简明英语语言学教程章期末复习

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新编简明英语语言学教程1-6章期末复习资料

新编简明英语语言学教程1-6章期末复习资料Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.语言识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递书上1.1.3语言学界里几个重要的概念区别（5-12）：5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习

新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习首先，我们需要回顾英语的语音学。

英语语音学研究的是英语语音系统的各种音位及其规律。

要了解英语的音位组成，我们需要了解元音和辅音的分类。

英语中的元音可以分为单元音和复元音，单元音包括长元音和短元音。

而辅音可以分为清辅音和浊辅音，清辅音又可以分为塞音、摩擦音、破擦音和鼻音。

此外，了解英语的重音规律也是很重要的。

其次，我们需要复习英语的词法学。

词法学是研究词的形态和构词规律的学科。

在英语中，词可以从词根和词缀构成，我们需要了解常用的词根和词缀，以及它们在构词中的作用和意义。

此外，英语还有一些特殊的构词规律，比如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语态变化等，我们需要熟悉这些规律。

然后，我们需要回顾英语的句法学。

句法学是研究句子结构和成分关系的学科。

在英语中，句子可以分为简单句、复合句和复合复句。

我们需要了解句子的基本成分，包括主语、谓语、宾语等，并了解它们之间的关系。

此外，我们还需要熟悉常用的句型和句子的语序规律。

最后，我们需要复习英语的语义学。

语义学是研究词义和句义的学科。

在英语中，词义可以通过定义、例子、同义词和反义词等来解释。

句义可以通过上下文和语用信息来推断。

我们需要了解词义的多义性和语法义，以及句义的歧义和暗示。

综上所述，新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习需要回顾英语的语音学、词法学、句法学和语义学。

需要了解英语的音位组成、词的构词规律、句子的基本成分和句型、词义和句义的推断等。

通过复习这些内容，可以巩固所学知识，为期末考试做好准备。

新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1-u6期末笔记整理

●语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole）2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力（competence）和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度（sociological view）他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴（social conventions）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Psychological view），认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征（property of mind of each individual）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（descriptive），传统语法是规定性的（prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phonetics(语音学) Phonology（音位学）●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础）●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久）(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrowtranscription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a：} ）和圆唇的（rounded）后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l}分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体●音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备讲解

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

新编简明英语语言学教程期末复习资料

End-of-term Quiz and ReviewChapter I1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.2. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.3. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.4. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. It is abstract and stable; it is not the language people actually use.7. Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8. Competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.9. Performance refers to the actual realization of ideal user’s knowledge in linguistic communication.10. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11. Arbitrariness, as one of the features of language, means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.12. Productivity, as one of the features of language, means that language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13. Duality, as one of the features of language, means that language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.14. Displacement, as one of the features of language, means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.15. Cultural transmission, as one of the features of language, means that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.16. Emotive (情绪性) is a language function used by the addresser to expresseshis/her attitudeto the topic or situation of communication, e.g. "I hate whatever they are planning for me! "17. Conative (意动性) is a language function used by the addresser to influence the addressee'scourse of action or ways of thinking, e.g. "Why not go and see another doctor?"18. Referential (指称性功能) is a language function used by the addresser to convey a messageor information, e.g. " As far as I know, the earth's resources are being astonishingly wasted. "19. Poetic (文学性) is a language function used by the addresser to use language for the solepurpose of displaying the beauty of language itself, e.g. poetry.20. Phatic (交际性) communion is a language function used by the addresser to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee, e.g. "Hi! How are you this morning?"21. Metalinguistic (元语言的) is a language function used by the addresser to use language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. "Let me tell you what the word 'anorexia means. "Chapter II22. The three branches of phonetics include articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively.23. The articulatory apparatus（器官）of a human being is contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity - the throat, the oral cavity - the mouth, and the nasal cavity - the nose.24. Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only.25. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号).26. pit is transcribed as [ph1t] and the [p] sound is said to be aspirated.27. spit is transcribed as [spit] and the [p] sound is unaspirated.28. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they can be classified, etc.29. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.30. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.31. A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.32. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of the phoneme.33. If two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].34. Allophones complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear always occurs before a vowel while the dark always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.35. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. For example, in English, pill and billare identical except in /p/ and /b/. So these two sounds represent different phonemes, and they are the minimal pairs.36. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.37. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, and green.38. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. This is called deletion rule.39. Stress, tone and intonation are the suprasegmental features that occur above the level of the segments.40. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are the content words of a language.41. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.42. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the "grammatical" or "functional" words.43. The number of conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.44. The most important component of a word structure is the morpheme – the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.45. A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme.46. A morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.47. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. An example is a used before a word beginning with a consonant and an before a word beginning with a vowel.48. Affixes are bound morphemes and they do not belong to a lexical category such as nouns or verbs.49. Derivational morphemes are so called because when they are conjoined to other morphemes or words, new words are derived, or formed.50. Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. They are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.51. The XP rule: XP--(specifier) X (complement)52. In the example, “a story about a sentimental girl”, the PP is a complement.53. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.54. Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (shortened as Cs).55. The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.56. The construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.57. “XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement) (Mod)” is the expanded XP rule.58. The S rule is made of NP+VP59. Sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an inflection (dubbed "Infl") as their heads.60. Inflection indicates the sentence's tense and agreement.61. Infl is a sentence head that takes an NP (the subject) as its specifier and a VP category as itscomplement.62. A yes-no question requires a transformation, a special type of rule that can move an elementfrom one position to another.63. A transformation known as inversion moves the auxiliary from the Infl position toa position to the left of the subject.64. The position the auxiliary occupies is the same as the position that a complementizer occupies.65. Do insertion is to insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position66. Deep structure is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties.67. Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence, surface structure results from appropriate transformations.68. In Wh Movement, we move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.69. According to naming theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.70. The limitations of naming theory are applicable to nouns only and there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.71. The conceptualist view holds the interpretation of meaning is linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.72. The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.73. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.74. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.75. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.76. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.77. The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.78. Homonymy (同音（形）异义性) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.79. Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.80. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.81. Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.82. A predication consists of argument and predicate.83. Pragmatics is defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.84. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.85. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized86. The meaning of a/an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.87. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.88. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.89. representatives means stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.90. directives means to trying to get the hearer to do something.91. Commissives means committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.92. Expressives means expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.93. Declarations means bringing about immediate changes by saying something.94. The primary speech act is the speaker's goal of communication.95. The secondary speech act is the means by which the speaker achieves his/her goal.96. According to the maxim of quantity, speakers should not make his/her contribution more informative than is required.97. The maxim of quality requires that speakers do not say what they believe to be false.98. Be relevant is the maxim of relation.99. According to the maxim of manner, speakers should avoid ambiguity and be brief. 100. Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.。

笔记_新编简明英语语言学教程_复习资料讲解

distinction between langue and parole?
langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from
is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular
（神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational
（计算机语言学）
规定与描写
a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be
几种观点和现象的提出者：
F.de Saussure :Langue和parole的区别
N.Chomsky :in1950针对Saussure’s langue&parole提出Competence和
Charles Hockett :提出了语言的识别特征design features
描述性Descriptive
describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social
Productivity多产性（创造性）
Duality双重性

笔记-新编简明英语语言学教程-复习资料

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

新编简明英语语言学教程【笔记】

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his lan guage. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

新编简明英语语言学教程【笔记】

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习题集.pdf

《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章)2012-5-16更新Chapter I Introduction2012II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. If a linguistic study describes a nd analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d__escriptive_____.(prescriptive /lay down rules)2.Chomsky defines “competence”(语言能力) as the ideal user’sknowledge__________ of the r ules of his language.3. Langue(语言) refers to the a__bstract________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions（惯例）and application of the rules.43. D____uality_____ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.5. Language is a system of a__rbitrary_______ vocal symbols used for human communication.6. S ocialinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s_yntax_______.8. Human capacity for language has a g enetic___ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.9. Performance __(语言能力)__ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known asa__pplied______ linguistics.11. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard be12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific____ study of language.13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the s ocialfunction of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. The description of a language in a fixed instant (时刻)is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. systematic2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it issaid to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________.A.in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB.speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed.C.speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongueD.All of the above7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians for adopting a _____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptive8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate （当前）situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission12. The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ early last century.A. American linguist N. ChomskyB. Swiss linguist F. de SaussureC. American linguist Edward SapirD. British linguist J. R. Firth13. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is goodproof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. cultural2. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Chapter 2：PhonologyII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:27．Affricate_(破差音)_____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.28．A_rticulatory_（发音）________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.29．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_ilabial_ sounds.30．Of all the speech organs, the t _ongue___ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.31．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p__lace_____ of articulation(发音部位).32．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly （可听见的）released and the air passing out again is called a s__top______.33．S_uprasegmental_(超音段)_______ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone（音调）, intonation（语调）, etc.34．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential (序列) ____ rules.35．The transcription （标音）of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription （宽式）while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符)is called narrow____ transcription. （严式）36．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation_(语调)________.37．P_honology__________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.38. If you say door, new, two, senior, zoo, you will notice that the first sounds in allthese words are a_lveolar(齿龈音)______ sounds. The t and s are voiceless, and d, n and z are voiced. Only n is nasal.39．The articulatory apparatus（器官）of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal （咽腔）cavity, the oral(口腔)_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.40．T__one（音调）_____ are pitch （音调）variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration（震动）of the vocal cords （声带）and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes（音位）.41．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s__entence_______ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The study of the p hysical properties of speech sounds is called ________ phonetics.A. acoustic(声学)B. articulatoryC. Auditory（听觉）D. allomorphic2. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative（齿音，摩茶）3．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords4．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal5．__________ is a voiced alveolar（齿龈）stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/6．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature ofa sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar7. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments andthey can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrast （音位对立）B. in complementary distribution （同一音位的不同变体）C. the allophones（音位变体）D. minimal pair （对小对立体）9.A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintainingthe highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle10. Palatal （鄂音）semi-vowel refers to the sound .A. [n]B. [h]C. [w]D. [j]11. A phoneme is a group of phonetically similar sounds called .A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones12.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features13.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, acollection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme14．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones15. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintainingthe highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle16. The sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless andvoiced _______, respectively.( C )A. stopsB. fricativesC. affricatesD. plosivesIV. Answer the following question:1. How are the English consonants classified?2. Explain with examples the sequential rule, and the assimilation rule in phonology.Chapter 3：MorphologyII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Root is the part of the word left when all the affixes(词缀) are removed.2. Morpheme (词素)____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3. Bound_ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to becombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d_erivational_________ affixes.5. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original wordand it may case change its part of speech.6. C_ompound_________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than twowords to create new words.7. The word snowfall is a word formed by joining two separate words, i.e. “snow” an“fall.” This newly formed word is generally regarded as acompound_______.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement:1.The morpheme “vision”in the common word “television”is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme2.The compound word “bookstore”is the place where books are sold. This indicatesthat the meaning of a compound __________.A.is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC.is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D.None of the above.3. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root4. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?A. RainbowB. MilkshakeC. Icy-coldD. Unpleasant5.The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speechof __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elemD. both the first and the second elements.6. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words7._________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme8.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic9.Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB.can not be combined with other morphemesC.can either be free or boundD.have to be combined with other morphemes.10.____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. Suffixes(后缀)C. RootsD. Affixes11._________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences12.“-s”in the word “books”is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root13. Which of the following does NOT belong to “open class words”?A. NounsB. AdjectivesC. ConjunctionsD. Adverbsun-” is a(n) _______ morpheme.14. In the word unreliable, the prefix “A. freeB. boundC. rootD. inflectional, “aspect”,“case”“number”, “gender”,15. Morphemes that represent “tense”,“degree” and so forth are called morphemes.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivational16. The English word “modernizers” is composed of morphemes.A. fourB. threeC. twoD. five17. Which of the following affix differs from others?A. –lyB. –nessC. –ingD. –fulV. Think of a morpheme suffix and a morpheme prefix, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: Meaning:Stem type: Examples:Prefix: Meaning:Stem type: Examples:Chapter 4：SyntaxII. Diagram the constituent structure of the following sentence and name the different constituents. ( IC analysis)The passenger train from Chicago will arrive in Atlanta after midnight. Chapter 5 SemanticsII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Semantics________ can be defined as the study of meaning.2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.3. R_eference____ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Words that are close in meaning are called s_ynonyms_______.5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h_omophones____(同音异型异义)_____.6. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship （关系）between the twoitems are called relational_______ opposites.(关系反义)7. What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to is the r__________ meaning of a word.8. Relational_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.9. C omponential(成分分析)____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaningof a word can be divided into meaning components.10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules calleds________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.11. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken tobe labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement:1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviourism4.“Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5.___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected intomeaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6.“alive”and “dead”are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. none of the above7._________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8.___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The kind of antonymy between "married "and "single" is one of __________A converseB relationalC complementaryD gradable11. According to the componential analysis, the word “girl” and “woman”　differ in the feature of _______.A. HUMNANB. ANIMATEC. MALED. ADULT12.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A.grammatical rulesB.selectional restrictionsC.semantic rulesD.semantic features13. The words stationary and stationery are identical in sound, but different inspelling and meaning. They are _______.A. complete homonymsB. homographsC. hyponymsD. homophones14. In the following pairs of words, are a pair of complementary antonyms.A. old and youngB. male and femaleC. hot and coldD. buy and selltulip” is ________.violet” and “15. The relationship between “A. co-hyponymsB. superordinateC. hyponymsD. antonyms16. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposesIV. Answer the following questions.1. How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does each ofthe following pairs of antonyms belong?deep/shallow（gradable antonyms）married/single (complementary antonyms)sour/sweet(gradable antonyms) teacher/student(r elational opposites)asleep/awake(c omplementary antonyms)2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?(dialectal synonyms;stylistic synonyms;synonyms in emotive and evaluative meaning; collocational synonyms;semantically different synonyms)3.What might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?Chapter 6：PragmaticsII.Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1.P__ragmatics_______ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.2.The notion of context_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.3. All the speech acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or thesame illocutionary(言外之力)_______ point,but they differ in their strength or force.4.If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course ofcommunication, it becomes an u___________.5.The meaning of a sentence is a_bstract______, and decontextualized.6.C_onstatives_______ were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable.7.P_erformatives_______ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state,and were not verifiable.8. A locutionary(言内)_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. Itis the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 9.An illocutionary___（言外）_______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’sintention; it is the act performed in saying something.10.An e_xpressives___(表达类)____ is to express feelings or attitude towards anexisting state.11.There are four maxims under the cooperative principle(合作原则): the maxim ofquantity_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim ofmanner.III.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement:1. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept2. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. Intrinsic（内在的）D. logical3. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context4. A sentence is a_________concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual5. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive8. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary act（言后行为）D. A performative act9. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do something （directives命令）B. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of action（commissives承诺）D. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.（expressives）10. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle11. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted(嘲笑),_______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicature (含义)12. The illocutionary point of _______ is to express the psychological state specifiedin the utterance.A. directivesB. expressives （feeling attitude）C. commissivesD. representatives13. found that natural language had its own logic and thus concluded thefamous Cooperative Principle.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones14. As far as the sentence “My bag is heavy” is concerned, linguists of pragmatics aremore interested in its ______ meaning.A. literalB. logicalC. utterenceD. sentence15. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether, in the studyof meaning, _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. contextIV. Answer the following questions.1. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing whilemaking an utterance. Give an example.2. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show howflouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?3. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the Englishused by Chinese learners of English.。

《简明英语语言学教程》章期末复习

Chapter one Introduction1.1什么是语言学语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.必考P2普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3（1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.（2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.（3）Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.（4）Langue and parole 语言和言语必考名解P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.（5）Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

笔记_新编简明英语语言学教程_复习资料讲解

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性Prescriptivebehavior, to tell people what they should say and what It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖　should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点a social activity carried out in a certain socialnguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘senvironment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

简明语言学期末整理资料

简明语言学期末整理资料Chapter 1.1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific科学的、系统的study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.Why is linguistics a scientific study?Systematic Investigation of linguistic data, conducted with some general linguistic theories.1.3 Important distinctions in linguistics判断1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive规范性和描述性Descriptive---- describe / analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive----lay down rule s for “corr ect and standard” behaviour in using language. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive•Don’t say X.•People don’t say X.The distinction: Describing how things arePrescribing how things ought to beModern linguistics vs. grammarModern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Grammar: to set models for language users to follow.Modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it "correct" or not.Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic同步性和历时性会定义Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)Synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.Synchronic or Diachronic?1.The change of vocabulary since China’s reform and ope ning up.2.The study of Internet language in 21st century.3.Pejorative Sense Development in English.4.The Categories and Types of Present-day English Word-Formation.1.3.4. Langue and parole语言和言语会概念(F. de Saussure:1857--1913 )Langue---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is abstract. Parole is concrete.Langue is stable. Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole.1.3.5 Competence and performance 会定义(Chomsky)Competence-----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Similarity and difference between Saussure‟s distinction and that of ChomskySimilarity: both make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.Difference: Chomsky’s competence-performance is from psychological point of view. Saussure’s langue-parole is from sociological point of view.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 要懂！判断就是下面四个Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.1.2.2 design features of language 必须要会！Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g.“pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity多产性Duality双重性Displacement位移性Cultural transmission 文化传播Arbitrariness----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang…)Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…Productivity/creativity----Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixedrepertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk”about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desiresDuality (double articulation)Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, fora far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be groupedand regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.Cultural transmission----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows thatlanguage is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.Chapter 2 phonology2.2 Phonetics2.2．1 What is phonetics?必须要会三个分支也要会Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language in isolation.It is concerned with production, transcription音译and classification of speech sounds.The production and perception of speech soundsSpeakerProduction Sound Waves Hearer Perception Articulatory Phonetics Acoustic Phonetics Auditory Phonetics发音语音学声学语音学听觉语音学（语音学的三个分支）2.2.3Orthographic正字法，拼字正确的representation of speech sounds - broad and narrow transcriptions 大致意思要懂Towards the end of 19th century, when articulatory phonetics had developed to such an extent in the West that scholars began to feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. Thus the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being.Exercise: Transcription of speech wordsTask: Write the phonetic symbol for the first sound in each word according to your pronunciation.Example: zoo /z/ psycho /s/a. Judge / /b. Thomas / /c. Phone / /d. Easy / /e. Usual / /The two sounds /t/ in “Student ”are really the same?The first “t” is unaspirated (不送气)The second “t” is aspirated (送气的)./ s t j u: d ən th /The four sounds /l/ are the same?Leaf /li:f/; feel /fi:l/; build /bild/; health /helθ/Clear [l] dark [ l ] dental [l]The aspirated /h/, the dark / / are both calledDiacritics (变音符号)Two Transcriptions 严式标音记到什么程度，宽式记音记到什么程度要懂Broad transcription: The letter-symbols only.宽式标音/ /Narrow transcription: The letter-symbols+diacritics严式标音[]2.4 Classification of English Speech sounds 音素的分类要知道Vowels [元音]Consonants [辅音] 元音和辅音放一起叫做音段音位，语调，音调和重音叫做超音段音位The difference between consonants and vowelsV owels: with no obstruction through the speech organsConsonants: with obstruction through the speech organs2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonants 要知道辅音的发音分类有哪几种English consonants can be classified in two ways:1. manner of articulation根据发音方式来分类2. place of articulation. 根据发音部位来分类2.3 PhonologyThe difference between phonetics & phonology 明白各自是干嘛的Phonetics: Study sounds in isolation; one by one,phonetic features; language universalPhonology: Study sounds patterns to convey meaning; language specific2.3.2Phone, Phoneme and allophone 理解含义判断题Phone音系: 1) a phonetic unit 是语音学的一个片段2) not necessarily distinctive of meaning 不需要区分意思3) physical as perceived 物理上能感知4) marked with [ ]Phoneme音位: 1) a phonological unit 是音系学的一个片段2) distinctive of meaning 要区分意思3) abstract, not physical 抽象，不能物理上区分4) marked with / /Allophone音位变体Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.在不同的语音学环境中代表着一个音素StudentPhones: [t] [th]Phoneme: /t/Allophone: [t] [th]Exercise(How many phones, phonemes and allophones?)Pit Spit TipLeaf, Feel, HealthBut May Rest2.3.3 phonetic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 要知道什么叫互补分布Complementary distributionComplementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts,e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]. [t] [th] Two allophones2.3.4 some rules in phonology 3条规则要明白是什么意思判断题2.3.4.1 sequential rules 序列规则There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called Sequential rules (序列规则)1.What are possible sequences if 3 consonants cluster together at the beginning of a word?2.3.4.2 assimilation rule 同化规则The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. （同化规则）3. Give examples to show how the assimilation rule works in English.2.3.4.3 deletion rules 省略规则Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. Deletion /g/ occurs before a final nasal consonant. Sign design…比如l r 后面只允许出现元音这是什么规则在约束它是同化规则在约束它错@！应该是序列规则在约束它要知道序列规则该怎么写2.3.5 suprasegmental features ----stress tone声调intonation语调只需知道超音段音位包括哪些就可以了英语中tone算不算超音段音位？不算所谓是音位，需要能够区分意义5. List different types of stress patterns that can distinguish meaning. (Task)1)To distinguish some nouns from their related verbs.` import (n.) —im` port (v.)`record (n.) —re`cord (v.)2) To distinguish compounds from noun phrases.`hotdog (n.) — hot `dog (phrase)3)To distinguish the compound combinations of -ing modifiers and nouns and the phrasalcombinations of-ing forms for the action and nouns for the doer.`sleeping car (compound) —ֽsleeping `boy (phrase)4)To distinguish content words from function words in sentences.He is `driving my `car.5)To emphasize to a certain part of a sentence.I prefer `small apples, those are far too large.7. What is the difference between tone and intonation?1)Tone refers to pitch movement in spoken utterances that is related to differences in wordmeaning.2)Intonation refers to pitch movement in spoken utterances that is not related todifferences in word meaning.Chapter 3 morphology 形态学morphology 的概念要会3.1 Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules bywhich words are formed. 词的内部结构的学习和词形成的规则3.2 open class and closed class 开放词类和封闭词类需要注意既不是开放的也不是封闭的词Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.封闭词类和开放词类就语法功能来说，词可分为：封闭词类（Closed Class）和开放词类（Open Class）。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习题集

《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习题集浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集 (1-6章)2021-5-16更新Chapter I Introduction2021I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: 1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure.3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the courseof its history. 4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not onlystudies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. 18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.1浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集20. Synchronic linguistic is the study of a language through the course of its history.21. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.22. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.23. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.24. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.25. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.26. Features that contrast words in meaning are called design features are said to be in complementary distribution. 27. Linguistic symbols are arbitrary.28. By arbitrariness Saussure means that the forms of linguistic signs bear somenatural relationship to their meaning.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d_______.2. Chomsky d efines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.3. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.43. D_________ is one of the design features of human language whichrefers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.5. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.6. S is the study of language in relation to society.7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.2浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集8. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.9. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.11. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard be12 12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the s function of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice thatcanbest complete the statement.1. The description of a language in a fixed instant is a _______ study. A.synchronic B. diachronic C. prescriptive D. systematic2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to languageteaching and learning is called _____. A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics3. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language peopleactually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness 5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as____________. A. primary B. correct C. secondary D. stable6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing,because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing3浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires hismother tongue D. All of the above7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians foradopting a _____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptive8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logicalconnection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD.ideas11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This feature is called_________, A.displacement B. duality C. flexibility D. cultural transmission12. The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ earlylast century.A. American linguist N. ChomskyB. Swiss linguist F. de SaussureC. American linguist Edward SapirD. British linguist J. R. Firth 13.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object isgood proof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. culturalIV. Answer the following question:1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?4浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集2. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese andEnglish.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms ofthe amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream ofsounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three importantareas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. The sound〔z〕is a voiced alveolar stop.9. Voicing is a distinctive feature for English consonants.10. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then the two words are called minimal pairs. Sip and zip are a minimal pair, as are fine and vine, and veal and leaf.11. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds calledvoicing.12. English consonants can be classified in terms of place ofarticulation and the partof the tongue that is raised the highest.13. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types intowhich theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.5感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。

[整理]新编简明英语语言学教程笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

新编简明英语语言学教程整理1~4

12.描述性Descriptive
A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.
二、知识点
nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.
⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家
Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.
Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.

复习内容《简明英语语言学教程》导学手册

《英语语言学》导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。

本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。

本课程教学的具体要求是：１．系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。

２．能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。

３．能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。

二、教学内容I. Introduction1. Linguistics1.1 What is linguistics?1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.3 The scope of linguistics2. Language2.1 What is language?2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 The speech organs2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions2.4 Some major articulatory variables2.5 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology3.1 Phonetics and phonology3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules of phonology3.5 Suprasegmental features---Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology1. Morphology1.1 Open classes and closed classes1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation2. Morphemes---the minimal units of meaning3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes4. Morphological rules of word formation5. CompoundsIV. Syntax1. Syntax1.1 What is syntax?1.2 Sentence2. Structuralist approach2.1 Form classes2.2 Constituent structure2.3 Immediate constituent analysis2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions2.5 Advantage of IC analysis2.6 Labelled tree diagram2.7 Discontinuous constituents3. Transformational-generative grammar3.1 Competence and performance3.2 Criteria for judging grammars3.3 Generative aspect3.4 Transformational aspect3.5 Deep and surface structures4. The Standard Theory4.1 Components of a TG4.2 The base4.3 Transformations4.4 The form of T-rules4.5 The phonological component4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics1. Semantics1.1 What is semantics?2. Some views on semantics2.1 Naming things2.2 Concepts2.3 Context and behaviourism2.4 Mentalism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Synonymy3.3 Polysemy and homonymy3.4 Hyponymy3.5 Antonymy3.6 Relational opposites4. Componential analysis4.1 Componets of meaning4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis5. Sentence meaning5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence?5.2 Selectional restrictions5.3 Basic statements about meaning6. The semantic structure of sentences6.1 Extended use of componential analysis6.2 Prediction analysis6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics1. What does pragmatics study?2. Speech act theory3. Principles of conversation3.1 The co-operative principle3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change1. Introduction2. Sound change3. Morphological and syntactic change3.1 Change in “agreement” rule3.2 Change in negation rule3.3 Process of simplification3.4 Loss of inflections4. V ocabulary change4.1 Addition of new words4.2 Loss of words4.3 Changes in the meaning of words5. Some recent trends5.1 Moving towards greater informality5.2 The influence of American English5.3 The influence of science and technology6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society1. The scope of sociolinguistics1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics2. Varieties of language2.1 Varieties of language related to the user2.2 Standard dialect2.3 Varieties of language related to the use3. Communicative competence4. Pidgin and creole5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture1. Introduction2. What is culture?3. Language and meaning4. Interdependence of language and culture5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences6.1 Greetings6.2 Thanks and compliments6.3 Terms of address6.4 Colour words6.5 Privacy and taboos6.6 Rounding off numbers7. Cultural overlap and diffusion8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition1. Introduction1.1 Language acquisition1.2 The beginning of language1.3 Stages in first language acquisition1.4 Age and native language acquisition1.5 Common order in the development of language1.6 Different rate of language development2. Phonological development2.1 Regular sound development2.2 Mother and father words2.3 Grammatical development2.4 Vocabulary development2.5 Sociolinguistic development3. Theories of child language acquisition3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition2. The inadequacy of imitation theory3. Interference3.1 Phonological evidence3.2 Lexical evidence3.3 Grammatical evidence4. Cross-association5. Overgeneralization6. Strategies of communication7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法１．启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction 一、定义一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining ofhuman language that distinguish it from anypoperties of humananimal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性文化传递Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

简明英语语言学教程1-8章知识要点

1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics . phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning Lexicon / morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性) 1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned. Phonetics （语音学）（定义） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics （发音）auditory phonetics （听觉）acoustic phonetics （声学） Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Phonetics & phonology ：（定义，区别） Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.) Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone （音素）Phoneme （音位）Allophone （音位变体）: （定义） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素） vowels (the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. That’s not the book he wants. ⏹ Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When the phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution . ⏹ The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET （节首）, the PEAK （韵峰）, the CODA （韵尾） ⏹ Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning. Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix) 3.4 V----teachN Af----er Root （词根）Stem （词干）affix(词缀）（定义，会用，选择）Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “ca refully ”. Affix:is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme 3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional … -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er ● Derivational morphemes ---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ● Inflectional morphemes ---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s Syntax （句法学）（定义） Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. （句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head （中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier （标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement （补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg 程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station S→NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Semantics （语义学）（定义）Semantics: the study of meaning from thelinguistic point of view （对意义的研究）Behaviorism→ Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: responseJill Jack S---------r………s ---------R(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)Pragmatics （语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics: the study of language in use orlanguage communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.The study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication. (book)Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning ofa speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Context: a basic concept in the study ofpragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background,situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categories —word-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement 4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP→(Deg) A (PP) …… PP→(Deg) P (NP) …… XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con. 5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning,which are related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog knownto both A&B Major sense relations:Synonymy (近义词）---words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall inAE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), polysemy (一词多义）one word may have morethan one meaning)homonymy (同音形异义）homophones--- twowords same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)feet 、fete meat/meet site/sighthyponymy (上下层关系）relation between a general word —superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms) flower , rose, Lilyantonymy (反义）words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalemarried. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F —Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F —Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T —Y, T; X, F —Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT) Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Clause —a group of words which form a grammaticalunit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. ⏹ Componential analysis---- a way toanalyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹ Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Cooperative principle (CP)---- According toGrice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.。

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C h a p t e r o n e I n t r o d u c t i o n 什么是语言学语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.必考P2普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3（1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they shouldsay and what should not say.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.（2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.（3）Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.（4）Langue and parole 语言和言语必考名解P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.（5）Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Propo sed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

（6）Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语法It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F·de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”in the early 20th century. Before that is traditional grammar.Differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.(Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。