FRENCHSTEROTYPE : Romantic, fond of good food, food art, and not overly concerned about doing great business, more eager to argue politics and art than to do business.NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: A highly feminine culture which values interpersonal relationships,putting quality of life before material acquisition and applauds concern for other individuals. Also high-context, which mean that themedium is the message and not overly concerned about precise detail or communication.NATIONALITY: ITALIANSTEROTYPE:Excitable and seem to relish chaos,. Not very detail-oriented when it comes to business, which seems to take forever conclude. They are romantic and seem to shake hands with and kiss visitors forever, very demonstrative and physical.NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS:Italians are poly-chronic which means they prefer to do several takes at one time in no particular order. Their concept of time is nonlinear. It is also a high-context, relationship-driven culture.NATIONALITY: BRITISHSTEROTYPE:Stuffy, prim and proper, Business if done through on "old boy's network".NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS: Low-context, low risk-avoidance, monochromic, mixture of relationship-driven and task-driven cultures.NATIONALITY: CHINESESTEROTYPE:Like the Japanese, they always seem to travel in groups. They are quite, reserved and never lose their temper. But at times they can seem chaotic and unfocused.NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS:The Buddhist philosophy plays an important role in business dealings and the approach to life. It is a collectivist, high-context, poly-choronic culture.NATIONALITY: NIGERIANSTEROTYPE:Gregarious, outgoing and eager to please. Seem never to say "no" and enjoy physical contact but are never on time for anything. Great schemers. NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS:A poly-chronic, high-context,relationship driven society.NATIONALITY: ISRAELISTEROTYPE:The Israelis are brash and rude wheeler-dealers who always seem to have something to say about just about everything.NATIONAL CULTURAL TRAITS:Poly-chronic, high-context, individualist culture that features low power-distance, i.e. society members insist on having decision.Culture shockCulture shock is the difficulty people have adjusting to a new culture that differs markedly from their own.People go through different phases in getting used to life in a new environment and culture. The process of experiencing and adapting to a new culture is acculturation. It is usually divided into four stages，namely，euphoria (excitement-the honeymoon stage)，depression(crisis), adjustment(getting to know the ropes)，and acceptance (recovery-getting used to it)．It presents the first stage when Thomas writes the first e-mail to his girlfriend：he sees the novelty in everything．All is new and exciting．He likes whatever is happening to him and sees no future problems．In this stage．one may become comfortable with some of the more obvious differences between home culture and the new one such as music，food and clothing，and the fresh appeal of the new experience keeps him/her feeling interested and positive．The second e-mail shows us the second stage：unacceptance of the newculture-the crisis stage．The characteristics of this stage are：a．Novelty wears off．b．Things become boring．difficult and challenging．c．Feeling of depression grows．In this stage，there may be feelings of discontent，impatience，anger，sadness，and feeling incompetence，this happens when a person is trying to adapt to a new culture that is very different from the culture of origin．Transition between the old methods and those of the new country is a difficult process and takes time to complete．During the transition，there can be strong feelings of dissatisfaction to prevent one from the smooth further going of communication with the local people．The third stage is demonstrated quite clearly in Thomas's third e-mail：He began to make sense of the new culture and know not to hope for all the difficulties being smoothed in a short time．Time is sometimes a good medicine to cure the pain in the heart．In this stage，the more interaction with the local people, the more understanding of the host culture will be achieved．He may learn the systems，procedures，language，or nonverbal behaviors of the new environment so that he can cope with it on the basis of some mastery，competence，and comfort．Finally，the fourth stage，when he became more reasonable about the differences of home culture and host culture，as is revealed in the last e-mail Thomas wrote when staying in Japan．In this stage, the person realizes that the culture has good and bad things to offer，and starts to define him/herself and establish goals for living．In reality，the process may not be so simple．When one revives from the first shock，a second one may already be somewhere waiting，sometimes，even before the reviving．Or in some occasions，there would be some problems with the way one has got used to．So the fourth stage not usually means the end of a shock．The four stages go in circles．Moreover，this is also not the only way to describe cultureshock and adjustment of the shock. Other scholars draw it like this：The Adjustement Process in a New Culture P54 (图)These stages are present at different times and each person has their own way of reacting in the stages of culture shock．As a consequence．some stages will be longer and more difficult than others．Many factors，for example，the individual's state of mental health，type of personality，previous experiences，socio-economic conditions，familiarity with the language，family and／or social support systems，and level of education，etc．，contribute to the duration and effects of culture shock.Situation D：Compare the following two different promotional strategies for the same product. The Plymouth Laser and the Mitsubishi Eclipse are identical sports coupes built by Diamondstar Motors, a 50-50 partnership between Chrysler and Mitsubishi. Last year Chrysler’s 3,000 dealers sold 40,000 Lasers while Mitsubishi’s 500dealers sold 50,000 Eclipses! Here’s a case w here the products were more than just similar; they were identical. Yet, the Eclipse far outsold the Laser. Why?Situation A：The head of TCL，Li Dongsheng，once went to France for a meeting on a weekend after he had acquired the color TV business from Thompson. He was annoyed and puzzled by the finding that none of the senior French officials came to that meeting．Question：Why were there no French officials come to the meeting?Discussion：It seems that Mr．Li Dongsheng failed to understand how important weekends are for Europeans．In Europe，weekends are for rest．Nobody works on weekends．Therefore，it is quite．normal that none of the senior French officials came to meet Mr．Li on weekend for business. But the corporate culture of Chinese businessmen is that business does not recognize holidays．It is not surprised that Mr．Li felt annoyed and puzzled when he found there were nobody attending the meeting．To some extent，this story shows us different understanding of time in different cultures.1．Different cultures value time in different ways．Most western cultures value much in the future while most oriental cultures in the past. Accordingly，oriental cultures are more likely to look back in the history while western cultures prefer to look forward or future-oriented .2．In communication．mono-chronic time attaches importance to working on timetable．Everything should be well planned on schedule and to be dealt with one by one．North American，North European and German cultures are typical mono-chronic time oriented cultures．Poly-chronic time weighs the participation of each individual more important than time keeping．Latin American，Mid-eastern，African，Asian，French and Greek cultures are of typical poly-chronic time oriented cultures．3．In a lot of mono-chronic cultured countries，like the Netherlands，Scandinavia and Germany．working life and private life are kept separate and only in unusual circumstances do they expect to talk business outside working hours or in non-work environment．The effects of culture confliction are the fruits of accumulation(累积)-and sometimes they might go unnoticed as they creep in with each minor irritation(ordering the wrong meal at a restaurant because you could not read the menu)，each failure of self-expression(unable to ask for directions on the street)，and each business setback (another appointment canceled)．The symptoms of an individual suffering from culture shock are easy to spot，when you know what you are looking for.。
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Different meanings of home for men and women
For Many Men
The comfort of home means freedom from having to prove themselves and impress others through verbal display.
Women are better than men at: Verbal fluency Short term memory Listening skills
Male and Female have learned to become male or female when the grow up.
For Most Men
Talk is primarily a means to preserve independence and negotiate and maintain status in a hierarchical social order.
Men and women often have very different ideas of what’s important and at what point “important” topics should be raised.
Remember While one may be speaking plain English, the other’s probably listening in foreign!
The end
Men and women are programmed to receive, process and impart information in quite different ways.
He: What would you like for your birthday?
She: I don’t care, anything’s OK.
Yet Studies find that it is men who talk more at meetings in mixed-group discussions in classrooms where girls sit next to boys
Then, who talks more, women or men?
Women interrupt more, but usually only to murmur encouraging prompts like “I see” and “Really”.
Men interrupt in order to hijack the conversation altogether.
He: No, really, what do you want? I’d like to get you something nice. She: You don’t have to get me anything, besides we can’t afford much right now. He: Well, how about if we just go out for dinner together then? She: Sure, that’s fine. I don’t really want anything. You always give me whatever I want anyway. .
Girl babies are crooned over, talked to and stroked more than boys.
Girls learn to talk earlier, and better at languages and they have a better memory for details, respond better to facial expressions and body language more than boys.
More men feel comfortable doing “public” speaking while More women feel comfortable doing “private” speaking
For Most Women
The language of conversation is primarily a language of rapport: a way of establishing connection and negotiating relationsave an agreement: I make all the big decisions, but she gets to make the little ones. I decide what the United Nations should do, how to solve the world energy crisis, and who will win the next World Cup; she decides where we should live, what we should eat, how to educate the kids, and when we’ll retire.”
They are experts at reading non-verbal cues
Men tend to stick to factual stuff like current affairs, sport, business, etc.
Women like to talk about their feelings, families, and other people.
Women remember exactly what has been said, when, how and by whom.
Women may make a request in the form of a polite question; men are more likely to issue a direct command.
Men tend to take things at face value. Ask him a question and he’ll answer it.
Ask a woman and she’ll probably reply with another question.
Women tend to look for the meaning behind the words.
Gender Difference in Communication
Who talks more, Women or Men? Stereotype: Women talk too much.
Some proverbs: A woman’s tongue wags like a lamb’s tail. Foxes are all tail and women are all tongue. The north sea will sooner be found wanting water than a woman be at a loss for word.
For Many Women
The comfort of home means the freedom to talk without worrying about how their talk will be judged.
The difference between public and private speaking, or report-talk and rapporttalk, can be understood in terms of status and connections.
Boys and girls play differently. Girls tend to play in small groups and usually have a “best friend” with whom they share their secrets. Boys tend to form looser attachments. They bond through physical rather than verbal play.
Women never lose the need for a best friend with whom they can exchange confidences.
Men, who feel no such need in the first place, rarely form the same kind of one-to-one close friendships.