修辞学讲义
修辞学教案(完整)
第一章修辞与修辞学第一节修辞一、“修辞”的含义二、修辞的特点三、修辞与语境四、修辞的原则第二节修辞学一、修辞学的性质和地位二、修辞学的对象和范围三、修辞学的研究方法第二章修辞方法第一节修辞方法的性质和特点一、修辞方法的性质二、修辞方法的特点第二节修辞方法的体系建构一、对以往修辞方法体系的总结与评价二、修辞方法体系建构的原则和标准三、重建汉语修辞方法体系的构想第三节修辞方法的特类——修辞格一、修辞格在修辞方法体系中的地位二、修辞格研究的成就与不足三、汉语常见修辞格第三章语音修辞第一节语音修辞概说一、语音修辞的性质和特点二、汉语语音修辞的分类第二节语音选择修辞一、儿化词与轻声词的选用二、响音字与衬音字的选用三、双声、叠韵、叠音形式的选用第三节语音配合修辞（停延、节奏、轻重、抑扬等）一、声韵调的协调与呼应二、音节的协调与呼应三、音组的协调与呼应第四节谐音修辞一、谐音双关二、谐音歧义三、谐音转义四、谐音假对五、谐音仿拟第五节拟音修辞一、拟声词其实是一种修辞词类二、汉语常见拟音修辞方法第四章语义修辞第一节语义修辞概说一、语义修辞的性质和特点二、汉语语义修辞的分类第二节同义修辞和反义修辞一、同义修辞二、反义修辞第三节上下义修辞和类义修辞一、上下义修辞二、类义修辞第四节多义修辞和单义修辞一、单义修辞二、多义修辞三、模糊修辞第五章语法修辞第一节语法修辞概说一、语法修辞的性质和特点二、汉语语法修辞的分类第二节词法修辞一、词类选择修辞二、词类活用修辞第三节句法修辞一、句法选择修辞二、句法配合修辞第四节篇法修辞一、形合谋篇与修辞二、意合谋篇与修辞第六章语形修辞第一节语形修辞概说一、语形修辞的性质和特点二、汉语语形修辞的分类第二节书面语形修辞一、汉字修辞二、非文字图符修辞第三节口语语形修辞一、态势语与修辞二、非语词声音与修辞三、伴随性因素与修辞第七章风格与修辞第一节言语风格与修辞一、言语风格的性质和分类二、言语风格的成因与修辞第二节语体风格与修辞一、语体的性质和分类二、语体修辞第八章汉语修辞学简史第一节汉语修辞学史及其研究概况一、修辞学史的性质二、汉语修辞学史的研究现状第二节汉语古代修辞学史说略一、汉语古代修辞学的演变轨迹二、汉语古代修辞学的演变规律第三节汉语现代修辞学史说略一、汉语现代修辞学的发展脉络二、汉语现代修辞学的发展规律第一章修辞第一节“修辞”的含义（一）修辞的三种含义1、语言运用活动（修辞行为）2、语言策略和技巧（修辞方法）3、研究语言运用规律的一门学科（修辞学）（二）“修辞”溯源1、出处目前所见最早的修、辞连用：“子曰：君子进德修业。
修辞学讲义
比喻
比喻的各种变式：
倒喻把喻体说是像本体。 真是怪味豆，甜酸苦辣，什么味道都有，真像是眼前的生活。 （王友生《漩涡》） 上海人叫小瘪三的那批角色，也很像我们的党八股，干瘪得很， 样子十分难看。（毛泽东《反对党八股》） 否喻否定喻体。 相宜的事业，并非像雨后的菌子一样，俯拾即是。（毕淑敏） 迂喻先否定喻体，再说本体。 站在高山上向西看，一条白带绕丛山，不是带，原来是新开的公 路上领来。（青海民歌） 较喻比较本体和喻体。 等待你红于樱的小脸。（张晓风《初绽的诗篇》） 桃花潭水深千尺，不及汪伦送我情。（李白） 缩喻为本体”的”喻体的格式 心灵深处感情的温泉（郭小川《赠友人》） 这些记忆的毒蛇（茅盾《腐蚀》）
四月的黄昏，流曳着一组组绿色的旋律。（舒婷） 辛楣和李梅亭吃几颗疲乏的花生米，灌半壶冷淡的茶（《围 城》） 秋天的黄昏，晚霞烧红西方的天空。（和谷岩《枫》） 你们哥俩还是各居一屋，互不干涉内政。（刘心武） 他们说我长得很抽象。
拈连的方法可以使表达形象生动。
天寒热泪冻成冰。冻不住心头的爱和憎。（阮章竞《送别》） 一辆辆汽车满载着全国各地人民支援灾区的物资，也满载着全 国人民的一片真情。 他们舞出了青春，舞出了金杯，也舞出了甜蜜的爱情。 哥听的不是课，哥听的是寂寞。
用典
八卦
☰ 乾 ☷ 坤☳ 震 ☶ 艮 ☴巽☲离☵坎☱兑
乾三连,坤六断。 震仰盂,艮覆碗。 离中虚,坎中满。 兑上缺,巽下断。
䷭升 九三，升虚邑
仿拟
仿拟的方法可以使表达更鲜明、有趣。
又分为仿词和仿语。 多九公笑道：“尊驾读书虽未变成书呆子，今游来游去，竟要 变成游呆子。” （李汝珍《镜花缘》） 将来可否有一种嗅觉交响乐呢？当然那不能叫交响乐，或许可 以叫交味乐？（史铁生） 六神花露水广告词：六神有主，一家无忧。 《广州日报》标题：“友船”自远方来，不亦乐乎！ 砍头不要紧，有钱才是真。载了我一个，幸福几代人。 崇祯十五年，洪承畴督师与清军大战于松山，兵败被俘。传说 洪承畴已经殉国，崇祯大痛，亲自设灵祭悼洪的亡灵，可此时 洪承畴被俘已经降清，并为清廷筹划入关。《梅花岭记》中鞠 躬尽瘁地欲挽狂澜于既倒的抗清名将史可法死后，有人传言他 未死，吴中孙公兆奎，以起兵不克，执至白下。经略洪承畴与 之有旧，问曰：“先生在兵间，审知故扬州阁部史公果死耶？ 抑未死耶？”孙公答曰：“经略从北来，审知故松山殉难督师 洪公果死耶？抑未死也？”承畴大恚，急呼麾下驱出斩之。
修辞学讲义——精选推荐
修辞学讲义ENGLISH RHETORICWhat Is Rhetoric?Rhetoric is the art of effective communication in words. Generally, the study of how to express oneself effectively is the concern of rhetoric. In the category of humane tradition, English rhetoric is subdivided into communicative rhetoric and aesthetic rhetoric. The communicative rhetoric mainly stresses on lexical accuracy, structural meticulousness and contextual appropriateness so as to bring its linguistic communicative role into full play. The aesthetic rhetoric gives special emphasis on the employment of rhetorical features, such as alliteration, assonance, repetition, parallelism, simile, metaphor, euphemism and irony, etc. It will leave more vivid and impressive images on the audience‘s mind.I. Levels of English Rhetoric:1.Phonological/Prosodic Level: 美⾳cf. Phonology/phonetics2.Lexical Level: 遣词Morphology3.Syntactic Level：炼句Syntax4.Paragraph Level: 修段Semantics5.Textual Level: 谋篇Pragmatics6.Stylistic Level: 饰⽂1.Phonological/Prosodic Level:Stress:Is she badly hurt?Is she badly hurt?Is she badly hurt?Pause:When – when – I – am – gone – please – di – divide – my – property – equally – among –among – the – children.Tempo (语速)：Other factors such as regional, dialectal, social.Paralinguistic features:A)Breathy voice: ―Oh, No!‖ (Surprise, astonishment)B)Creaky voice: ―Terrible!‖ (Emphasis)C)Falsetto: ―Wonderful!‖ (Expressive)D)Whisper: ―Fantastic!‖ (Contrastive)Figures of speech/rhetorical devices:Alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, onomatopoeia, etc. (to be discussed later)2.Lexical Level:Proper words in proper places (Jonathan Swift):From now on, I expect that window to be kept closed.Excuse me, could you tell me the right time, please?What time is it, please?What‘s the time?Time?How much longer have we got?My watch seems to be going slow.Devices of construction of words also have rhetorical features:Affixation: prefix: a-, anti,, contra, counter, de, dis, il, im, in, ir, non, un, etc.suffix: ee, er, or, ese, ism, ster, ly, wise, etc.conversion, compounding, backformation, shortening, etc.2.1 Word-choice:2.1.1 Denotation & Connotation:car [physical appearance (d)]; [comfort, rich, luxury(c)]He put his head in his hands and began to cry.I know I‘m going to weep at the airport.There was a girl sitting and sobbing in the corner.The women gathered around the coffin and began to wail, as was the custom in the region.After vacillating for as long as he could and taking refug e in the supposed ambiguities of the state constitution, the mayor has finally yielded to pressure and agreed to try to do something. (negative)After careful examination of the constitutional and other issues involved, the mayor, responding to the people‘s wishes, has announced that he will take immediate action.2.1.2 Subjective & Objective:must/have to, etc.2.1.3 Physical & Mental: reasonable/rational; conscious/Conscientious, rational/reasonable, etc. 2.1.4 Active & Passive: would rather/had better, etc.2.1.5 Formal & Informal: inquiries/questions; affluent/rich; expatriation/ exile; amour/love.Formal anf informal are scalar. There are:Informal words and less informal words: blood toil, sweat and tears (Churchil);Bite the bullet (Nickson); kinder gentler America, read my lips (Bush) Formal words: laon words are usually formal, such as word from French, Latin, etc.V ery formal words/Solemn words/Rigid words: Academic and religious words for example.2.1.6 Derogatory & Commendatory: rather/fairly; cold/cool; warm/hot; jealousy/envy;easy/difficult2.1.7 Concrete & Abstract: desk, blackboard, pen; beauty, inflation, management, culture, liberal 2.1.8 General & Specific: building, weather, birds; skyscraper, hut, V ictorian courthouse2.1.9 Literal & figurative: eat three servings of turkey; eat like a horseLiteral statement & Ironic statement:A fine friend you turned out to be, borrowing my car and going on a date with my friend Joe! (Afine friend=a bad guy)Over statement & understatement:A ( a reporter): Do you enjoy playing golf?B (who has just won the French Open): A little bit.A ( a reporter): How bad was the tornado?B (a survivor): Well, that was quite a breeze.A (a visitor, upon coming in): Wow! Y our new house is like a big mansion.B (the host): We‘re happy with our little home.The farm has a good many acres that are virtually swamp.The student was sunk in a swamp of discouragement.V arious thorny problems that we try to sweep under the rug continue to bob up all the same.V arious thorny problems that we try to weed out continue to thrive all the same.2.2 V ariety of words:2.2.1 dialect:The house where I spent my childhood was down the road a piece from a church. (dialect) The house where I spent my childhood was a short distance from a church. (standard)2.2.2 slang:The meeting of the Finance Committee to discuss the proposed fund improvement plan was really zingy. (successful) Many students start out pretty together but then get weird.Many students start out with clear goals but then lose their direction.2.2.3 colloquial language:According to a Native American myth, the Great Creator had a dog hanging around with him when he created the earth. According to a Native American myth, the Great Creator was accompanied by a dog when he created the earth.2.2.4 obsolete or archaic; neologism:obsolete words: enwheel=encircle, cote=passarchaic words: doth=does, hath=has, quoth=said, thou=you, nought=worthless;fast=near, belike=perhapsneologism: botel, motel, bullet train, informercial, telemarketing, surrogate mother;cyber-space, email, internet, spellcheck, website, word-processor2.2.5 Technical words:motif, subtext, hypertext; CPU, modem, floppy disk drive, video ram, gigabyte, download, mouse, desktop, windows, etc. The patient has a severe contusion.That‘s a contusion you‘ve got there.That‘s a nasty bruise you have got there.If negotiators get hyper during contract discussion, they mess up chances for a settlement.If negotiators become excited or upset during contract discussion, they may harm chances for a settlement.2.2.6 Euphemism and fancy writing:In order to substantiate our desire to accommodate our guests we would appreciate your cooperation to anticipate your credit requirements before departure.If you wish to cash a check, please let us know before leaving.Many institutions of higher education recognize the need for youth at the threshold of maturity to confront the choices of life‘s endeavor and thus require students to select a field of concentration.Many colleges and universities force students to make decisions about their careers by requiring them to select a major.2.2.7 Sexist language:My gal will take care of that immediately.President Reagan came to Nancy‘s defense.President Reagan came to Mrs. Reagan‘s defense.Ladies are entering almost every occupation.Women are entering almost every occupation.The considerate doctor commends a nurse when she provides his patients with goodcare.The considerate doctor commends a nurse who provides good care for patients.The grocery shopper should save her coupons.Grocery shoppers should save their coupons.2.2.8 Trite expression and cliché:proud as a peacock, apple of one‘s eye, in the same boat, quick as lightning, etc.2.2.9 Clarity expression:Productivity actually depends on certain factors that basically involve psychology more than any particular technology. Productivity depends on psychology more than on technology.The type of large expenditures on advertising that manufactures must make is a very important aspect of the cost of detergents.Manufactures‘ large advertising expenditures increase the cost of detergents.At the point in time, the software is expensive due to the fact that it has no competition.The software is expensive now because it has no competition.Many unskilled workers without training in a particular job are unemployed and do not have any work.Many unskilled workers are unemployed.During that period of time, the membrane areas became pink in color and shiny in appearance.During that period, the membrane became pink anf shiny.The holes must e aligned in an accurate manner.The holes must be aligned accurately.The country is responsible for the educational system and public recreational activities.The country is responsible for education and public recreation.The tunnel, which was drilled for twenty-three miles, runs through a bed of solid chalk under the English Channel.The twenty-three-mile tunnel runs through solid chalk under the English Channel.Huge rotary blades were used by the drillers.The drillers used huge rotary blades.There are more than half a million shareholders who have invested in the tunnel. It is they and the banks that expect to profit. More than half a million shareholders have invested in the tunnel. They and the banks expect to profit.3.Syntactic Level3.1. The Processibility PrincipleThis principle recommends that the text should be presented in a manner which makes it easy for the hearer to decode in time. A text (in contrast to a message) is essentially linear and time-bound: thus in decoding we are often presented with choices as to (a) how to segment the message into units; (b) how to assign degrees of prominence or subordination to different parts of the message; and (c) how to order the parts of the message.3.1.1 The End-focus MaximThe End-focus Maxim applies to tone-units and therefore its operation is dependent on logically prior choices regarding the segmentation of the utterance into tone-units; the segmentation decision implies a decision about focus (which part of the tone-units will be signaled as prominent by means of the nuclear tone); and the End-focus Maxim implies that this decision, in turn, entails a decision about order.3.1.2 The End-weight MaximThe End-weight Maxim (broadly) induces a syntactic structure in which ?light‘ constituents precede ?heavy‘ones. Hence the characteristic English sentence has a predominance of right-branching over left-branching, and many movement transformations (e.g. the rule of extraposition) serve the Maxim of End-weight by helping to ensure that complex constituents are placed at the end of a clause or sentence. E.g.That Simon will resign is on the cards.---> It is on the cards that Simon will resign.3.1.3 The End-scope MaximThe End-scope Maxim states that logical operation such as a negative operator or a quantifier precedes, rather than follows, the elements (including other logical operators) which are within their scope. This maxim would explain the preferred readings of (1) and (2):(1) Everyone in the room knows at least two languages.(2) At least two languages are known by everyone in the room.Preferred reading of (1):(Ax(person x & in room) ---> (Ey>(language y & know x, y)))Preferred reading of (2):(Ey> (language y & (Ax((person x & in room x ) ---> (know x,y)))Other examples:There are not three books on the desk.The child will not come back home. → The child won‘t come back home.I can not go there on foot. → I can‘t go there on foot.3.1.4 Application of the Maxims(A) Sentences in English follow the End-weight maxim in their structures.(1)S—V—(A)He laughs best who laughs last.He was sitting on the chair.SNP VPN AUX VPHe was sitting on the chair(2)S—V—O—(A)I want a book.He put his book on the desk.He chose to live on the island for the rest of his life.We should avoid repeating the errors.He proposed that the meeting (should) be postponed.SNP VPN VP NPHe put his book on the desk.(3) S—V—Oi—OdI gave him a book.→ I gave a book to him.He bought his wife some flowers.→ He bought some flowers for his wife.The teacher asked him a question.→ The teacher asked a question of him.SNP VPN VP NPN VP NP NPHe bought his wife some flowers(4) S—V—O—CThe boss told her to type the letter as soon as possible. The boss made her type the letter as soon as possible. I‘ll have him speaking English within three months.We made it clear that the work should be finished in time. SNP VPN VP NPN VP S1 S2We made it clear that …(5) S—V—C(P)He is honest.The snow is becoming heavier and heavier.He is taller than Jim.SNP VPN VP COMPHe is taller than Jim(B) Clauses follow the End-weight maxim. Noun clauses such as:(1) the subject clauses:It is obvious that the burglar has entered the room.It‘s a pity that he should resign.That he won the game made a tremendous stir in our country.It is uncertain whether his family was originally British or American.It is not my business how he chooses to live.How he treated his parents tells us something about his personality.(2) the object clauses:She confessed that she disliked him from the first.We found it heartening that millions of people have the chance to improve their life.(3) the appositive clauses:The fact that smoking has something to do with cancer is known to all.It/The fact is known to all that smoking has something to do with cancer.(4) the predivative clauses:One advantage of solar energy is that it will never run out.The problem is who will water my plants while I am away.The reason why he didn‘t come to class is that/because he caught a cold last night.(5) clauses as adjective complements:I‘m afraid that he can’t afford to buy that apartment.He was not certain what should be done first.Relative clauses such as:(1)Restrictive relative clauses:I can clearly remember the da y on which John was born.No body knows the reason why she refused.There is no tree but bears (=that does not bear) some fruit.There few books but have a misprint or two.We often advise him not to drink more wine than is good for his health.There were more casualties than were reported.The swimming pool in the hotel is as luxurious as is necessary.(2)Non-restrictive relative clauses:He has two daughters, who are college students.He has two daughters who are college students.As is known to all, smoking has something to do with cancer.She is afraid of dogs, which I find strange.He likes taking a walk after supper, which is good to his health.John was admitted into the university, as we had expected.We did not go to the film, instead of which we went to the opera.Such books as are published by that press are nothing but rubbish.The driver was the man from whose room she had stolen the maps.They may be unwilling to lend us the computer, in which case we shall try elsewhere.Adverbial Clauses such as:(1)Adverbial Clauses of Time:when, after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, by the time (that), directly, immediately, during the time, the moment, now (that), once, since, until/till, whenever, while, etc. E.g.Y ou didn‘t look very well when you got up this morning.I pulled a muscle as I was lifting a heavy suitcase.Y ou can keep these records as long as you like.Once you’ve seen one penguin,you‘ve seen them all.He hasn‘t stopped complaining since he got back from his holiday.We always have to wait till/until the last customer has left.Now that we have decorated the house, we can move in.(2)Adverbial Clauses of Place:where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. E.g.Y ou can‘t camp where/wherever/anywhere you like these days.With a special train ticket you can travel wherever/anywhere/Everywhere you like inEurope for just over ￡100.(3)Adverbial Clauses of Manner:as, in the way (that), the way in which, in the same way as, as if, as though, etc. E.g.Type this again as I showed you a moment ago. (i.e. in the way I showed you)This fish isn‘t cooked as I like it. (i.e. in the way I like it.)This steak is cooked just how/the way I like it. (spoken)She‘s behaving (in) the same way her sister used to.She acted as if she were mad.It feels as if it’s going to rain.(4)Adverbial Clauses of Reason:because, as, seeing that since, etc. E.g.As/Because/Since there was very little support, the strike was not successful.(5)Adverbial Clauses of Condition:if, on condition (that), provided (that), providing (that), supposing (that), assuming (that), so/as long as, unless, etc. E.g.If he calls/should call,tell him I‘ll ring back.If you will/would/could wait a moment,I‘ll f etch the money.(6)Adverbial Clauses of Concession:though, although, even though, even if, considering (that), much as, while, whereas, however, no matter how, no matter how much, etc. E.g.Although/Though/Even though I felt sorry for him, I was secretly pleased that he washaving difficulties.While I disapprove of what you say, I would defend to the death your right to say so.Much as like to help,there isn‘t a lot I can do.(7)Adverbial Clauses of Purpose:so that, in order that, in case, lest, for fear (that), etc. E.g.I arrived early so that/in order that I might not miss anything.We‘ve installed an extinguisher next to the cooker in case there is/should be/might be evera fire.I avoided mentioning the subject lest/for fear that he be offended.(8)Adverbial Clauses of Result: so … that, such … that. E.g.He reacts so quickly (that) no one can match him.He is such a marvelous joker (that) you can’t help laughing.(9)Adverbial Clauses of Comparison: as … as, not so … as, than. E.g.He is not so/as quick in answering as his sister is.(10)Adverbial Clauses of Contrast: while, whereas. E.g.I like sports while/whereas she likes music.The Chinese eat their food with chopsticks while/whereas the Europeans eat their foodwith forks and knives.3.1.5 Sentence Structures in Rhetoric(A)Periodic vs. loose:A periodic sentence is one in which the main thought is not completed until the very end of the sentence. Often this type of sentence is more effective than one in which the main thought is given first, followed by one or more modifying clauses or phrases. This is so because, by withholding the key word or words of the sentence until the end, a sense of anticipating is created in te reader. Therefore a periodic sentence is likely to be more emphatic than a sentence with a looser construction. Notice the difference between the loose and periodic construction inthe following examples. In each periodic sentence, the main idea falls at the end.Loose construction The history of English words is the history of our civilization inmany ways.Periodic sentence In many ways, the history of English words is the history of ourcivilization.Loose construction She was offered a professional contract after winning the Olypicgold medal for figure skating, according to newspaper reports.Periodic sentence According to newspaper reports, after winning the Olympic goldmedal for figure skating, she was offered a professional contract.Loose construction There have been many great discoveries made by scientists in thetwentieth century.Periodic sentence Scientists in the twentieth century have made many greatdiscoveries.(B)The comma splice:We couldn‘t decide upon a new car, there were many attractive models.In the above sentence, two independent clauses are connected by a comma. This results in the punctuation error known as the comma splice. Y ou can test for a comma splice by substituting a period for the comma:We couldn‘t decide upon a new car. There were many attractive models.If the two clauses stand alone as separate sentences, then a comma alone cannot correctly join them. If you used a comma to combine two independent clauses into a single compound sentence, the comma must be followed by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor): We couldn‘t decide upon a new car, for there were so many attractive models.A comma splice may be corrected in four ways: (1) Add a coordination conjunction following the comma, (2) Add a subordinating adverb, making the second clause dependent on the first, (3) Add a semicolon, or (4) Add a period, separating the clauses into two sentences.I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling, his strong rhythms appealed to me. (comma splice)Coordinating I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling, for his strong rhythmsconjunction appealed to me.Subordinating I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling because his strong rhythms conjunction appealed to me. Semicolon I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling; his strong rhythmsappealed to me.Period I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling. His strong rhythmsappealed to me.(C)Run-on sentence:The term ―run-on sentence‖ (or ―fused sentence‖) describes two independent clauses run together without any punctuation between them. Such a sentence is even more confusing to a reader than the related error, the comma splice. Because the run-on contains no clues as to how words group together, it can easily be misread. Run-on sentences can be corrected by joining the two clauses with a comma and a conjunction, by inserting a semicolon between the two clauses if they are closely related, or by breaking the sentence into two sentences:Run-on The fruit pickers walked out of the orchards a meeting had beencalled to discuss a possible strike.Comma, conjunction The fruit pickers walked out of the orchards, for a meeting had been inserted called to discuss a possible strike.Run-on Philip wrote steadily for an hour the results were goodSemicolon inserted Philip wrote steadily for an hour; the results were good.Run-on Our first stop in the Far East was Hong Kong there we spent twodays shopping.Two sentences Our first stop in the Far East was Hong Kong. There we spent twodays shopping.(D)ExpletivesAn expletive is a ―filler‖ word (it, there) placed at the beginning of a sentence to allow the subject to appear later in the sentence; it often combines with some form of the be verb. Although an expletive can often work better than any other construction to express an idea, it tends to be overused by English writers. When relied upon unnecessarily, it contributes to wordiness.Normally, expletives are most effectively used in short sentences. Here is an example of an expletive that works well:Why should the government have fallen?There were several reasons.In contrast, here is an example of an unnecessary expletive. Notice that, when it is removed, the sentence contains two fewer words:With expletive There were several advantages to buying a Eurailpass.Expletive removed Buying a Eurailpass offers several advantages.Consider two even more extreme examples of reducing the number of words in a sentence by eliminating expletives: Wordy There are numerous travel agencies that exist throughout the world. (10 words) Shortened Numerous travel agencies exist throughout the world. (7 words)Wordy There are going to be certain parts of your garden that are your favorites for summer time relaxing and entertaining. (18 words)Shortened Certain parts of your garden will be your favorites for summertime relaxing and entertaining. (14 words)4.Textual LevelStructure of an English composition (see diagram 1)4.2 Structure of an English Paragraph4.2.1 The topic sentenceAn English paragraph concentrates on a single or central idea, and all the facts, examples, and reasons used to develop thatidea must be relevant. This central idea is known as a topic sentence.An English paragraph is very different from an Oriental paragraph in that the former usually follows a direct line of development, and the latter, a circular line: (see the attached diagram) English ( ) Oriental ( )4.2.2 Coherence & UnityThe typical straight line of development of an English paragraph is the basis of its particular type of coherence . An English paragraph is coherent when its ideas are clearly related to eachother in orderly sequence. Each sentence in such a paragraph should naturally grow out of each (Diagram 1. The structure of an English composition)previous sentence in developing the central idea.One way to achieve coherence is to arrange details of a paragraph in a systematic way that is appropriate for the subject matter. For example, many writers of English place their supporting details in order of importance, often starting with the leastimportant detail and ending with the most important one. Paragraphs are also developed chronologically(mentioning events in the order they occur in time), spatially (moving from discussing one location to discussing another in some orderly sequence), from the general to the specific, or from the specific to the general.4.2.3 Transitions & SubordinationsIn order to link the relevant and specific ideas together, a writer has to use transitional words. English transitional words are many. Let us take the following for examples:1)for sequential descriptions:first(ly), second(ly), next, finally; one, two; for one thing, and for another; to begin with, then, etc.2)for addition and further descriptions:also, above all, besides, moreover, then, in addition, what ismore, furthermore, etc.3)for apposition and parallel descriptions:namely, for example, that is, that is to say, etc.4)for result:consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus, as a result, etc.5)for similar descriptions:equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way, etc.6)for conclusive descriptions:or (else), otherwise, therefore, then, in that case, etc.7)for alternative descriptions:alternatively, rather, in other words, etc.8)for contrastive descriptions:instead, on the contrary, in contrast, by comparison, on the onehand, (and) on the other hand, etc.9)for contrastive or concessive descriptions:anyhow, anyway, however, nevertheless, still, though, yet, in any case, at any rate, in spite of that, after all, all the same, etc.10)for time descriptions:meanwhile, at the same time, in the meantime, etc.11)for other descriptions:by the way, incidentally, etc.12)for summary:then, all in all, in conclusion, to sum up, in a word, etc.Subordination is the technique of putting together ideas that are unequal in weight so that the relative importance of each will be quickly apparent to the reader. Through subordination, you can focus on the central, or controlling, idea of your sentence by placing it in the independent clause and placing the less important idea in a dependent clause or phrase. There are many ways of forming a subordination in English, subordinators being the most important. (参见：英语句⼦)4.3 The Composition Outline4.3.1 What a developed outline is4.3.2 Why it is fundamental to writing4.3.3 How an outline is thought out4.3.4 The delevopment of a paragraph/composition4.3.4.1 The chronological developmentThe logical way to write about a process is in order of time, or chronologically. A writer begins with the first step in a process and describes the sequence in order until he reaches the last step. This kind of organization can be used in a single paragraph or in a much longer essay. Both factual writing and works of fiction, such as short stories and novels, are often developed chronologically.4.3.4.2 The spatial developmentIf a writer follows a spatial development, details are arranged according to their location and their relationship to each other. Spatial development is especially suited to subject matter dealing with places or areas. Such a development would work well if you were describing a limited interior, such as a classroom or the inside of a submarine; a description might be developed spatially by following the order in which an observer‘s eye would travel around the room—from left to right, or from right to left. Spatial development would also be effective if you were writing about a very broad area, such as the continent of Latin America or the solar system.4.3.4.3 The expository development by examples—by comparison and contrast—by cause and effect—by definition—by logical division5. Writing-Up/Practice5.1.1 Write a paragraph on any topic you are interested in. Pay attention to the topic sentence andsupporting ideas.1)Internet is becoming a dominant element in modern lifeThere is a good side and a bad side to everything --- and that includes the Internet.As the latest product of the “technological revolution”, the Internet has ushered in a new era of global information. Along with its advangtages (conveniences), the Internet, however, has brought mankind new problems (to solve).There is no denying that the Internet can vastly improve the efficiency of scientific research; it allows scientists swift access to all the data and research findings in their fields available worldwide. Moreover, as information is as valuable as any material resources, anyone who has access to the Internet has a competitive advantage in business over those who don‘t. Last but not the least, the Internet has made personal communication both more convenient and more rapid.However, over the advantages of the Internet, its drawbacks should not be neglected. For one thing, the construction of links to the system requires a huge amount of investment. For another, not all the information available on the Internet is either useful or harmless; pornographic items can have bad effect on people, especially on our youngsters.All in all, I would say that the pros outweigh the cons. The Internet, if properly managed, holds the keys to success in the 21st century.2)AdvertisementAdvertisement plays an important role in people‘s life in today‘s society. As a means to promote trade and business, advertisement is helpful and can provide some conveniences for people.Advertisements can help people to sell and buy proper products. Advertisements today appear on televisions, in newspapers or magazines, and even in the large boards on the tall buildings along the streets. Therefore, it is quite convenient for people to get information for the products they want to buy. For the producer‘s part, advertisements can help people know their products better so that people can come and buy their products. In this case, advertisements can promote the selling of products.。
修辞讲义
英语修辞一．交际修辞（communicative rhetoric）1．词语选用（diction）2．句子锤炼（sentence variety）二．美学修辞（aesthetic rhetoric）I. 词语修辞格lexical stylistic devices1.明喻(simile)2.隐喻（暗喻）(metaphor)3.类比(anology)4.拟人(personification)5.移就(transferred epithet or hypallage)6.借代(metonymy)7.通感(synaesthesia)8.夸张(hyperbole)9.矛盾修饰法(Oxymoron)10.反语(irony)11.双关(pun)12.委婉语(euphemism)13.仿拟(parody)II. 结构修辞格（syntactical stylistic devices）1.排比(paralllism)2.对比(antithesis)3.反复(repetiton)4.倒装(anastrophe)5.修辞疑问句(rhetorical question)III. 音韵修辞格(phonetic stylistic devices)1.头韵(allliteration)2.拟声(onomatopoeia)1. 明喻(Simile)1．1 定义Simile与汉语的“明喻"基本对应，所以通常译为“明喻”或“直喻"。
它是就两个不同事物之间的相似点进行对比，用具体的、浅显的和熟知的事物去说明或描写抽象的、深奥的、生疏的事物，以获得生动形象、传神达意的修辞效果。
1．2 明喻的构成特点明喻的构成有三个要素：本体(subject或tenor，被比喻的事物)，喻体(reference或vehicle，用作比喻的事物)和喻词(indicator of resemblance，acknowledging word或simile marker，使本体和喻体发生相比关系的词)。
4.第四章讲义 修辞
第五章修辞第一节修辞概说一、修辞与修辞学我们现在所谓的“修辞”，有三种含义。
鲁迅说：“作文的人，因为不能修辞，于是也就不能达意。
”这里的“修辞”是一个动词，指的是一种活动，运用语言文字来表达思想感情的活动。
为了达到预期的表达效果，根据特定的语言环境，对语言进行选择、加工的过程，就是修辞活动。
例如：（1）原句；从此就看见许多新的先生，听到许多新的讲义。
改句：从此就看见许多陌生的先生，听到许多新鲜的讲义。
（鲁迅《藤野先生》）)（2）原句：我想那隔河的牛女，／定能够骑着牛儿来往。
一改：那隔河的牛郎织女，／定能够骑着牛儿来往。
二改：那隔着河的牛郎织女，／定能够骑着牛儿来往。
(郭沫若《天上的街市》（3）他从破衣袋里摸出四文大钱，放在我手里，见他满手是泥，原来他便用这手走来的。
（鲁迅《孔乙己》）修辞的第二个意思就是指的这种规律，即提高语言表达效果的规律。
是一个名词。
修辞的规律，是客观存在着的，不以人的意志为转移的，它具有普遍的适应性和相对的稳定性。
作为名词运用的“修辞”，有时也是指关于修辞的学问，这是它的第三个含义（修辞学）。
这个意义上的“修辞”，就是“修辞学”。
如我们说：“修辞和语法是两门不同的学问。
”就是用的这个意义。
修辞学，是研究提高语言表达效果的规律的科学。
修辞学是语言学中的一门独立的学科。
它的研究对象是修辞现象，即修辞活动过程中产生的与提高语言表达效果有关的一切言语现象。
根据陈望道先生在《修辞学发凡》的理论，修辞现象有“消极”与“积极”之分。
所谓“消极修辞”，是指为使语言准确、明白、通顺、周密而采取的修辞手法。
如上举例（1）（2）就属此类。
再如：（4）原文：既看不出他们有什么高明的知识，又看不出他们有丰盛细致的感情。
改文；……高深的知识，……丰富细致的感情。
(魏巍：《谁是最可爱的人》)“高明”一般指见解或技能高超，用来写“知识”不够贴切；“高深”，一般指学问、知识、技术的水平高，程度深。
“丰盛”和“丰富”是同义词，但意义上有细微的差别：丰盛词义范围较小，仅指物质方面；丰富，词义范围较大，兼指物质和精神两方面。
修辞学讲义ppt课件
七种意义：语体与情感意义
语体意义：书面语与口头语
女人、女士、女性、妇女、女子、女的
毛泽东《中国人民解放军百万大军横渡长江》：“人民解 放军百万大军，从一千余华里的战线上，冲破敌阵，横渡 长江。西起九江(不含)，东至江阴，均是人民解放军的渡 江区域。” 爷爷老了，下肢也不得力，轻易不下山砍柴了。
情感意义：褒义、贬义和中性词
歧义
多义歧义
梦中人 艺人巩俐加入新加坡籍被批 包公审案：“前夫”与“后夫”
结构歧义
著名航天专家梁启超之子梁思礼做梦也没想到 在自己会在七十大寿刚过不久，在一个阳光照耀 的正午失足跌入六米深的井里。（《扬子晚报》） 没有做不好的事情。 局长的任命引起了轩然大波。 她的针扎得好。/金庸的书我没有。
语素：是最小的语法单位，也就是最小的语音、 语义结合体。自由、半自由及不自由语素。
四部：经史子集的古籍分类方法。
四库全书、丛书、类书、百科全书
七种意义：附属意义
女人：长发、穿裙子、文弱、会烹饪、 好动感情、唧唧喳喳、富有同情心 百科全书：大部头、权威 汽车：铁皮、四个轮子、多排座 “望梅止渴”
消除歧义的方法：语音、上下文、语境、情理
语义的消极修辞
避免相同词语的重复出现
文天祥《指南录后序》：“使北营，留北关外，为一卷； 发北关外，历吴门、毗陵，渡瓜洲，复还京口，为一卷； 脱京口，趋真州、扬州、高邮、泰州、通州，为一卷； 自海道至永嘉、来三山，为一卷。” 王维《桃源行》：“渔舟逐水爱山春，两岸桃花夹古津。 坐看红树不知远，行尽青溪不见人。”
七种意义：文化意义
贺知章《咏柳》：“碧玉妆成一树高， 万条垂下绿丝绦。不知细叶谁裁出，二月春风似剪刀。” 柳永《雨霖铃》：“杨柳岸，晓风残月。” 狗：狗仗人势、狐朋狗党、落水狗、哈巴狗、走狗
修辞手法详细讲解ppt课件
28
比喻和比拟的不同在于
⑴从意义上看，比喻的重点在“喻”，
即“比方”，它突出的是两事物的相似
点；比拟的重点则在“拟”，即“比作、
当作”，它直接把甲当乙来描述。
⑵从形式上看，比喻的喻体往往以 名词性词语的形式出现，表示一种实 体。比拟中起比拟作用的部分则是描 述性的，其表现形式为动词性词语或 形容性词语。
（2）这也不足为奇。那时候的水井差不多
全是这样的，凿那窝儿是为了掏井工人上下
方便，这又说得上什么秘密呢？（用肯定的
形式表示否定）
21
反问的作用
语气强烈，具有无可辩驳 的力量；能激发读者感情， 给读者造成深刻的印象。
22
难点 重点
分析
23
◆借喻与借代
区别借喻和借代可以从以下三个方面着手
1.借喻的本质是“相似”，喻体之间即
对偶的上下句一般忌用相同的词语（宽对 不那么严格）；
4.排比一般只表示相近或相关的意思，
对偶则表达相对、相反或相连的意思。 33
◆设问与反问
反问和设问都是无疑而问，但有明显区别
（1） 反问明确地表示肯定或否定的内容； 设问则不表示肯定什么或否定什么。 （2）反问主要是加强语气，用强烈的反问语 气表明作者的思想；设问主要是提出问题， 引起读者的注意，启发读者思考。
（3）风声雨声读书声，声声入耳； 家事国事天下事，事事关心
8
（4）赤道弯弓能射虎， 椰林匕首敢屠龙。（叶剑 英《远望》
（5）我们含泪伫立桔子洲头， 漫步湘江峭 岸；回清水塘， 登岳麓山，徘徊板仓小径， 依恋韶山故园……万千思绪， 随山移水转。 （毛岸青、邵华《我们爱韶山红杜鹃》） （6）惨象， 已使我们目不忍睹；流言，尤 使我们耳不忍闻。（鲁迅《记念刘和珍君） （7）人人握灵蛇之珠， 家家抱荆山之玉。 风靡云蒸， 阵容齐整。条件具备了，华罗庚 做出了部署。（徐迟《哥德巴赫猜想》）
现代汉语修辞学PPT课件
3、书面语比较讲究语言规范，注意句子的加工，有时沿
用一些文言句式。
.
41
感谢大家的聆听
是 检
进 行
文章境，因提高我们的的阅读欣下赏水平 验 言
因素
关
文
修语
素有
系
语
辞活
和两
境
效动
.
14
有人说：“修辞就是咬文嚼字，修 辞就是雕琢词句、卖弄文字技巧。” 这种说法对吗？
这种看法是不对的，修辞研究的 虽然是语言的表达形式，但是语 言的表达形式是为思想内容服务 的，这里的原则仍然是内容决定 形式，形势和内容要完美地统 一。因此，它同片面地讲究形 式美，单纯的追求华丽辞藻的
.
9
修辞同词汇的关系
词汇为词语的筛选锤炼、 为形成具体的修辞方式提 供必要条件，几乎所有修 辞方式都同词语有关，如： 语义相关、反语……
.
10
修辞同语法的关系
修辞同语法的关系更为密 切，合乎语法是讲究修辞 的先决条件。
.
11
对修辞 来说：
语言三要素 是修辞的手 段和基础， 也是修辞要 调动、加工 的语言材料。
对语言三要素来说
小 结
修辞是对他们的综合的艺 术加工，是他们的高级体现
.
12
4、修辞的作用和学习 修辞的目的
.
13
学习修辞的作用：
客方构 更情 和语 果的
观面成 为景 情境 的依语
——
语 情 密语 景一 依据境
境 景 切境 语般 据，既
• 因可以主提语高表达效跟果 境 分 。 也 是
•
素可以观语帮境的助我们正修 辞确地两 种理解为 上别人的
修辞手法语文知识讲义
修辞手法知识讲义一、修辞的概念及分类：概念：修辞是修饰文字词句，运用各种表现方式，使语言表达得准确，鲜明而生动有力。
狭义：运用修辞格(修辞手法）来增强语言的表达效果。
广义：在语言运用中，针对特定的表达内容，选择恰当的表现形式，对语言材料进行选择、调整和组合的过程就是修辞（大修辞）。
大修辞：1 语音修辞：富于节奏，语音和谐。
——对偶、排比、反复、顶真、回环等；联绵词、叠音词、押韵、平仄变化；2 词语修辞：词语的选择与锤炼。
——炼字；词语超常搭配；比喻、借代、比拟、夸张、通感、双关、仿词等；3 语句修辞：句子的选择、组合与锤炼。
——句序调整（倒装等）；句子组合（整散句、长短句等）；句式选择（反问句、设问句等）。
二、常用修辞手法一）、比喻：1、概念：就是“打比方”，即两种不同性质的事物，彼此有相似点，便用一事物来比方另一事物的一种修辞格。
2、结构：一般由三部分组成，即本体（被比喻的事物）喻体（作比喻的事物）比喻词（比喻关系的标志性词语）3、构成比喻必须具备的条件：（一）甲和乙必须是本质不同的事物，否则不能构成比喻。
一个句子是不是比喻，不能单看有没有喻词，下列几处情况，虽有喻词，但不是比喻。
①同类相比。
例如：他长得很像他哥哥。
②表示猜度。
例如：他刚才好像出去了。
③表示想象。
例如：每当看到这条红领中，我就仿佛置身于天真灿漫的少年时节。
④表示举例的引词。
例如：本次考试很多同学的进步很大，像张昊、李疏桐等等。
（二）甲乙之间必须有相似点。
4、种类：（1）明喻：本体、喻体都出现，中间用比喻词“像、好像、似、仿佛、犹如、如”等联结。
例如：叶子出水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙。
（2）暗喻：本体、喻体都出现，中间可用比喻词“是、成了、变成、化作、当作”等联结，有时不用比喻词。
例如：更多的时候，乌云四合，层峦叠蟑。
（3）借喻：本体、比喻词不出现，喻体出现。
例如：忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开。
比喻的种类：明喻暗喻借喻<1>明喻(甲象乙) 例:共产党象太阳。
修辞学讲义
修辞学讲义修辞学是一门研究修辞方式、体裁、结构、语法、及修辞效果的学科，其目的是在文学创作和演讲中通过形式上的使用鼓励思想和情感的传达。
修辞学嵌入于言语之中，是言语表达的一门技术，包括一系列宗旨、目的、原则和技巧，可以使文章写作或演讲更具有艺术性和效果性。
二、修辞学的概念修辞学涉及到语言中许多因素，包括词汇、句子结构、句子长度、意义和文字的组织形式等等。
其宗旨是使用技术来提升言语表达的艺术性和力量。
核心概念有：1.用修辞法来扩展传播：修辞学提供了句子、转折、定义和比喻等技术，以此来表达更多的意义，从而扩大影响面。
2.不同的方式改变文学体验：例如用正反对比来强调重点，利用和谐韵来让语句更加优美，使用拟人来增加感染力，等等。
3.善演讲和文字的质量：可以采用演绎、直接、朴实等多种方式，把文字内容转换成具有说服力的文章。
三、修辞学的历史修辞学的发展始于古希腊早期，那时学者们在研究中强调了修辞技巧的重要性，并开发出了一系列的修辞法。
他们指出，修辞是文学创作的核心，文章的艺术性应该在句子技巧运用上得到充分体现，句子和结构要遵循一定的原则，否则会影响文章的质量和效果。
此后，修辞学在古希腊和古罗马文化中得到进一步发展。
古希腊和古罗马学者们研究修辞学，建立起修辞学理论体系，对其有着深刻理解和系统思考，产生了许多伟大的著作，深深影响着文学形式及文学思想的发展。
四、修辞学的重要性修辞学的重要性可以从文章的实际效果中发现。
一篇文章，如果没有修辞技巧的运用，句子可能会比较生硬，文章艺术性低，而且可能无法使读者感受到作者的思想和情感。
相反，一篇文章，如果多次使用修辞技巧，可以展示文章优美的结构，帮助读者更好地理解作者的观点，也可以使文章更具抒情性。
修辞学不仅是文章写作，演讲等言语表达的技巧，也是历史发展中的一种艺术。
修辞学由古希腊和古罗马早期的文学里发展出来，影响着文学的发展。
它的出现，提高了文章表达的艺术性，增强了文章的力量，使言语表达更深刻鲜明，更有感染力。
修辞学讲义
修辞学讲义
一、修辞学
修辞学是一门研究语言传达信息的艺术形式的学科。
它既研究传达信息的形式，也研究传达过程中的文学手段。
修辞学是一种关于文学艺术手法的研究，它可以提高作者表达的效率，加强语言的表现力，通过传达深刻的意义，使文学更加有力。
修辞学不仅仅详细分析文学手法，还对文学手法的使用进行探索，加强文学手法的表现力，从而达到文学作品艺术性的最大化。
二、主要分析内容
1、修辞方式：
（1）比喻：说明被比喻内容的相似性，形象化地表达深刻的意义，把深奥难解的事物阐释得清晰易懂，以令人印象深刻的方式展现信息。
（2）对比：对两个对象和事物进行对比，使得比较的对象更加突出，从而表达深刻的意义和独特的思考。
（3）讽刺与嘲讽：通过讽刺和嘲讽表达，引起读者的思考，从而深化其理解，但是要小心使用，以免加重作品艺术性。
（4）拟喻：通过比较，将高大与光明象征性的对象拟合堆叠用语，表达理解，谱写出风格高雅、抒情优美的文学作品。
（5）重复：展示思想的完整性，強化作者的意图。
2、修辞技巧
（1）游戏性：主要功能是扩大作品丰富性，营造新颖多样的文学性和视觉性效果，增强作品艺术性。
（2）押韵：押韵能够处理句子对称，增强句子表达效果，凸显作者的美感。
（3）通假字：用两个通假字开头或者结尾，明确思想目标，使句子更加紧凑和有力度。
（4）引用：引用外部文本赋予作品更多信息，提升幽默感和韵味，增加作品的阅读价值。
（5）修辞特点：有表达修辞，富于形象和艺术感，传达深刻的意义，使得作品的文学性更加丰富，思想更加丰富，现实意义更强烈。
三、修辞学的重要性
修辞学关注的是文字的传达，它是文字的艺术，。
修辞学讲稿52-6..
绪论第一节修辞概说一、“修辞”的定义何为“修辞”? 最早把“修”、“辞”二字连起来作为一个词来使用的，是《周易》的《乾·文言》：君子进德修业。
忠信，所以进德也；修辞立其诚，所以居业也。
这是我国汉语修辞学史上第一次出现“修辞”术语。
当然，这一术语的内涵与现代修辞学所说的“修辞”不同。
如唐代的孔颖达说：“修辞立其诚，所以居业者，辞为文教，诚谓诚实也；外则修理文教，内则立其诚，内外相成，则有功业可居，故云居业也。
”新加坡学者郑子瑜曾据此说：“孔氏‘以修理文教’释‘修辞’，这《易经》里的‘修辞’和我们现在所说的‘修辞’不同。
”然而“修辞立其诚”的理沧却与我国传统修辞学存在着渊源关系。
后人曾将它引申为修辞的原则。
如宋代的王应麟说：“修辞立其诚，修其内则为诚，修其外则为巧言。
”郭绍虞也说“修辞立其诚”，就是“立言要重在诚”，等等。
许慎《说文解字》云：“修，饰也。
”又解：“辞，说也。
”这从语义上点明修辞即修饰言辞。
所以我们以为《文言》所说的“修辞”，确有“立言”含义。
别的姑且不论，仅从《论语》中便可得到佐证。
如；。
为命，裨谌草创之，世叔讨论之，行人子羽修饰之，东里子产润色之。
”(《宪问》)这是孔子对其斟酌文辞的赞赏。
可见，要求言辞和文辞通达流畅，尤重外交辞令的推敲琢磨，已成为当时的风尚。
王应麟的“巧言说”是持之有据，言之成理的。
所以，依据事物发展的基本规律来理解这“修辞”的蕴义，就以放眼于宏观、立足于广义为好。
《周易·乾·文言》所指的“修辞”是建立在“进德修业”的儒家道德和功业基础上的，其虽泛指“修理文教”，却也包含修身言教和应对四方等内容。
这和孔子的学诗立言和用诗从政的思想相吻合，包括了“修饰文辞”的含义在内。
陈望道先生在《修辞学发凡》一书中总结为：广狭两义：(甲)狭义，以为修当作修饰解，辞当作文辞解，修辞就是修饰文辞；(乙)广义，以为修当作调整或适用解，辞当作语辞解，修辞就是调整或适用语辞。
修辞学课件
• 5.言语机制修辞研究将成为新的热点。 • 6.人机对话修辞 从对人脑修辞机制的 探索转到电脑操作，可望在晚些时候对 人机对话和机器翻译中的修辞问题有所 助益。 • 7.信息修辞 本世纪的修辞研究将更适 应信息时代的需要。 • 8.言语修养 对提高群众言语修养的研 究，在相当长时间内将是本世纪修辞研 究关注的重点。
• 三、对外汉语修辞学的研究目的和任务 • 从对比角度总结、归纳、阐释各种修辞手 段、修辞方法的结构、功能，侧重点在于 那些在修辞交际中容易引起误解的方面。 其目的是为了揭示汉语修辞手段、修辞方 法的民族性。 • 对外汉语修辞学所概括的主要是跨文化汉 语交际的原则和规律，目的是为对外修辞 学教学服务，既要帮助学生把话语表达得 正确、准确、适切、恰切，也要帮助学生 把话语理解得准确、透彻。
• • • •
二、修辞学的范围 修辞学 修辞哲学 边缘修辞学：语境学、语体学、文风学、 风格学、信息修辞学、控制修辞学、 社 会修辞学
• 三、辞学的地位、作用 • （一）修辞学有助于人们的说和写的效 果，也有助于人们提高听和读的能力。 • 子贡曰：‚出言陈辞，身之得失，国之 安危也。‛……主父偃曰：‚人而无辞， 安所用之。‛昔子产修其辞而赵武致其 政，王孙满明其言而楚庄以惭，苏秦行 其说而六国以安，蒯通陈其说而身得以 全。夫辞者乃所以尊君重身，安国全性 者也，故辞不可不修，说不可不善。 （汉· 刘向《说苑· 善说》）
• 六、对外汉语修辞学
• 一、定义：对外汉语修辞学是在中外修 辞主体依据汉文化语境，有意识、有目 的地建构和理解话语，以取得理想的交 际效果的一种跨文化言语交际行为。 • 二、特点： • 1.跨文化性 如“欧元 ” （EURO） / 杜卡托”（DUCAT）或“弗罗林” （FLORIN） • 2.民族性 如“送钟”、“您老 ”、 “茶”、“男（女）朋友 ”
修辞学讲义-2
Chapter Two Communicative(Passive) RhetoricThree levels of rhetorical operationRhetoric involves choice of words, sentence patterns, figures of speech, organization of paragraphs and composition. This process can be broken into three basic levels: Level One: words and phrasesLevel Two: sentence varietyLevel Three: organizing paragraphs into a complete textChoice of Words●Using suitable wordsCharacteristic of English vocabulary: include over a half-million words, and thousands of new ones are added every year.Principles of choosing words: To communicate our ideas precisely and effectively, we should choose the right words that are exact, fresh, vivid, and appropriate.◆Choose the most appropriate words:✧Mother Teresa is notorious for her work with the poor and sick in India.✧Because he did not know either party, the arbitrator was able to take an uninterestedview of the dispute.✧The businessperson has upheld a reputation for deception and deceit.◆Be aware of the audience or readers and suit to the occasion:✧Jack's house was destroyed by fire. Jim went to comfort him and asked him tocontact the insurance company. "Cheer up, my friend," he said, "your insuranceclaim will be proceeding like a house on a fire, I'm sure."●Denotation and connotationDefinitions◆Denotation is the specific, direct, and literal meaning of a word, as described in adictionary definition. It is also called denotative meaning or explicit meaning.✧ A man was killed and his son was seriously injured in an automobile accident. Theboy was rushed to a hospital. The surgeon took one look at him and said, "This ismy son! I can't operate on him!"◆Connotation is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word. It often implies attitudes,emotions, etc. of the speaker or writer, and is also called implicit meaning.✧"Proverb" would be the appropriate word to use in reference to saying from theBible.✧"Saw" is often used in reference to the wisdom handed down to us anonymously.✧"Epigram" is often used in reference to a witty statement.Words may have positive and negative connotations✧She has a slender figure.✧She looked thin after her illness.✧The child has skinny, freckled legs with prominent knees.✧The old horse was bony.Words have historical and social connotations✧It may yet compound the misery of Iraq in the same way Watergate followedVietnam.✧The old man is in the twilight of his career.Words have personal and general connotations✧Mother, home, peace, liberty✧Miser, radical, reactionary●General words and specific wordsDefinitions: general words refer to a group or class; specific words refer to a member of that class.✧Eiseley wrote about people prominent in science.✧Eiseley wrote about Darwin, Einstein and Franklin.✧They were specially concerned with astronomy.✧They were specially concerned with the solar system.2) Proprieties in writing or speaking specifically or generally The specific words tend togive color and tang, tend to appeal to the imagination. General words often used for thesake of diplomacy. Good writing or speaking has both general and specific information.✧He saw a ship/liner/ brig/ bark/ tank/ cargo steamer on the horizon.✧Some employees have been tying up the office phones with personal call.3) Approaches to write or speak in a specific way:◆Choosing words that bring about specific instead of vague ideas✧She uses simplicity in her style of writing.✧She writes with plain words and simple sentence patterns.✧The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities a great deal.✧The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities by 30 percent.◆Listing specific details✧Near the water there was a big tree that was rather impressive.✧On the edge of the pond, at the far side, there was an enormous walnut tree(胡桃树)，standing like an open umbrella whose ribs(枝干)extended halfway across thestill water of the pool.◆Using illustrative examples✧In this century, the president is much more cut off from contact with the peoplethan in earlier times. Ordinary citizens, for example, could get to see AbrahamLincoln directly in the White House and make their requests to him in person.●Abstract words and concrete wordsDefinitions: A concrete word has an object as its referent, while an◆abstract word，a concept. For example, peach, pear, apple and apricot are concrete words.Sweetness, fuzziness and softness are abstract words because they refer to certainqualities or certain concepts or ideas.◆Relationship between abstract/ concrete words and general/specific words:Abstract words and general words usually do not overlap. But this is not the case with concrete words and specific words. Words that refer to particular objects and particular actions are usually both concrete or specific.◆Both abstract/general words and concrete/specific words have their own advantages:●Long words and short words1) From a stylistic point of view, words that are often used may be divided into threetypes: formal, common, and colloquial words. Long words often refer to the formalwords and some common words, while short words often refer to colloquial words andsome common words.✧(1)a. If you wish to cash a cheque, please let us know well before youleave.✧ b. In order to substantiate our desire to accommodate our guests,we would appreciate your co-operation in anticipating your creditrequirements before your departure.Formal words also called learned words or big words mainly appear in formal writing, such as scholarly or theoretical writing, political and legal documents, and formallectures. Most of formal words are of Greek, Latin or French origin. Except for specialpurpose formal words are seldom used in daily conversation. So, we must useappropriate words according to the formality of the situation.✧According to a Native American myth, the Great Creator had dog hanging aroundwith him when he created the earth.✧ b. According to a Native American myth, the Great Creator was accompanied by adog when he created the earth.✧I've gotta be in court at nine on Tuesday morning. For sure I won't be back in timefor Walker's bio test. Hope the old guy lets me take a makeup.✧Excuse me, sir. I have to be in court next Tuesday and so I have to be absent fromthe biology test. Would it be possible for me to take it at some later time?I Questions1. What is the relationship between denotation and connotation? Give examples to prove that words have denotative and connotative meanings.2. What are the rhetorical functions of general words and specific words in our writing and speaking. Show examples to support your point.3. What are the rhetorical functions of abstract words and concrete words in our writing and speaking? Show examples to support your point.II Choose the correct word(s) to complete each sentence.I. The _________( preceding / proceeding ) message was brought to us by General Motors.2. He says he would write an English course book if he could find a(n)______ _( accomplice/ collaborator ) to deal with the 1ess interesting parts.3. The whole audience was ______( affected/infected ) by her sad story and many burst into tears.4. If you put too many potatoes in that bag, it will ( burst /crack ),5. For many years, Mark has been suffering from the (delusion / illusion) that he is a great man.6. I cannot _________( tolerate/suffer) any more of your nonsense.1. Changing from solid to liquid, water takes in heat from all substances near it, and this _______ (transition/absorption) produces artificial cold surrounding it.8, I didn't say anything like that at all. You are purposely ____( revising/ distorting) my ideas to prove your point.9. I ( acknowledge /express ) with thanks the help of my colleagues in the preparation of this new column.My uncle went to the police station to (claim/ demand) the lost watch.。
第1讲 记叙文阅读1——修辞手法 -2024-2025学年七年级语文上册专题复习讲义(统编版)
第一讲记叙文阅读——修辞手法【知识梳理】一、修辞手法通过修饰、调整语句，运用特定的表达形式以提高语言表达效果的方式或方法。
二、复习（1）比喻①定义：用某些有类似特点的事物来比拟想要说的某一事物。
②结构：本体（被比喻的事物）、喻词（表示比喻关系的词语）、喻体（打比方的事物）。
③分类：A.明喻：本体、喻词和喻体同时出现。
常用的喻词有：像、好像、好似、如、有如、如同、恰似、仿佛……例子：他（本体）动也不动，彷如（喻词）石像（喻体）。
B.暗喻：本体、喻体同时出现，但用“是”“成”“成为”“变为”等系词代替“像”一类的喻词。
例子：母亲啊！你（本体）是荷叶（喻体），我（本体）是红莲（喻体）。
C.借喻：借喻是比喻中的高级形式，运用它时要求本体与喻体的关系十分密切，所以在特定的语境中，由喻体就可以直接领会到本体。
例子：世界的东方站着一个雄狮（喻体）。
④作用：_______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________（2）拟人①定义：把事物人格化，将本来不具备人动作和感情的事物变成和人一样具有动作和感情的样子。
②作用：_______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________（3）夸张①定义：运用丰富的想象力，在客观现实的基础上有目的地放大或缩小事物的形象特征，以增强表达效果的修辞手法。
②分类：A.扩大夸张：故意把客观事物说得“大、多、高、强、深……”的夸张形式。
第1讲修辞概说1
《毛诗序》的诞生是一件大事。它最早提出了诗有“六义”’即风、雅、颂、赋、比、兴。赋、比、兴作为三种不同的修辞手法，引起人们的注意。但《毛诗序》对此未作出具体说明。以后郑玄在《周礼注》中作了解释。他认为“赋之言铺，直铺陈今之政教善恶”；他还引了郑众的话来解释比兴：‘比者，比方于物也；兴者，托事于物也”。这种解释对后代影响很大。
魏文帝曹丕的《典论．论文》是我国最早谈论文体风格的著作，文章虽短，却很重要。
晋代陆机《文赋》的修辞理论，比起‘典论．论文》来，还要详细而系统些。例如在内容与形式的关系上，它阐述了内容是主干、形式是枝叶的观点，认为“意”是主要的“文”占第二位。如果“意不称物”，必然“文不逮意”。但他又强调了文采的重要，在指出文章的要务是“辞达”、“理举’，必须讲究通顺晓畅的同时，也论述了警策、比喻等表达技巧。文章后半部分强调技巧多了一些，强调内容不够，倒显得有些不足。他提出的文章音节必须和谐的观点对后人很有启发。
其次，王充提出了语文要通俗易懂、言文必须一致的观点。
先秦两汉在我们修辞学史上可以称萌芽时期，对后代修辞理论的发展起到了开创、先导作用。其中有不少关于修辞理论的探讨。如王逸《楚辞章句》：
《离骚》之文，依《诗》取兴，引类譬喻，故善鸟香草以配忠贞，恶禽臭物以比谗佞，灵脩美人以媲于君，宓妃佚女以譬贤臣，虬龙鸾凤以托君子，飘风云霓以为小人。
大家都叫她“朱二姨”。（借代）
以下几例都是夸张，但是夸张的程度不同，表达的效果也不同。
她长得五官都错了位。（夸张）
看她一眼三天不想吃饭。（夸张）
她丑得可以去当吓唬乌鸦的稻草人。（夸张）
她要是去当稻草人，准把所有的乌鸦都吓跑了。（夸张）
第五章修辞资料讲解
云彩，阳光，猎猎红旗，峨峨雕像。你 左手抱花束，右手握钢枪；肩上的披风，征 尘未洗，双目如电，正视前方……
(二)音节组合的主要法
1．选择音节数不同的同义词 因为胜利，我们的骄傲情绪……可能生
现代汉语中的声调配合
❖ 现代韵文一般不管句中音节的平仄，只讲究句末音 节的平仄
❖ 现代散文也应适当注意平仄。 ❖ 老舍先生说：“在汉语中，字分平仄。调动平仄，
在我们的诗词形式发展上起过不小的作用。我们今 天既用散文写戏，自然就容易忽略了这一端，只顾 写话，而忘了注意声调之美。其实，即使写散文， 平仄的排列也还该考究。”(《戏话浅论》)
五、节奏的把握
❖ 郭沫若在《论节奏》中谈到：“大概先扬后 抑的节奏，便沉静我们。先抑后扬的节奏， 便鼓舞我们。这是一定的公例，钟声是先扬 后抑的，初扣的时候顶强，曳着的袅袅的余 音渐渐微弱下去。海涛的声音是先抑后扬， 初起的时候从海心渐渐卷动起来，愈卷愈快， 卷到岸头来，‘拍’(啪)的一声打成粉碎。因 为有这样的关系，所以我们听钟声和听海涛 的心理完全是两样。”
长。……务必使大家继续地保持谦虚、谨慎、 不骄、不躁的作风……。 2、变单音节为多音节的方法 ❖ 附加法 ❖ 重叠法
3．变多音节双音节为单音节的方法
❖ 简缩词语 中国少年先锋队——少先队 大学中学小学——大、中、小学 江西北部——赣北 北京到九龙的铁路——京九铁路
❖ 数目字概括 “三好”学生 实现“四化” “五个一”工程 五讲四美三热爱 “五四三”办公室 “双百”方针
❖ 汉语的元音，有的响亮，有的柔和，有的雄壮，有 的细弱。如ang、eng和a韵比较响亮，ao、ai、ou 韵比较柔和，前者宜于表现雄壮激昂的情绪，而后 者适宜抒发温婉细腻的情感。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
修辞学的手段
• 语言手段：
语音、语义、语法 显性与潜性（游龄、有机可乘） 超语言
• 逻辑手段：
相似、相关 超逻辑
修辞学的原则和研究方法
• 修辞的前提：规范和真实 • 构成原则：内容：适意（准确与模糊）
语言学 （语音、词汇、语法、语用） 逻辑学
修辞学与写作学
• 写作的基本规律：
• 三阶段：“二重转化规律”
即 物（采集）→意（构思）→文（表述） → → • 六环节 感知→立意→选材→构思→起草→修改 六环节：
• 写作四法：
言之有理、言之有物、言之有序、言之有文 • 汪曾祺：《虐猫》的结尾，人性的回归。 《职业》椒盐饼子西洋糕——捏着鼻子吹洋号 将其他叫卖声的加入，主题扩展成人世艰辛。
言外语境：场景
•言外语境：主要指场景和视点。 •场景：
1848年，大英帝国的维多利亚女王和她的表哥阿尔伯特 公爵结了婚，和女王同岁的阿尔伯特比较喜欢读书， 不大喜欢社交，对政治也不大关心。 有一次，女王敲门找阿尔伯特。“谁？”里面问道。 “英国女王。”女王回答道。 门没有开。敲了好几次以后，女王突然感觉到了什么， 又敲了几下，用温柔的语气说：“我是你的妻子，阿尔伯特。” 这时，门开了。
• 《庄子·外物》:
“筌者所以在鱼，得鱼而忘筌；蹄者所以在兔， 得兔而忘蹄；言者所以在意，得意而忘言。”
• 《老子》:
“道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。” 语言的局限在于它的离散性、一维性、有限性 比如颜色、电影艺术、Vitas、 万川印月
言语的传递
• 传递失真
• 不在场交际：鲁鱼亥豕 • 在场交际：《新五官争功》
祝寿文集
言外语境：场景
•川剧《秋江》
艄公：“姑姑你贵姓？”陈妙常：“我姓陈。” “咳！咳！说不得呀！” “当真姓陈呀！” “哎！我们青龙背上就忌讳这个字。”“噢！你喊我们这个姓啥子咧？” “我们喊老炎。” “哎呀！多不好听嘛！” “管他好听不好听，只要避开这个字眼就对了啥！姑姑你 是翘腿吗？是耳东？是禾口？” “我是耳东。”
交际活动的过程
语境
言语 受话人
发话人
交际活动的构成
交际活动流程：表达内容（编码）言语（传递） 交际活动流程：表达内容（编码）言语（传递） 言语′（解码） 言语 （解码）接受内容
言语行为
• 言语是一种交际行为，有其 目的，承担交际任务 言语行为的类型（按其功用）：
1）阐述言语：描述、说明、抒情等。 2）使令言语：建议、请求、命令、询问等。 3）表态言语：允许、否决、拒绝、承诺等。 4）行为言语：宣布、裁定等。
语境的作用
• 言语是交际行为，与语境相关
• 言语的目的 “您多大了？” ——“属马的。” “结婚了吧？” ——“孩子都打酱油了。” “爱人是做什么的？” ——“你是查户口的？” • 语境与言语意义的生成 “下雨了。” （干旱、准备出行、忘带伞、要收衣服等等） • 前提的影响 “您身体不好，以后少喝点酒。” “你很性感！”
交际活动的前提
•几个来自不同国家的商人正在一艘航行的商船 上聚会，船突然触礁，开始下沉。大副去说服这些商人让他们 穿上救生衣跳海，不久垂头丧气的回来向船长报告，他们 死活也不肯跳海。于是船长出马，不一会儿就满意的回来了。 大副惊奇的询问船长用了什么办法。船长说：“我首先告诉 英国人跳海是一项运动，他一听完就跳了下去，然后我对 法国人说这是一件很时髦的事，对德国人说这是命令， 对意大利人说这是禁止干的。对美国人说，我们已经为他买了保险了。” •马夫人说道：“天上月亮这样圆，又这样白。”萧峰明知天上 乌黑密布，并无月亮，还是抬头一看，寻思：“今日是初二， 就算有月亮，也决不会圆，她说这话是什麽意思？”只听阿朱道： “到得十五，月亮自然又圆又亮，唉，只可惜马兄弟却再也见不到了。” 马夫人道：“你爱吃咸的月饼，还是甜的？”萧峰更是奇怪， 心道：”马夫人死了丈夫，神智有些不清楚了。” 阿朱道：” 我们 做叫化子的，吃月饼还能有什麽挑剔？找不到真凶，不给马兄弟 报此大仇，别说月饼，就是山珍海味，入口也是没半分滋味。“
•金庸北大讲演：
我今年春天去过绍兴，到兰亭王羲之以前写字的地方。 那里的人要我写字，我说在王羲之的地方怎么可以写字呢？ 但他们非要我写不可，我只好写了八个字：“班门弄斧， 兰亭挥毫。”班门弄斧很狂妄，在兰亭挥毫就更加狂妄了。 这次到北大，说好要作两次演讲，我自己写了 十六个字：“班门弄斧，兰亭挥毫，草堂题诗……” 在大诗人杜甫家里题诗，第四句是：“北大讲学。”
交际活动的前提
•交际者的“前理解”：视界 与交际者相关的历史、文化、环境、心理、语言 等方面的因素同言语一样构成交际者之间的联系。 •视界交融： 受话人的任务是让自己的现在视界与发话人的 视界叠合、交融，形成一个新的视界，从而完成 理解。
※黄宗英《小丫扛大旗》：她一见秀敏就说：“秀敏同志， 你那发言稿哪？”“啥？啥镐？”“讲话的镐。”“讲话还带镐？” “不用稿也得有个提纲吧？”“啥缸？” “拿张纸把你要说的内容大概写下来，提防忘了，说溜了。” 秀敏一听说“写”，愣了。她抗着脖子：“我不会写。” ※盲人摸象
修辞学的定义
• 修辞学，是研究提高语言表达 效果的语言科学。 • 只研究语言问题，手势、表情、书 写的行款、版式等非语言手段不是修 辞学研究对象。 • 思想内容也不属于修辞学研究范围。
“东方歌舞一枝花，决心学习亚非拉。 党的话儿记心间，誓把青春（一生） 献给她。”
修辞学与相关学科
写作学 阐释学 修辞学
言外语境：视点
•视点：
•《北京晚报》：“34年前寄求职信， 34年后通知面谈”
• 杜牧《江南春》：“千里莺啼绿映红，水村山郭
酒旗风。南朝四百八十寺，多少楼台烟雨中。” 杨慎《升庵诗话》：“千里莺啼，谁人听得？ 千里绿映红，谁人见得？若做十里，…皆在其中矣。” 何文焕：“余谓即作十里，亦未必听得着看得见。 题云《江南春》，江南方广千里，…此诗之意， 意谓广不得专指一处，故总而名曰 《江南春》，诗家善立题者也。”
语境：言内语境
•语境：言内语境与言外语境 •言内语境即上下文。 《一个章子怡胜过万本孔子》
“现在都说20世纪全球文化输出中心是美国，一个很核心的问题 就是20世纪是一个美国梦的时代……中国现在的经济成长也很好， 这个高速成长也可以打造出一个中国梦，要创造出一套对中国梦 的文化想象，章子怡就是。这个小姑娘小时候看电影肯定也觉得 那些好莱坞明星都不可企及，但现在，所有的大明星都在电影节 上跟她平起平坐，这些大明星们都对她说：‘你是未来之星。’ 这就是中国梦。世俗文化的能力是非常重要的，是一种低端、 丰富的文化资源。传统文化的精髓要通过大众文化的出口才能 流传出去。” “一个姚明，一个章子怡，比一万本孔子都有效果。《大长今》 就是韩国把低端和高端的文化打通的一个好例子。所以，要像 重视孔子一样重视章子怡，中国文化才会有未来。”
言语行为作用过程：成言—施事—取效 言语行为取效的方式：直接与间接
表达的内容
• 表达的对象：
物理世界——感知 心理世界——思维（形象与抽象） 情绪与情感 意愿与态度 表达方式：言语（记叙、描写、说明 议论、抒情） 认知方式：认识、体验、理解
交际的媒介
• 《周易·系辞上》：
“子曰:‘书不尽言,言不尽意。’”
• 古希腊 《修辞学》 亚里士多德（B.C.384-322） • 中世纪欧洲 “七艺”之一
修辞、文法、逻辑、算术、几何、天文、音乐
古典修辞学的内容：1）演讲，包括法学、议政和宣德演讲； 2）心理和听众分析； 3）演讲的准备步骤，包括觅材取材、布局谋篇、文体风格、 记忆和演讲技巧
• 唐钺《修辞格》（1923） 陈望道《修辞学发凡》（1932）
阐释学：理解
• 理解的层次
1）言语义（语言义） 2）表达义 3）蕴含义 • 举例：失约误时者的话：“塞车了。” 第一个层次：交通拥挤。 第二个层次：用来解释失约的原因。 第三个层次：说话者的内心：歉意或是推诿， 或是不经心和无所谓（从前提和语境分析）
修辞学的原理
• 零度和偏离： • 零度是指“正常的”、“规范的”、“中性的” 言语修辞状态 • 偏离是指通过同义手段对零度形式 的偏离 举例：贾岛“鸟宿池边树，僧敲月下门。” 王安石“春风又绿江南岸”
修辞学与逻辑学
• 卢纶 《塞下曲》
月黑雁飞高，单于夜遁逃。 欲将轻骑逐，大雪满弓刀。
华罗庚的质疑
北方大雪时，大雁早南归。 月黑风高夜，何得见雁飞？
• 杜甫
• “新松恨不高千尺，恶竹应须斩万竿。”
修辞学与语言学
• 方文山 《发如雪》
你发如雪 凄美了离别 我焚香感动了谁 邀明月 让回忆皎洁 爱在月光下完美 你发如雪 纷飞了眼泪 我等待苍老了谁 红尘醉 微醺的岁月 我用无悔 刻永世爱你的碑
• 马东：又来了。你呀，你可别装听不见！ 耳朵：明天您要上法院？这大过年的干嘛去呀？ 马东：你是诚心！ 耳朵：你要离婚？为什么呀？ 马东：诚心俩字儿听不懂？ 耳朵：第三者是冯巩？你说冯巩这人多讨厌。 马东：我不信你听不清！ 耳朵：离完你要娶董卿？ 马东：你这纯属是装蒜！ 耳朵：朱军死活还不干？ 马东：这都谁跟谁啊！ 耳朵：不行娶徐静蕾啊！ 马东：怎么这么乱呢！ 耳朵：哦，岳父是毕福剑啊！
第 一 讲
认识修辞学
参考书
王希杰 商务印书馆
陈汝东 北京大学出版社
• 认识修辞学老师
说“修”
• 出处：《周易·文言》：
“君子进德修业。忠信，所以进德也； 修辞立其诚，所以居业也。”
• 从中文系的专业看修辞
文学专业、语言专业、古典文献专业 语言表达：朗诵、谈话、讲演 书面表达：修辞、写作
修辞学的历史
• 曹禺 《日出》
顾八奶奶：“所以我顶悲剧，顶痛苦， 顶热烈，顶没有法子办。”