vocal tract

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Phonetics

Systems of phonetic writing are aimed at the accurate transcription of any sequence of speech sounds; the best known is the International Phonetic Alphabet.
Consonants are different from vowels in that they are produced with various obstructions of airstream here or there in our speech organs. In other words, the airstream will be modified somehow and somewhere when iБайду номын сангаас comes out from our lung and goes out from our speech organs, through nose or mouth, or even through both.
Manner of Articulation describes the way in which the airstream is obstructed when the consonant is made. For example, the sound [p] is said to have a stop manner because the air is completely stopped in the mouth before it is released.
Place of articulation
Bilabial: [p b m ] ([w] labial-velar) Labiodental: [f v] Dental/interdental: [θð ] Alveolar: [t d n s z r l ] Postalveolar:[ſ Ʒ ] Retroflex：[sh] Palatal:[j] Velar: [k g ή] Uvular: [ ] Pharyngeal: Arabic language Glottal: [h ? ]

元音和辅音的声学特征(丁红卫)

元音和辅音的声学特征
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2. Human speech mechanism
Cross-section of the vocal tract
元音和辅音的声学特征
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3. Representing the sounds of speech
Two ways to represent an ephemeral (短暂的), time-bound (时间界限的)
– Thyroid (tc 甲状腺)
– Cricoid (cc环状软骨)
– Arytenoid (ac杓状软骨) 元音和辅音的声学特征
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4.2 How vocal folds vibrate
Vocal folds open, air pass unimpeded: – Voiceless
Vocal folds vibrate: – Voiced
Relationship between pitch and fundamental frequency – Not linear – But logarithmic
Linear: difference same 100Hz-200Hz, 300Hz-400Hz Logarithmic: 100Hz-200Hz(1:2), 300Hz-400Hz(1:1.5)
元音和辅音的声学特征
Dr. Hongwei Ding 丁红卫
元音和辅音的声学特征
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Introduction
1. Introduction to phonetics 2. Human speech mechanism 3. Representing the sounds of speech 4. The larynx, voicing and voice quality 5. Vowels 6. Approximants 7. Plosives 8. Fricatives 9. Nasals

语言学Lecture4 Phonetics

Clear [l]: 发音时, 舌尖抵住上齿龈根部, 舌前向硬腭抬起, 形成气流阻碍. 气流从舌的两侧通过, 所以叫做舌侧音. 此时[l] 是浊辅
音, 要振动声带. 这个音与汉语的“乐”有一点相似, 只是汉语的发音带有元音音素且更清晰.
Dark /l/: 发音时, 舌尖抵住上齿龈根部, 舌面下凹, 舌后部微微上
BROAD transcription (phonemic transcription)
This is often the form used in dictionaries for indicating the general pronunciation of a word. “back slashes”: /…/. NARROW transcription (or phonetic transcription)
Putting Sounds on Paper: transcription
The International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA)
TWO types of transcription: broad and narrow
E.g. In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound /l/ in words like leaf /li:f/, feel /fi:l/, build /bild/, and health /helθ/. Question: Is [l] pronounced the same in all these four sound combinations?
Three kinds of pronunciation: the /l/ in /li:f/, occurring before a vowel the /l/ in /fi:l/ and /bild/, occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant the /l/ in /helθ/, followed by an English dental sound

硕士研究生考试英语专业考试真题

大连外国语学院2006年攻读硕士学位研究生入学考试试题学科专业：英语语言文学、外国语言学及应用语言学（英语）考试科目：语言学（A卷）考生请注意：答案必须写在答题纸上，将标号写清楚。

写在试卷上不给分。

I. Mark the following statements with T if they are true or F if they false(20 points)1. The design features of human languages include only creativity and displacement.2. The bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory and the “yo-he-ho” theory are well-established theory with adequate supportive evidences.3. Recreational function and metalingual function are the most important functions of language.4. Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics are branches of linguistics.5. Macrolinguistics is of interdisciplinary nature.6. Articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics study speech sounds.7. Fictive is among the eleven places of articulation which are distinguished on the IPA chart.8. A physically definable unit, the common factor underlying a set of forms, and a grammatical unit are used to discuss the definition of “word”.9. Broadening, narrowing, meaning shift, class shift and semantic change contribute to change in sentence meaning.10. In Saussure’s view, language is a system of sings, each of which consists of two parts: SIGNIFIED (sound image) and SIGNIFER (concept).11. Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the ways sounds are combined to form sentences in a language.12. There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized－sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation with the technical terms of synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy respectively.13. Pairs of words like buy-sell and lend-borrow belong to complementary antonymy.14. Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned with making inferences about the content of the human mind.15. The theory of CONTEXT OF SITUATION can be summarized as follows: the relevant features of the participants, the relevant object and the effects of the verbal action.16. Austin claims that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.17. The part of linguistics that studies the language of literature is termed literary stylistics.18. CAI aims at seeing educational problems on the part of the teacher, whereas CAL emphasizes the use of a computer in both teaching and learning in order to help the learner achieve educational objectives.19. Communicative Competence has two components: appropriateness and performance.20. An important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of FUCTION.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word with the hint of the initial letter (20points)1. A______ of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language , it is this feature of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness.2. Speaking of the manners of articulation, p______ is complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth..3. V______ is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. An example in English is [k] as in “cat”.4. The principle of a______ creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.5. G______ is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.6. P______ logic is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth ofa composite proposition is determined by the truth of value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.7. The principle of r______ is defined as every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.8. Assonance describes s______ with a common vowel (cVc).9. The type of l______ constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.10. E______ is the grammatically incorrect form; mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement (20points)1. The dog barks wow wow in English but wangwangwang in Chinese. This indicates the ______ relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.A. arbitraryB. dualC. creativeD. displaced2. The _______function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.A. recreationalB. emotiveC. interpersonalD. performative3. ______ are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A. V owelsB. Semi-vowelsC. ConsonantsD. Semi-consonants4. There are two possibilities of assimilation. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ____ assimilation.A. progressiveB. precedingC. precedingD. regressive5. The term ___ refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separation words to produce a single form.A. compoundB. derivationC. inventionD. blending6. ___ refers to a type of word-forming where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.A. BorrowingB. Back-formationC. AcronymD. Analogical creation7. ___, also known agreement, maybe defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.A. tenseB. aspectC. concordD. government8. The ___ construction is defined as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents, such as “on the shelf”.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate9. The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the ___ theory.A. integratedB. sense relationC. subordinateD. coordinate10. Ogden and Richards proposes a theory that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct, but it is mediated by ____.A. triangleB. conceptC. meaningD. referential11. ___ describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the language.A. Cohort TheoryB. Frequency EffectC. Recency EffectD. Context Effect12. General context effect occurs when our ___ knowledge about the world influences language comprehension.A. generalB. specificC. discourseD. text13. Language may determine our thinking patterns. This is part of the ___.A. Sapir-Whorf HypothesesB. Cross-Cultural Communication theoryC. Context of situation theoryD. Ethnography of Communication theory14. ____ may be said to equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning.A. LocutionaryB. Perloculationary ActC. Illocutionary principleD. Performatives15. Which of the following are not the four categories of maxims introduced by Grice?A. quantityB. qualityC. relationD. obscurity16. Make your contribution necessary and say no more than you must. This is the ___ proposed by Horn.A. Q-principleB. R-principleC. Cooperative principleD. Q-based principle17. The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this case, the critics call the narrator ___. A. third-person narrator B. I-narratorC. First narratorD. Indirect narrator18. ___ deals with the principles and practice of using a large body of machine-readable texts in language study.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Corpus linguistics19. Classified by different aims, there are four types of test. Which is not one of them?A. AptitudeB. Attitude testC. Proficiency testD. achievement test20. Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a ___.DB.MTC. S→R R→SD. ESTⅣ. Match each in Column A with a term in Column B that best describes it (10 points)Ⅴ. Write out the scholar that is closely connected with the concept or theory (10 points)Ⅵ. Analyze two possible interpretations of the following ambiguous expressions by IC Analysis (10 points) Leave the boy at homeⅦ. Explain the following concepts or theories (20 points)1. Language and parole (4 points)2. Morpheme (4 points)3. Explain the three major strands of psycholinguistics research comprehension, production and acquisition (4 points)4. Stress (at word level) (4 points)5. Computational linguistics (4 points)Ⅷ. Essay questions (40 points)1. Illustrate arbitrariness of language with examples. (10 points)2. What is “compound”? Illustrate it with examples from English. (10 points)3. Illustrate Austin’s claim about the type of sentences “performtives”. (10 points)4. What are the contributions of sociolinguistics to language teaching? (10 points)。

语言学名词解释

语言学名词解释胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1.Design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity,displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2.Function: the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions include informativefunction, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.4.Diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.5.Prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. layingdown rules for language use.6.Descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.7.Arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.8.Duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels ofare composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.9.Displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable theirusers to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.10.Phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.11.Metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particularstudies./doc/1716061846.html,petence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.13.Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation./doc/1716061846.html,ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.15.Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).16.Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. (The study ofsounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.)17.Phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover theprinciples that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.18.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds.19.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.20.Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actualrelationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.21.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refers to where in thevocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air./doc/1716061846.html,plementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the sameenvironment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.23.Suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 24.Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, aunit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.25.Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.26.Affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme (the root or stem).27.Derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.28.Root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.29.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.30.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.31.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.32.Lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided withsemantic interpretation.33.Grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articlesand pronouns.34.Lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is, those which refer to substance, action andquality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.35.Blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.36.Loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, insome cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.37.Loan blend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning isfully borrowed.38.Loan shift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.39.Acronym: is made up of the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modifiedheadword.40.Loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.41.Back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting animagined affix from a long form already in the language.42.Assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called. ”contact” or”contiguous” assimilation.43.Linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determinesthought.44.Linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.45.Performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as opposed to aconstative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.46.Constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.47.Locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying l iteral meaning by means ofsyntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.48.Illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’sintention.49.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.50.Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.。

精选英语如何进行发音英文版资料

Vowels
• Vowel quality – Height – Backness – Labiality
• Vowel quantity
A five vowel inventory
Spanish
front
central back
high
i
u
mid
e
o
low
A
Spanish vowels
front
• Different languages produce sounds at different places of articulation
• Witsuwit’en [qis] ‘king salmon’ vs. English geese [gis]
English consonant place of articulation
English oral vs. nasal stops
Stop: produced with complete occlusion, lower and upper articulators seal off airflow
(oral) stop (= nasal
‘plosive’)
(stop)
adjectival descriptor labial dental alveolar palatal velar nasal laryngeal
Phonetic description
• Consonants: e.g. – Laryngeal setting voiceless – Place of articulation bilabial – Degree of occlusion/manner stop

语言学第二章语音学资料

Chapter 2 Phonology
Phonetic & Phonology
———the study of speech sounds
Speech sounds--- Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound.
----A phonetician is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds. He is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
❖ Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学） ----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”
❖ Acoustic phonetics---- （声学语音学） from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. It tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speakers issues
(alveolar) 4. Hard palate 5. Soft palate (velum) 6. Uvula 7. Tip of tongue 8. Blade of tongue 9. Back of tongue 10. Vocal cords 11. PhaWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless.

phonetics and phonology全

The manner of articulation: refers to the type of stricture involved in the production of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed)
11 places of articulation
Places of articulation (P32, 33)
(1) Bilabial 双唇音 [p], [b], [m], [w] (2) Labio-dental 唇齿音 [f], [v] (3) Dental 齿音 [θ],[ ] (4) Alveolar 齿龈音
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced产生, transmitted传递, and perceived感知.
Subfields in phonetics
Articulatory Phonetics ( 发音语音学 ) is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学)is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics (听觉语音学)is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
The place of articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. (the place of obstruction)

Vocal Tract Normalization as Linear Transformation

Vocal Tract Normalization as Linear Transformation of MFCCMichael Pitz and Hermann NeyChair of Computer Science VI (Lehrstuhl f¨u r Informatik VI)RWTH Aachen –University of Technology52056Aachen,Germany{pitz,ney }@informatik.rwth-aachen.deAbstractWe have shown previously that vocal tract normalization (VTN)results in a linear transformation in the cepstral domain.In this paper we show that Mel-frequency warping can equally well be integrated into the framework of VTN as linear transformation on the cepstrum.We show examples of transformation matri-ces to obtain VTN warped Mel-frequency cepstral coefﬁcients (VTN-MFCC)as linear transformation of the original MFCC and discuss the effect of Mel-frequency warping on the Jaco-bian determinant of the transformation matrix.Finally we show that there is a strong interdependence of VTN and Maximum Likelihood Linear Regression (MLLR)for the case of Gaussian emission probabilities.1.IntroductionV ocal tract normalization (VTN)tries to compensate for theeffect of speaker speciﬁc vocal tract lengths by warping the frequency axis of the power spectrum of the speech signal [1,2,3,4].The frequency axis is scaled by a warping func-tiong α:[0,π]→[0,π](1)ω→˜ω=g α(ω)and the warped spectrum is deﬁned as |{X (ω)}|= ˜X (g α(ω))where the warping function g αis assumed to be invertible,i.e.strictly monotonic and continuous.The frequency ω=πcorresponds to the Nyquist frequency and the domain and co-domain are chosen to conserve bandwidth and information contained in the original spectrum.We have shown in [5,6]that in the framework of cepstral signal analysis VTN amounts to a linear transformation in the cepstral space for any arbitrary invertible warping function with domain and co-domain as given in Eq.(1).In that work we exemplary derived analytical solutions for the transformation matrices of piece-wise linear,quadratic,and bilinear warping functions.The warped cepstral coefﬁcients ˜c n (α),n =1...N can be obtained by a linear transformation of the original cepstral coefﬁcients c k ,k =1...K with a transformation matrix A (α)of dimension N ×K :This work was partially funded by the European Commission un-der the Human Language Technologies project CORETEX (IST-1999-11876),and by the DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft)under contract NE 572/4-1.A nk (α)=2s kππZ 0d ˜ωcos(˜ωn )cos(g (−1)α(˜ω)k )(2)withs k =(12:k =01:elseIn the case of continuous spectra,there may be no upper limit for N and K .We have assumed that the original spectrum can be represented by a ﬁnite number of cepstral coefﬁcients,for instance if it has been cepstrally smoothed already.In prac-tice,however,we work with discrete spectra.Hence,N and K will be ﬁnite and equal to the number of spectral lines of the discrete Fourier spectrum.This number can be further reduced for cepstral smoothing.In the following we will show that VTN warped Mel-frequency cepstral coefﬁcients (VTN-MFCC)can also be ob-tained by a linear transformation of either the original plain cepstral coefﬁcients or the original MFCC for arbitrary invert-ible warping functions.We will exemplary discuss transforma-tion matrices obtained for a piece-wise linear warping function.Finally we will discuss a consequence of VTN being a linear transformation of the MFCC,namely a strong interdependence of VTN and Maximum Likelihood Linear Regression (MLLR).This interdependence can explain previous experimental results that improvements obtained by VTN and subsequent MLLR were not additive [7].2.Integration of Mel Frequency ScaleMel frequency warping is applied during signal analysis to ad-just the spectral resolution to the human ear [8]:f mel =2595·lg1+f700Hz .There are two possible ways to include Mel frequency warping into the framework of VTN as linear transformation:A.)to express the VTN-MFCC as a linear function of theoriginal,unwarped plain cepstral coefﬁcients (CC)orB.)to express the VTN-MFCC as a linear function of theMFCC.In the following we will calculate the MFCC directly on the power spectrum as described in [9]rather than using a ﬁlter-bank.2.1.From Plain CC to VTN-MFCCWe have shown in[5,6]that a frequency warping of the spec-trum with an arbitrary invertible function results in a linear transformation of the cepstral coefﬁcients.Mel frequency warp-ing can be considered as one special case of such a frequency warping and thus results in a linear transformation as well. Therefore the combination of VTN and subsequent Mel warp-ing still amount to a linear transformation in the cepstral do-main.VTN is typically applied before Mel scale warping;hence the combination of both warping steps becomesg mel(gα(ω)):ω→˜ωmel=B·lg1+gα(ω)·f s(3)where gα(ω)denotes the VTN warping function as before,f s denotes the sampling frequency,and B is deﬁned asB=πlg1+f s2·700Hzto meet the requirement g mel(π)=π.Inserting Eq.(3)into Eq.(2)leads toA nk(α)=2s k ππZd˜ωmel cos(˜ωmel n)cosg(−1)αg(−1)mel(˜ωmel)k(4)Thus we can express the cepstral coefﬁcients of the VTN-Mel-warped spectrum as linear transformation of the original,un-warped cepstral coefﬁcients.2.2.From MFCC to VTN-MFCCWe will see in Section4that VTN is equivalent to a param-eterized constrained MLLR transformation.MLLR is a lin-ear transformation of model parameters(means and variances) which were typically been estimated from MFCC feature vec-tors.Thus more interesting and of practical relevance is to ex-press the VTN-Mel-warped cepstral coefﬁcients as a function of the MFCC(i.e.without VTN)instead of the plain cepstral coefﬁcients.The difﬁculty in the present case is that VTN is typically applied before Mel warping.We start with the deﬁni-tion of the VTN-Mel-warped cepstral coefﬁcients˜c mel n(α)˜c mel n(α)=s kππZd˜ωmel lnˆX(˜ωmel)cos(˜ωmel n).(5)VTN is usually applied to original,i.e.non-Mel-scaled,spec-trum(˜ωmel denotes the VTN-Mel-warped frequency)˜ωmel=g mel◦gα(ω)and the warped spectrum is given asnˆX(˜ωmel)o=nXg(−1)αg(−1)mel(˜ωmel)o=nX(ω)o.We now expand the spectrum as function of the Mel-warped frequencyωmel in terms of unnormalized(i.e.not VTN-warped) cepstral coefﬁcients c mel kln|X(ω)|2=lnˆX(ωmel)2=2KXk=0c mel k cos(ωmel k).(6)As before,inserting Eq.(6)into Eq.(4)results in˜c mel n(α)=KXk=0c mel k2s kπZd˜ωmel cos(ωmel k)·cos(˜ωmel n)We now need to express the unnormalized Mel-scale frequencyωmel as function of the VTN-warped Mel-scale frequency˜ωmel:ωmel=g mel(ω)=g mel◦g(−1)α◦g(−1)mel(˜ωmel).Finally,we obtain˜c mel n(α)=KXk=0A mel nk(α)c mel kwithA mel nk(α)=2s kππZd˜ωmel cos(˜ωmel n)cos(g mel◦g(−1)α◦g(−1)mel(˜ωmel)k).(7)Hence,the cepstral coefﬁcients˜c mel n(α)of the VTN-warpedMel-scale spectrum can be computed by a linear transforma-tion of the unnormalized cepstral coefﬁcients c mel k(without VTNwarping).Because of the non-linear transformation the integralin Eq.(7)may hardly be solved analytically.Nevertheless,thetransformation matrix can be calculated numerically.We have calculated the transformation matrix numericallyfor a piece-wise linear warping function(dashed line in Fig.1)ω→˜ω=gα(ω)=8><>:αω:ω≤ω0αω0+π−αω0π−ω0(ω−ω0):ω>ω0(8)We choose the inﬂexion pointω0,where the slope of the warp-ing function changes,as follows:ω0=8<:78πα≤178·απα>1The resulting warping function g eff:=g mel◦g(−1)α◦g(−1)melreadsg eff(˜ωmel):=g mel◦g(−1)α◦g(−1)mel(˜ωmel)=8>>><>>>:B·log[1+1α(10˜ωmel/B−1)]:ωmel≤g mel(ω0)B·logh1+f s˜ω02·700Hz1α−π−α−1˜ωπ−˜ω0+π−α−1˜ω0π−˜ω0(10˜ωmel/B−1)i:ωmel>g mel(ω0)(9)and is shown in Fig.1(straight line).If we expand the effectivewarping function g eff(˜ωmel)forωmel≤g mel(ω0)in a Taylor se-ries aboutα=1(forωmel≥g mel(ω0)the expansion is similar)g eff(˜ωmel)=˜ωmel−B1−10−˜ωmel/Bln(10)(α−1)+O(α−1)2we see that the linear term dominates the expansion because theterm1−10−˜ωmel/Bln(10)is small for0≤˜ωmel≤π.Thus,g eff(˜ωmel)ωmel = g mel °g α°g (-1)mel (ωmel ) ωorig= g α(ωorig)πωω~πα>1α<1~~Figure 1:mel α(−1)mel tion of the Mel frequency ωmel (straight)in comparison to the warping function g αfor plain CC as function of the original frequency ωorig (dashed)for α=0.9and α=1.1can be approximated by a linear function with an appropriate choice of an effective warping factor αeff .The cepstral coefﬁcients ˜c mel n (α)obtained by a linear trans-formation of MFCC with the matrix deﬁned by Eq.(7)are iden-tical to those calculated by explicitly warping the spectrum dur-ing signal analysis as presented in [9].Transformation matrices for MFCC using piece-wise lin-ear warping with warping factors (α=0.9and α=1.1)are shown in Fig.2and 3.These matrices were calculated by solv-ing Eq.(7)numerically without approximations.Figure 2:Matrix for piecewise linear warping function,α=0.9,Mel scaleFigure 3:Matrix for piecewise linear warping function,α=1.1,Mel scaleIn order to study the effect of the Mel-frequency warping on the transformation matrix,we will compare these matrices with those calculated analytically for computing VTN-CC as linear transformation of the plain CC (Fig.4and 5).We observe that the matrices for the Mel scale are more diagonally domi-nant than those for the original paring the resultingwarping function ˜ωmel =g mel ◦g α◦g (−1)mel (ωmel )(straight linein Fig.1)as function of the Mel frequency with the warpingfunction g αfor plain CC (dashed line in Fig.1)as function ofthe original frequency,we see that g mel ◦g α◦g (−1)mel is much closer to identity than g α.Therefore the transformation matrix for MFCC is more diagonally dominant than those obtained for plain cepstral coefﬁcients.The general structure of the warp-ing matrices as well as possible approximations are discussed in more detail in [6],also for bilinear and quadratic warping functions.Figure 4:Matrix for piecewise linear warping function,α=0.9,no Mel scaleFigure 5:Matrix for piecewise linear warping function,α=1.1,no Mel scale3.Discussion of Jacobian DeterminantTo estimate the unknown warping factor α,we proceed as fol-lows:For each speaker r we are given labeled training data (X r ,W r )where X r denote the sequence of acoustic data and W r the sequence of spoken words.In recognition,a preliminary hypothesis of the unknown word sequence W r can be obtained by a ﬁrst recognition pass.Typically,we apply a maximum likelihood estimation of αˆαr =argmax αp (X r |W r ;θ,α)(10)=argmax αp 0(f α(X r )|W r ;θ0)· d f α(X r )dX r(11)In VTN the speaker normalization is usually not performed as atransformation of the acoustic vectors but by warping the power spectrum during signal analysis instead.Hence,the Jacobian determinant can hardly be calculated.In virtually all experi-mental studies the second term in Eq.(11),the Jacobian deter-minant,is neglected.Whether this is a good approximation or not will depend very much on how much the Jacobian determi-nant depends on α.Therefore it is good to study the second term as function of α.Expressing VTN as a matrix transforma-tion of the acoustic vector (x →A x )now enables us study the Jacobian determinant |det A |of the transformation.A plot showing the dependency of the Jacobian determi-nant on the warping factor αhas been computed numerically for piece-wise linear warping (Fig.6).The dependence of theJacobian determinant onαis weaker for MFCC(dashed line in Fig.6)because the effective warping function g mel◦gα◦g(−1)mel16cepstral coefﬁcients as function ofα.Straight line:original frequency scale,dashed line:Mel frequency scale4.Interdependence of VTN and MLLR Most of today’s automatic speech recognition systems make use of Hidden Markov Models(HMM)with Gaussian emission probability distributionsN(x|µ,Σ)=1pdet(2πΣ)exp−12(x−µ)TΣ−1(x−µ).with state dependent parametersµandΣ.If the acoustic fea-ture vector(essentially the cepstral coefﬁcients)x is normalized with the VTN matrix A,the Gaussian distribution changes tox→y=A x:N(x|µ,Σ)→N(y|µ,Σ)=N(x|A−1µ,A−1ΣA−1T)=N(x|ˆµ,ˆΣ)withˆµ=A−1µandˆΣ=A−1ΣA−1T.(12) Thus,a linear transformation of the observation vector x is equivalent to a linear transformation of the mean vectorµand an appropriate transformation of the covariance matrixΣ.The transformations in Eq.(12)describe a special case of MLLR which is called constrained MLLR[10,11](con-strained refers to the use of the same matrix A for the transfor-mation of the mean and variance).In[7],Uebel and Woodland have found experimentally that improvements obtained by constrained MLLR and VTN were not additive.As we have shown,VTN may be viewed as a special case of constrained MLLR adaptation with an restriction to only one adjustable parameter(the warping parameter)which determines the matrix elements.The experiments were based on a MF-PLP signal analysis.The difference between MFCC and MF-PLP is mainly caused by different types of smoothing. This difference is not expected to effect the equivalence of VTN and linear transformations.Hence,the experiments support the analytic result that VTN is a special case of constrained MLLR.5.ConclusionWe have shown in this work that VTN warped Mel-frequency cepstral coefﬁcients(VTN-MFCC)can also be obtained by a linear transformation of either the original plain cepstral co-efﬁcients or the original MFCC for arbitrary invertible warp-ing functions.The numerical values of VTN-MFCC computed with the presented approach were identical to those obtained by explicitly warping the spectrum during signal analysis.Ex-pressing VTN as matrix transformation of MFCC allows us to compute the Jacobian determinant of the transformation,which has typically been neglected so far.Finally,we have shown that for the case of Gaussian emission probabilities VTN and MLLR are strongly interdependent,which can explain previous experimental results that improvements obtained by VTN and subsequent constrained MLLR were not additive.6.References[1] E.Eide and H.Gish,“A parametric approach to vocal tractlength normalization,”in Proc.IEEE Int.Conf.on Acous-tics,Speech,and Signal Processing,vol.1,Atlanta,GA, May1996,pp.346–349.[2]L.Lee and R.Rose,“Speaker normalization using efﬁ-cient frequency warping procedures,”in Proc.IEEE Int.Conf.on Acoustics,Speech,and Signal Processing,vol.1, Atlanta,GA,May1996,pp.353–356.[3]H.Wakita,“Normalization of vowels by vocal tract lengthand its application to vowel identiﬁcation,”in Proc.IEEE Int.Conf.on Acoustics,Speech,and Signal Processing, vol.ASSP-25,No.2,Apr.1977,pp.183–192.[4]S.Wegmann, D.McAllaster,J.Orloff,and B.Pe-skin,“Speaker normalization on conversational telephone speech,”in Proc.IEEE Int.Conf.on Acoustics,Speech, and Signal Processing,vol.1,Atlanta,GA,May1996, pp.339–341.[5]M.Pitz,S.Molau,R.Schl¨u ter,and H.Ney,“V ocaltract normalization equals linear transformation in cep-stral space,”in Proc.ISCA Europ.Conf.on Speech Com-munication and Technology,vol.4,Aalborg,Denmark, Sept.2001,pp.2653–2656.[6]M.Pitz and H.Ney,“V ocal tract normalization equals lin-ear transformation in cepstral space,”submitted to IEEE Trans.on Speech and Audio Processing,2003.[7]L.F.Uebel and P.C.Woodland,“An investigation intovocal tract length normalisation,”in Proc.ISCA Europ.Conf.on Speech Communication and Technology,vol.6, Budapest,Hungary,Sept.1999,pp.2527–2530.[8]S.J.Young,HTK:Hidden Markov Model Toolkit V1.4.User Manual,Cambridge,England,Feb.1993.[9]S.Molau,M.Pitz,R.Schl¨u ter,and H.Ney,“Comput-ing mel-frequency cepstral coefﬁcients on the power spec-trum,”in Proc.IEEE Int.Conf.on Acoustics,Speech,and Signal Processing,vol.1,Salt Lake City,UT,June2001, pp.73–76.[10]V.Digalakis,D.Rtischev,and L.Neumeyer,“Speakeradaptation using constrained estimation of gaussian mix-tures,”IEEE Trans.on Speech and Audio Processing, vol.3,no.5,pp.357–366,Sept.1995.[11]M.J.F.Gales,“Maximum likelihood linear transfor-mations for HMM-based speech recognition,”Computer Speech and Language,vol.12,no.2,pp.75–98,Apr.1998.。

[语言学]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》名词解释

胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dong theory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal cry theory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatory assimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relative uninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphological conditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes)calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command forshort)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(ICanalysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituent command(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统=derivational procedure推导系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程empiricism经验主义（洛克，白板说）rationalism 理性主义（笛卡尔）mentalism心灵主义new empiricism新经验主义(Bloomfield)priori先天综合判断（康德Kant）Cartesian linguistics笛卡尔语言学派Syntactic structure (SS)早期转换句法时期Standard theory (ST)标准理论时期Extended Standard theory (EST)扩展的标准理论Revised Standard theory(REST)扩展的休正标准理论The theory of government and binding(GB theory)管辖和约束理论时期（管约论）Minimalist program (MP)最简方案时期Structural description结构描写式Performance system应用系统Modular theory模块理论Spell-out拼写Language faculty语言机制/官能Mental organ心智器官Knowledge of language 语言知识Meaning potential 意义潜势Context culture 文化语境Field语场Tenor语旨Mode语式pivot words轴心词mental construct心理构念theoretical cognitive psychology理论认知心理学psychological faculty心理官能autosyn/autogram/autoknow语法自主(arbitrariness任意性,systemacity系统性, self-containedness自足性)typological functionalism类型学功能主义extreme functionalism极端的功能主义external functionalism外部功能主义integrative functionalism一体化功能注主义exceptional case marking例外格标记specifier标定成分fall-category maximal projection全语类的最大投射two-segment category两节语类complement domain补足语区域minimal domain最小区域internal domain内部区域checking domain检验区域sisterhood姐妹关系minimizing chain link最小语链联结representational system表达系统strict cyclic principle严格的层级条件structure-preserving principle结构保存原则C-commanding condition成分统领条件articulatory-perceptual system发音-听音系统conceptual-intentional system概念-意旨系统interface conditions中介条件full-interpretation完全解释原则procrastination逻辑形式操作优先原则greed句法操作自利原则the shortest linkage principle最短联接原则the shortest movement principle最短移位原则primarycomplement/modifier(referential NP)一级补语位/修饰语位(定指名词短语)secondary complement(non- referentialNP) 二级补语位(非定指名词短语)empty category principle空范畴原则aspect checking特征验证aspect feature基本体貌特征ASPP is functional projection .ASPP是功能投射.crossing branch交叉分支across the board extraction抽取跨界移动principles-and-parameters framework原则与参数语法head parameter中心语参数logical form(LF)逻辑形式phonetic form(PF)语音形式spell-out拼读phonological component音韵部分overt component显性部分covert component隐性部分core computation核心运算asymmetric c-command不对称成分统制linear correspondence axiom线形对应定理adjunction加接determiner限定词concatenate联结linearization线性化functional parameterization hypothesis功能参数设定假设right-branching右向分支X’(V,N,A,P)词项X’’=XP=Xmax是X的二阶投射结构Y’’=指示语specifierZ’’=补述语complementIP=屈折短语inflection phraseXP=general phrase structureC HL人类语言的运算系统=computational system for humanlanguageLCA线性对应定理=linearcorrespondence axiomXmin=X0=最小投射。

语音学和音系学考试资料讲课教案

语音学和音系学考试资料Phonetics1.The differences between consonants and vowelsConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the airflow in the cavity. However, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.2.Manners of articulationIt refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain part of vocal tracts. There are several basic ways in which articulation can be accomplished: the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.(1). Stop: complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth. It is essential to separate three phrases in the production of a stop: (a) the closing phase, in which the articulators come together; (b)the compression phrase, during which air is compressed behind the closure; (c)the release phrase, during which the articulators forming the obstruction come rapidly apart and the air is suddenly released. In English, [p, b, t, d, k, g] are stops and [m, n,ŋ] are nasals.(2) Fricative: close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced. In English, [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h] are fricatives.(3)Approximant: an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. The gap between the articulators is therefore larger than for a fricative and no turbulence is generated. In English, this class of sounds includes [w, r, j].(4)Lateral: obstruction of the airstream at a pint along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. [l] is the only lateral in English.(5)Trill: produced when an articulator is set vibrating by the airstream. A major trill sound is [r], as in red.(6)Affricates: involving more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation. In English, the “ch [ tʃ ]” of cheese and the “j [dʒ]”of jet are both affricates.3. Places of articulationIt refers to the point where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the abstraction of air. Practically, consonants may be produced at any place between the tips and the vocal folds.(1)Bilabial: made with the two lips. In English, bilabial sounds include [p, b, m, w], as in pet, bet, met and wet.(2)Labiodental: made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. Labiodental sounds include [f, v], as in fire and five.(3)Dental: made by the tongue tip and the upper front teeth. Only frictives [θ, ð] are dental sounds.(4)Alveolar: made with the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge. Sounds include [t, d, n, s, z, r, l] for English.(5)Postalveolar: made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge. Such sounds include [ʃ, ʒ,], as in ship and pleasure.(6)Patatal: made with the front to the tongue and the hard palate. The only English sound made here is [j], as in yes and yet.(7)Velar: made with the black of the tongue and the soft palate. Examples in English are velar stops [k, g], as in cat and get, and velar nasal [ŋ], as in sing.(8)Glottal: made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other. The only glottal is [h] in hat and head.4.Description of the consonants (必考)[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal; [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [l] alveolar lateral5. Cardinal VowelsThe cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.6. Three types of vowelsAccording to the quality of production, there are 3 types of vowels. The first one is monophthong, whose quality of production is unchangeable movement; the second one is diphthong, whose quality of production is a single change movement; and the last one is triphthong, whose quality of production is 2 change movements, such as tower /ˈtaʊə(r)/.7. 短元音发音是会受到清辅音和浊辅音的影响，后面是浊辅音是元音长；后面是清辅音时，元音短。

语音学的内容

Features
Lets look at the difference: Put your hand on your larynx and say the following: [vvv] vs. [fff] or [fff vvv fff vvv] Thus, one part of the internal description of language is based on the feature voiced vs. voiceless.
Articulators
Next, we add the Larynx, which contains the vocal cords and glottis Technically speaking, the glottis is the opening between the vocal cords:
Articulators
The air passage above the larynx is called the vocal tract. The vocal tract can be further divided into: Oral tract: comprised of the pharynx and mouth Nasal tract: comprised of the area within the nose
Features
In order to form consonants, the air-stream through the vocal tract must be obstructed in some way. One of the feature systems that can be used to classify consonants, therefore, is according to the place of this obstruction. This is called Place of Articulation

语言学的名词解释

When I was preparing the postgraduate entrance examination of NNU(Nanjing Normal University),some of these following concepts had been tested,but there's no specific or clear explanation in the textbook required by the university.As in preparing the second-round examination I read them in other relevant books, I wrote down here for your reference.Hope they are useful to some of you.1. Acculturation(同化过程）is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）;a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way.4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day.There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the temporal structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant.E.g. /p/ in the word pit.8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.9. converstional implicature（会话含义）:meanings that are explicable in the light of converational maxims.municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause.12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.14.closed class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members.15.coinage（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words.16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can appear in a language.17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small number of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful units.18.entailment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second)is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence21.free variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexploded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation with the exploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection（屈折变化）: the morphological process by which affixes combine with words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.ernment（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires that the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him.nguage universal(语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not all, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.27.microsociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.28.paradigmatic relation: (纵组合关系)The substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can be substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g, b,p,s,f are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Nature,Beauty, Love, Honesty in the sentences:Nature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sentence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been taken”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.31.prototype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category,e.g.for some English speakers “cabbage”(rather than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.32.root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.33.stem（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.34.taboo（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, c onsidered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles that enable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without instruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universal Grammar.37.contrastive distribution(对比分布)：If the speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context and the substitution results a contrast in meaning, we say they are in contrastive distribution.38.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.39.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构)One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.40.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构)the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.41.politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s public self-image.42.PP(politeness principle)tact maxim;generosity principle;approbation maxim;modesty maxim;agreement maxim;sympathy maxim.43.irony(反语)is the use of words to express something other than and especially the opposite of the literal meaning of the utterance.44.code-switching: (语码转换) means the alternation between two or more languages,language varieties or registers in communication.45.affective filter(情感过滤)：A screen of emotion that can block language acquisition or learning if it keeps the learners being too self-conscious or too embarrassed to take risks during communicative exchanges.46.Conversion（转类构词）is a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it. A word belonging to one part of speech is extended to another part of speech. It is also called functional shift or zero derivation.47.lexical meaning VS grammatical meaning(词汇意义与语法意义)The meaning of a sentence is carried by the words proper as well as by the patterns of word order that is part of the grammatical system of a language. The part of the sentence meaning contributed by words is called the lexical meaning and the part of sentence meaning that depends upon the way the words are put together is called grammatical meaning, in which the function words and the word order play a very important role.48.paralinguistic meaning VS non-linguistic meaning (副语言意义与非语言意义)In human communication, apart from the linguistic meaning conveyed by language itself,there are numerous paralinguistic meanings and non-linguistic meanings that are perceived simultaneously by the hearer. Paralinguistic meanings are those attached to the verbal expressions by quality of voice,tempo of speech,posture,facial expression and gestures. Non-linguistic meanings are thoseindicated by non-verbal noises such as cough, sigh, tongue-clicking, various kinds of body languages and different contexts of situation.49.denotation VS connotation (外延与内涵)Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of the language speaking community will agree on. Connotation is not the basic meaing of the word but some emotive or evaluative meaings associated with the word by individual language users in their mind.50.linguistic relativity VS linguistic determinism (语言相对论与语言决定论)The Sapir-Wholf Hypothesis states that there is a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it. It boils down to two principles: linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.Linguistic relativity states that disctinctions encoded in one language are unique to that langage alone, and that there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.Linguistic determinism refers to the idea that the language we use determines, to some extent, the way in which we view and think about the world around us. This concept has two versions; strongdeterminism and weak determinism. The strong version, which has few followers today, holds that language actually determines thought, whereas that weak version, which is widely accepted today, merely holds that language affects thought.。

北京林业大学语言学2006---2007期末试卷及答案

I. For each question，there are four choices of answers. In some cases，only one choice is correct while in others there may be two or three correct ones. Choose ALL the correct ones. （25 points）1. Which of the following theories takes as the origin of language the instinctive sounds of pain，anger and joy？A. the bow-wow theoryB. the pooh-pooh theoryC. the “yo-he-ho” theoryD. the Winnie-the-Pooh theory2. Which of the following are am ong Halliday’s theory of meta functions of language？A. ideationalB. relationalC. interpersonalD. textual3. The distinction between langue and parole was put forward by _____.A. BloomfieldB. de SaussureC. ChomskyD. Halliday4. Which of the following is a vowel？A. [p]B. [f]C. [æ]D. [m]5. Which of the following is the correct description of [f]？A. voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental stop6. Which of the following vowels is CV8？A. [a]B. [e]C. [u]D.[i]7. Which of the following words are likely to have stress in sentences？A. onB. wonderfulC. fireD. right8. _____ advocated treating the word as “the minimum free form”.A. Leonard BloomfieldB. Noam ChomskyC. John LyonsD. M A K Halliday9. Which of the following word classes are open classes？A. conjunctionB. determinerC. adverbD. verb10. Which of the following are suffixes？A. unB. tionC. nessD. er11. Number and gender are mostly categories of the _____.A. interjectionB. nounC. prepositionD. pronoun12. “Concord” has the same meaning as _____.A. perfectiveB. progressiveC. agreementD. government13. Which of the following meanings are the terms of Geoffrey Leech？A. conceptual meaningB. social meaningC. lexical meaningD. thematic meaning14. Synonymy is the technical term for the _____ relation.A. oppositenessB. complementaryC. gradableD. sameness15. Which of the following are converse antonyms？A. clever ：stupidB. husband ：wifeC. give ：receiveD. teacher ：employee16. Which of the following are correct readings of “CAU SE （x，（BECOME （y，（~ALIVE （y）））））”？A. x causes y to become not alive.B. x causes y to become alive.C. x causes y to become not dead.D. x causes y to become dead.17. Which of the following meanings are the foci of pragmatics？A. Lexical meaningB. Propositional meaningC. Utterance meaningD. Contextual meaning18. Which of the following lines rhyme？A. Be your wounds like eyes / To weep for the dead，the dead.B. It was winter such as when birds die / In the deep forests；and the fishes lieC. Stiffened in the translucent ice，which makes / Even the mud and slime of the warm lakesD. Gather about great fires，and yet feel cold：/ Alas，then，for the homeless beggar old！19. Which of the following lines are in the form of iambic pentameters？A. Her eye are wild，her head is are，/ The sun has burnt her coal-black hair，B. When lovely woman stoops to folly，/ And finds too late that men betray，C. For saints have hands that pilgrim’s hands do touch，/ And palm to palm is holy palmer’s kiss.D. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May，/ And summer's lease hath all too short a date.20. Which of these writers wrote in the form of ‘streams of con sciousness？A. William FaulknerB. James JoyceC. Charles DickensD. Virginia Woolf21. The ‘variationist perspective’ is a way to investigate language by studying how language is used in _____.A. social interactionB. religious beliefsC. ethnic identityD. different situations22. Which of the following are more likely to be used by women？A. ‘fancy’ color termsB. strong curse wordsC. tag questionsD. less direct expressions23. Which of the following are related to the recent developments of CALL？A. MultimediaB. HypermediaC. The internetD. The language lab24. Which of the following statements are true of machine translation today？A. All current commercial and operational systems produce output which must be edited or revised if it is to be of published quality.B. They provide dictionary-based，word-for-word translation，with low-quality results.C. MT works best in domain-specific and controlled environments.D. Currently the state of machine translation is such that it involves some human intervention，as it requires a pre-editing and a post-editing phase.25. What does ‘mouse potato’ mean？A. a mouse padB. a mouse shaped like a potatoC. a potato as food for the mouseD. a computer addictII. Decide whether the following statements are true （T）or false （F）. （15 points）tin has fewer morphological changes than English.2.For sounds to be allophones of the same phoneme they must be complementarily distributed and must have phonetic similarity.3. A closed syllable is one without a coda.4.“Tofu” is a direct borrowing from Chinese.5.The consonant [x] existed in Old English.6.Today we normally say that English has three tenses：present，past and future.7.In logical symbols，∀means “all” and ∃means “some”.8.Every word has a sense just as every word has a reference.9.Conversational implicature is a kind of implied meaning，deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context，under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.10. The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually its figurative meaning.11. Similes and metaphors are different in that a metaphor makes a comparison between two unlike elements.12. ‘Shit，you’ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.’ This is mostly likely to be said by a woman.13. When Mr. Goodell said ‘I’ve had enough dumbbells in my office’，he meant he had some stupid guys in his office.14. The difference between CAL and CALL is that the former deals with the teaching and learning of language in particular.15. All of the following emoticons have to do with smiling or laughter：A. ：-）B. ：-OC. |-DD. {}III. Define the following terms. （20 points）1. approximant2. lexical words3. the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis4. synecdocheIV. Answer TWO of the following questions. （40 points）1. What is ‘assimilation’？（Note：the first edition of Sociolinguistics was published by Cambridge University Press in 1980）答案及评分标准III. 解词。

英语语言学练习题1

英语语言学练习题1英语语言学练习题Chapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks wit h one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky（乔姆斯基）defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages iscalled s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociologica l…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features 57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively aspossible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performanc e. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 Phonology语音体系Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2. 语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informative b. phatic c. directive d. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussure b. halliday c. Chomsky d. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. halliday d anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingb.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。

Vocal Imitation Using Physical Vocal Tract Model

1The murmuring sound of a dove or a sound resembliБайду номын сангаасg it. 2A meaningless confusion of words or sounds.
continuous in sound generation. Therefore, we should reﬂect this constraint in vocal imitation.
In this study, we propose a speech imitation model based on the motor theory of speech perception [1], which was developed to explain why speech sound (in the form of phonemes) is characterized by motor articulation information. This model is based on the observation that human infants actively imitate the speech sounds of their parents by distinguishing between imitable and unimitable features. The model captures sounds not as a set of phonemes but as temporal dynamics. To apply this model, we use Recurrent Neural Network with Parametric Bias (RNNPB) [2] and an anatomic vocal tract model, called the Maeda model, to recreate physical constraints.

语言学术语翻译及术语解释

术语翻译及术语解释汇总术语翻译1.Design features of language（语言的甄别特征）Arbitrariness（任意性），Duality（二层性/二重性），Creativity（创造性/原创性），Displacement（移位性），Cultural transmission（文化传播），Interchangeability（可互换性）2. Functions of languagereferential 指称功能 poetic 诗学功能 emotive情感功能conative 劝慰功能 phatic寒暄功能 metalingual function 元语言功能ideational function概念功能 interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇/文本功能 Informative（信息/告知功能），Performative Function（施为功能）， Emotive Function（情感功能），Phatic communion（寒暄交谈）， Recreational Function（娱乐功能），3. Phonetics(语音学)， Phonology（音系/音位学）; Morphology（形态学）， Syntax（句法学）;Semantics（语义学）， Pragmatics（语用学）Articulatory phonetics发音语音学 Acoustic phonetics声学语音学Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 Psycholinguistics心理语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学 Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学 Applied linguistics应用语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学4. Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式和规定式Synchronic vs. diachronic共时和历时 Langue vs. parole语言和言语Competence vs. performance语言能力和语言行为5. Vocal tract 声道(resonating cavities共鸣腔)， pharynx咽腔, oral cavity口腔 and nasal cavity鼻腔.其它的一些发音器官：lungs肺, windpipe（trachea）气管, vocal folds声带,larynx喉, epiglottis会厌，次声门, pharynx咽, uvula小舌, hard palate硬腭, soft palate软腭, alveolar ridge齿龈6.Consonants and vowels（辅音和元音）A. Manners of articulation发音方式B. Places of articulation发音位置7. Stop (or plosive)爆破音 Fricative摩擦音 Approximant近似音Lateral (approximant)边音 Affricates塞擦音, trill颤音 and tap 闪音Bilabial双唇音 Labiodental唇齿音 Dental齿音 Alveolar齿龈音Postal veolar后齿龈音 Retroflex卷舌音 Palatal硬腭音Velar软腭音 Uvular小舌音, pharyngeal咽音 glottal声门音monophthong vowel: 单元音 diphthongs双元音 triphthongs三元音Lax vowels短元音 Tensed vowels长元音8.Coarticulation and phonetic transcription协同发音和标音anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音 perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音.broad transcription宽式标音 narrow transcription严式标音9. minimal pairs最小对立体 Phoneme音位phonemic transcriptions音位转写 phonetic transcriptions语音转写phones音子 allophones音位变体 complementary distribution互补分布phonetic similarity发音近似性 Free variation自由变体assimilation同化 regressive assimilation逆同化progressive assimilation顺同化phonological rule 音系规则 Epenthesis增音 binary 二分的Distinctive features区别特征Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions向心结构和离心结构subordinate and coordinate从属和并列Conceptual meaning概念意义Associative meaning:联想意义Connotative meaning内涵意义 Social meaning社会意义Affective meaning情感意义 Reflected meaning反射意义Collocative meaning搭配意义 Thematic meaning主位意义denotation: 外延意义 connotation: 内涵The referential theory:指称理论Semantic triangle语义三角Sense and reference：涵义和指称Synonymy同义关系 Antonymy反义关系 Hyponymy上下义关系Polysemy一词多义关系 Homonymy 同音/形异意关系Dialectal synonyms 地域同义词 Stylistic synonyms风格同义词Collocational synonyms搭配同义词gradable antonymy 等级反义关系 cover term覆盖项Marked vs. unmarked terms标记项和非标记项complementary antonymy 互补反义关系 converse antonymy 逆向反义关系homophones: 同音异义词 homographs : 同形异义词complete homonyms semantic components语义部分术语解释1. Design feature的定义：the defining（最典型的，起决定作用的）properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Synchronic共时：It refers to the description of a language at somepoint of time in history.3. Diachronic历时：It studies the development or history of language.In other words, it refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .4. prescriptive规定式：A kind of linguistic study aims to lay downrules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language.5. descriptive描写式: A kind of linguistic study aims to describe andanalyze the language people actually use.6. Arbitrariness（任意性）:By saying that “language is arbitrary”, wemean that there is no logical connection between meaning and sound.7. Duality（二层性/二重性）:it means that language is a system,which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of meaning.8. Displacement（移位性）: it means that language can be used tocommunicate about things that are not present in our immediate communicational context.9. competence语言能力:it refers to an ideal speaker’s knowledge ofthe underlying system of rules in a language.10. Performance语言行为: it refers to the actual use of the language bya speaker in a real communicational context.11. Langue语言: it refers to the speaker’s understanding and knowledgeof the language that he speaks.12. Parole言语: it is the actual speaking of language by an individualspeaker.13. Cultural transmission（文化传播）:It refers to the fact that thedetails of the linguistic system must be learned anew（重新，再）by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.14. Phatic communion（寒暄交谈）:it refers to ritual exchanges,exchanges that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.15. Phonetics(语音学): it is the study of the characteristics of speechsounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.16. Vowels元音：the sounds in the production of which no articulatorscome very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.17. Consonants辅音：The sounds in the production of which there is anobstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract.18. Phonology: it is the study of the sound systems of languages and it isconcerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages. And it studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.19. Phoneme音位: the smallest unit of sound in a language which candistinguish two words.20. Allophone音位变体: it refers to the different forms of a phoneme.21. Assimilation: it is a process by which one sound takes on some or allthe characteristics of a neighboring sound.22. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous oroverlapping articulations are involved.23. complementary distribution互补分布:when two sounds neveroccur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution.24. Free variation自由变体: if two sounds occurring in the sameenvironment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.25. Distinctive features区别特征： A phonetic feature whichdistinguishes one phonological unit, especially one phoneme, from another.26. minimal pairs最小对立体----- which can be defined as pairs ofwords which differ from each other by only one sound.27. vowel glides滑音: The vowels involving movement from one soundto another are called vowel glides.28. Epenthesis增音：it means a process of inserting a sound afteranother sound.29. Substitution relation: it refers to the relation specifically between anindividual unit and others that can replace it in a given sequence. 30. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionallyequivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole.31. Exocentric construction: a group of syntactically related wordswhere none of them is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the group 32. Reference: it is the relationship between words and the objects,actions or properties that the words stand for. It deals with the extra-linguistic relationships between words and expressions and the world they describe.(具体的物质性的东西)33. Synonymy ：It refers to the sameness sense relations betweenwords.34. Componential analysis ：Componential analysis defines themeaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components语义部分.35. Sense: it refers to the complex system of relationships that holdbetween linguistic elements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.（概念性的东西）36. Semantics：semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular.37. Homonymy: the phenomenon that words having different meaningshave the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.38. Antonymy：It refers to the oppositeness sense relations betweenwords.39. Hyponymy上下义关系：Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness.The upper term in this sense relation is called superordinate上义词, and the lower terms,hyponyms下义词, members of the same class are called co-hyponyms.。

新编简明语言学导论教程课件Chapter 2

It was changed to its present title of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) in 1897.
One of the first activities of the Association was to produce a journal in which the contents were printed entirely in phonetic transcription.
[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar icative
2.2 Vowels
Vowels are characterized by the absence of obstruction of the airstreams, and they do not have a place of articulation in the same sense as consonants. Vowels are made by voiced air escaping through different mouth shapes.
The idea of establishing a phonetic alphabet was first proposed by the Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jespersen (1860-1943) in 1886, and the first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888.