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Gay and Lesbian Language

Annu.Rev.Anthropol.2000.29:243–85Copyright c2000by Annual Reviews.All rights reserved G AY AND L ESBIAN L ANGUAGEDon Kulick Department of Social Anthropology,Stockholm University,10691Stockholm,Sweden;e-mail:kulick@socant.su.seKey Words homosexuality,sexuality,desire s Abstract The past two decades have witnessed a minor explosion in publications dealing with the ways in which gay men and lesbians use language.In fact,though,work on the topic has been appearing in several disciplines (philology,linguistics,women’s studies,anthropology,and speech communication)since the 1940s.This review charts the history of research on “gay and lesbian language,”detailing earlier concerns and showing how work of the 1980s and 1990s both grows out of and differs from previous scholarship.Through a critical analysis of key assumptions that guide research,this review argues that gay and lesbian language does not and cannot exist in the way it is widely imagined to do.The review concludes with the suggestion that scholars abandon the search for gay and lesbian language and move on to develop and reﬁne concepts that permit the study of language and sexuality,and language and desire.INTRODUCTION A recent anthology on postmodern sexualities,entitled (probably inevitably)Po-mosexuals (Queen &Schimel 1997),begins with a remark on language.The editors recall that at the 1996Lambda Literary Awards ceremony,a lesbian comic suggested that a new term was needed to replace the “lengthy and cumbersome yet politically correct tag currently used by and for our community:‘Lesbian,Gay,Bisexual,Transgendered,and Friends’”.The word the comic offered was “Sodomites.”Why not?the editors wonder:“[i]t’s certainly more succinct,and is actually less glib than it seems upon ﬁrst reﬂection,for that is what most people assume LGBT&F actually means,anyway”(Queen &Schimel 1997:19,emphasis in original).What to collectively call people whose sexual and gendered practices and/or identities fall beyond the bounds of normative heterosexuality is an unavoidable and ultimately unresolvable problem.For a very short while,in the late 1960s,“gay”seemed to work.But that unifying moment passed quickly,as lesbians protested that “gay”both elided women and eclipsed their commitment to feminism (Johnson 1975,Penelope &Wolfe 1979:1–2,Shapiro 1990,Stanley 1974:391,0084-6570/00/1015-0243$14.00243A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .244KULICKWhite 1980:239).Then,in the early 1990s,it seemed that “queer”might do the trick.Queer,however,has never been accepted by a large number of the people it was resurrected to embrace,and in activist contexts,the word has lately been turning up as just one more identity to be tacked on to the end of an already lengthy list.For example,the latest acronym,which I encountered for the ﬁrst time at a queer studies conference in New York in April 1999,was LGBTTSQ.When I turned to the stylishly black-clad lesbian sitting beside me and inquired what this intriguing,sandwich-sounding clot of letters might mean,I was informed (in that tart,dismissive tone that New Yorkers use to convey their opinion that the addressee must have just crawled out from under some provincial rock)that it signiﬁed “Lesbian,Gay,Bisexual,Transgendered,Two-Spirit,Queer,or Questioning.”The coinage,dissemination,political efﬁcacy,and affective appeal of acronyms like this deserve a study in their own right.What they point to is continued concern among sexual and gender-rights activists over which identity categories are to be named and foregrounded in their movement and their discussions.These are not trivial issues:A theme running through much gay,lesbian,and transgendered writings on language is that naming confers existence.This insistence appears in everything from coming-out narratives [“I have recalled my utter isolation at sixteen,when I looked up Lesbian in the dictionary,having no one to ask about such things,terriﬁed,elated,painfully self aware,grateful it was there at all”(Grahn 1984:xii)],to AIDS activism [“The most momentous semantic battleﬁeld yet fought in the AIDS war concerned the naming of the so-called AIDS virus”(Callen 1990:134)],to high philosophical treatises [“Only by occupying—being occupied by—the injurious term can I resist and oppose it”(Butler 1997b:104)].Zimmerman (1985:259–60)states the issue starkly (see also Nogle 1981:270–71,Penelope et al 1978):[C]ontemporary lesbian feminists postulate lesbian oppression as a mutilation of censoriousness curable by language.Lesbians do share the institutional oppression of all women and the denial of civil rights with gay men.But what lesbian feminists identify as the particular,unique oppression of lesbians—rightly or wrongly—is speechlessness,invisibility,inauthenticity.Lesbian resistance lies in correct naming;thus our powerﬂows from language,vision,and culture....Contemporary lesbian feminism is thus primarily a politics of language and consciousness.This kind of deep investment in language and naming means that it is necessary to tread gingerly when deciding what to call a review like this one,or when consid-ering what name to use to collectively designate the kinds of nonheteronormative sexual practices and identities that are the topic of discussion here.However,be-cause no all-encompassing appellation currently exists,and because no acronym (short,perhaps,of one consisting of the entire alphabet)can ever hope to keep all possible sexual and gendered identities equally in play and at the fore,I am forced to admit defeat from the start and apologize to all the Ls,Gs,Bs,Ts,TSs,Qs,Fs,and others who will not speciﬁcally be invoked every time I refer here,for theA n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .GAY AND LESBIAN LANGUAGE 245sake of simplicity,to “queer language.”As far as the title of this article is con-cerned,my inclination was to call it “Language and Sexuality,”because the unique contribution of the literature I discuss has been to draw attention to the fact that there is a relationship between language and sexuality (something that has largely been ignored or missed in the voluminous literature on language and gender).In the end,though,I decided to preserve the title assigned me by the editors of this Annual Review .1Although dry and in some senses “noninclusive,”at least it has the advantage of clearly stating what kind of work is summarized here.So this essay reviews work on gay and lesbian language.Twenty years ago,Hayes (1978)observed that the “sociolinguistic study of the language behavior of lesbians and gay men is hampered...[in part because]important essays have ap-peared in small circulation,ephemeral,or out-of-print journals”(p.201).Hayes believed that research could be aided by providing summaries of some of this difﬁcult-to-obtain material [and his annotated bibliography (Hayes 1978,1979)remains a useful resource even today].My own view is that no academic dis-cussion can ﬂourish if the material under debate is available to only a handful of scholars;on the contrary,the message conveyed by such discussions becomes one of exclusivity and arcaneness.In the interest of extending and opening up scholar-ship,this article therefore considers only published and relatively accessible work.This means that the abundance of unpublished conference papers listed in Ward’s (2000)invaluable bibliography is not discussed here.I also do not include papers printed in conference proceedings,such as the Berkeley Women and Language Conference,or the SALSA (Symposium about Language and Society at Austin)conference,because those proceedings are not widely distributed,and they are of-ten virtually impossible to obtain,especially outside the United States.Also,with few exceptions,neither do I consider literary treatments of the oeuvres of queer authors nor queer readings of literary,social,or cultural texts,even though many of those analyses have been foundational for the establishment and consolidation of queer theory (e.g.Butler 1990,1997a;Dollimore 1991;Doty 1993;Sedgwick 1985,1990).Instead,the focus here is on research that investigates how gays and lesbians talk.How has “gay and lesbian language”been theorized,documented,and analyzed?What are the achievements and limitations of these analyses?Before proceeding,however,a further word of contextualization:I agreed to write this text under the assumption that the amount of literature on this topic was small.I am clearly not alone in that belief:Romaine’s (1999)new textbook on language and gender devotes a total of three pages (out of 355)to a discussion of queer language;and Haiman’s (1998)recent book on sarcasm has a two-page section on “Gayspeak,”in which he declares that lack of research forces him to turn to The Boys in the Band (God help us)for examples (pp.95–97).A cutting-edge 1Actually,that title was “Gay,Lesbian,and Transgendered Language,”but because the issues raised by the language of transgendered individuals are somewhat different from those I wanted to emphasize here,I decided to review the linguistic and anthropological literature on transgendered language separately (Kulick 1999).A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .246KULICKintroduction to lesbian and gay studies has chapters on everything from “queer geography”to “class,”but nothing on linguistics (Medhurst &Munt 1997);and textbooks by Duranti (1997)and Foley (1997)on anthropological linguistics and linguistic anthropology have not a word to say about gay,lesbian,or transgendered language.Even recent texts on “Gay English”and queer linguistics mention only a handful of references (Leap 1996,Livia &Hall 1997a).With those kinds of works in mind,imagine my surprise,then,when the literature searches I did for this article turned up almost 200titles.At that point,I felt compelled to ask myself why there seems to be such a widespread belief that there is so little research on gay and lesbian language?The obvious answer is because research on gay and lesbian language has had virtually no impact whatsoever on any branch of sociolinguistics or linguistic anthropology—even those dealing explicitly with language and gender,as is ev-idenced by the wan three pages in Romaine’s book [a recent exception that does discuss this literature in a wider context is Cameron (1998)].One might inevitably wonder if this lack of impact is somehow related to structures of discrimination in an academy that,until recently,actively discouraged any research on homosexu-ality that did not explicitly see it as deviance (Bolton 1995a,Lewin &Leap 1996).Another reason could be the one mentioned above,that work on gay and lesbian language has often appeared in obscure publications.Or it could be because work on this topic has no real disciplinary home.It is done by philologists,phoneti-cians,linguists,anthropologists,speech communication specialists,researchers in women’s studies,and others,many of whom seem to have little contact with the work published outside their own discipline.Finally,much of the research on gay and lesbian language consists of lists of in-group terms,discussion of terms for “homosexual,”debates about the pros and cons of words like “gay”and “queer,”or possible etymologies of words like “sod,”“dyke,”or “closet.”This is interesting information,but it is hardly the stuff from which pathbreaking theoriz-ing is likely to arise (Aman 1986/1987;Ashley 1979,1980,1982,1987;Bolton 1995b;Boswell 1993;Brownworth 1994;Cawqua 1982;Chesebro 1981b;Diallo &Krumholtz 1994;Dynes 1985;Fessler &Rauch 1997;Grahn 1984;Johansson 1981;Lazerson 1981;Lee 1981;Riordon 1978;Roberts 1979a,b;Shapiro 1988;Spears 1985;Stone 1981).Although all those reasons for mainstream lack of interest in work on queer language are possible and even likely,in this review I pursue a different line of thought:namely,that research on gay and lesbian language has had little impact because it is plagued by serious conceptual difﬁculties.One problem to which I return repeatedly is the belief in much work that gay and lesbian language is somehow grounded in gay and lesbian identities and instantiated in the speech of people who self-identify as gay and lesbian.This assumption confuses symbolic and empirical categories,it reduces sexuality to sexual identity,and it steers re-search away from examining the ways in which the characteristics seen as queer are linguistic resources available to everybody to use,regardless of their sexual orientation.In addition,a marked feature of much of the literature is its apparent A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .GAY AND LESBIAN LANGUAGE 247unfamiliarity with well-established linguistic disciplines and methods of analysis,such as Conversation Analysis,discourse analysis,and pragmatics.That the Ency-clopedia of Homosexuality could refer to sociolinguistics,in 1990,as “an emerging discipline”(Dynes 1990:676)is indicative of the lag that exists in much of the lit-erature between linguistic and cultural theory and the work that is done on queer language.I structure this text as a critical review,with an equal emphasis on both those words.I also structure it as an argument.This essay makes a strong claim,namely that the object under focus here does not,in fact,exist.There is no such thing as gay or lesbian nguage,of course,is used by individuals who self-identify as gay and lesbian,and I review a number of dimensions of this language use,including vocabulary and the use by males of grammatically and semantically feminine forms to refer to other males.However,to say that some self-identiﬁed gay men and lesbians may sometimes use language in certain ways in certain contexts is not the same thing as saying that there is a gay or lesbian language.My argument is that the lasting contribution of research on gay and lesbian language is that it has alerted us to a relationship between language and sexuality,and it has prepared the ground for what could be an extremely productive exploration of language and desire.By having a clear sense of the limitations of the research on gay and lesbian language,and by pursuing some of its leads and building on some of its insights,future scholarship should be able to move away from the search for the linguistic correlates of contemporary identity categories and turn its attention to the ways in which language is bound up with and conveys desire.THE LA VENDER LEXICON In 1995,the anthropologist and linguist William Leap edited a book that he called Beyond the Lavender Lexicon .This title was chosen,Leap explains in his introduc-tory chapter,because “there is more to lesbian and gay communication than coded words with special meanings,and more to lesbian and gay linguistic research than the compilation of dictionaries or the tracing of single-word etymologies”(Leap 1995a:xvii–xviii).In expressing his desire to move “beyond”this kind of work,Leap succinctly summarized the overwhelming bulk of research that had been conducted on queer language since the 1940s.Until the 1980s,research on gay and lesbian language was pretty much syn-onymous with lists of and debates about the in-group terms used by male homo-sexuals.The reasons behind the gathering of these lists are diverse.In some cases the motivation seems to have been part of a civilizing crusade:“I believe that for the perfectly civilized person,obscenity would not exist,”declared Read (1977[1935]:16),in the introduction to his study of men’s room grafﬁti.[Ashley’s (1979,1980,1982,1987)book-length series of articles are more recent examples.]In others,there may have been a desire to crack a mysterious code—as late as 1949,respected academics like the Chicago sociologist E.W.Burgess could assert that A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .248KULICKthe urban “homosexual world has its own language,incomprehensible to out-siders”(Burgess 1949:234).For a long time,there was also a philological interest in documenting the “lingo”of “subcultural”or “underworld”groups,like hobos,prostitutes,and homosexuals [see the dictionaries listed in Legman (1941:1156)and Stanley (1974:Note 1)].Finally,more sociologically oriented scholars have examined gay argot in order to be able to say something about “the sociocultural qualities of the group”that uses the words (Sonenschein 1969:281).Perhaps the earliest documentation in English of words that must have been used by at least some homosexual men was compiled by Allen Walker Read,a scholar who later became a professor of English at Columbia University.In the summer of 1928,Read [1977(1935)]embarked on an “extensive sight-seeing trip”throughout the Western United States and Canada,during which he took detailed notes on the writing that appeared in public rest-room walls.Read’s interest in this “folk epigraphy”was scientiﬁc:“I can only plead,”he pleaded,“that the reader believe my sincerity when I say that I present this study solely as an honourable attempt to throw light on a ﬁeld of linguistics where light has long been needed”(p.29).Worried that his scientiﬁc study of men’s room grafﬁti might fall into the hands of “people to whom it would be nothing more than pornography”(p.28),Read printed the study privately in Paris in a limited edition of 75copies and had the cover embossed with an austere warning:“Circulation restricted to students of linguistics,folk-lore,abnormal psychology,and allied branches of social science.”Read has nothing to say about homosexual language in his book,but many of his entries (such as “When will you meet me and suck my prick.I suck them every day,”or “I suck cocks for fun”)have clear homosexual themes.As Butters (1989:2)points out,Read’s work “sheds light on a number of linguistic issues;for example:the absence of the word gay from any of Read’s collected grafﬁti tends to conﬁrm the general belief among etymologists that the term did not exist in its popular meaning of “homosexual”before the 1950s.”2The ﬁrst published English-language lexicon of “the language of homosexual-ity”was compiled by the folklorist and student of literary erotica Gershon Legman.Legman’s (1941)glossary appears as the ﬁnal appendix in the ﬁrst edition of a two-volume medical study of homosexuality [Henry (1941)—it was removed from later editions].The list contains 329items,139of which are identiﬁed as exclu-sively homosexual in use.As Doyle (1982:75)notes in his discussion of this text,some of the words on Legman’s list (such as “drag,”“straight,”and “basket”)have not only survived,but have passed into more general use.Others,such as the delightful “church-mouse”[“a homosexual who frequents churches and cathe-drals in order to grope or cruise the young men there”(Legman 1941,emphasis in original),or the curious “white-liver”(“a male or female homosexual who is completely indifferent to the opposite sex”),may well be extinct.2Butters’s remark seems refuted by Cory’s (1951)assertion that “gay is used throughout the United States and Canada [to mean homosexual]”,and “by the nineteen-thirties [gay]was the most common word in use among homosexuals themselves”(pp.110,107).Chauncey’s (1994:19)research on the origins and spread of the word “gay”supports Cory’s claims.A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .GAY AND LESBIAN LANGUAGE 249Although Legman gives careful deﬁnitions of the words he lists,he had little to say about “the language of homosexuality,”except to note that male homosexuals frequently “substitut[e]feminine pronouns and titles for properly masculine ones”(1941:1155),and that lesbians do not have an extensive in-group vocabulary.3The brevity of Legman’s (1941)discussion means that the ﬁrst real analysis of homosexual language appears not to have occurred until 1951,when Donald Cory [a pseudonym of Edward Sagarin (Hayes 1978:203)]included a 10-page chap-ter on language in his book (Cory 1951:103–13).Cory’s main argument about what he called “homosexual ‘cantargot’”was that it had been created because homosexuals had “a burning need”(p.106)for words that did not denote them pejoratively (for more recent instances of this viewpoint,see Karlen 1971:517–18,Zeve 1993:35).Hence,his discussion focused on words that homosexuals invented to call one another,particularly the word “gay”.Cory believed that words like “gay”were positive,in that they transcended social stereotypes,and in doing so,they allowed in-group conversation to be “free and unhampered”(1951:113).Ul-timately,however,homosexual slang was an attenuated slang;one that had “failed to develop in a natural way”(p.103)because it could only be used in secre-tive in-group communication,due to societal taboos on discussing homosexuality at all.After Cory’s text,little was published in English until the 1960s,when Cory &LeRoy (1963)included an 89-word lexicon as an appendix to their book,and when several other word lists were printed extremely obscurely.4The 1960s also saw the publication of what appears to be the ﬁrst lexicon of words used by lesbians:Giallombardo’s (1966:204–13)298-word glossary of terms,many of them referring to lesbian sexuality and relationships,used by inmates in a women’s 3Legman (1941:1156)offers two explanations for this:the ﬁrst having to do with “[t]he tradition of gentlemanly restraint among lesbians [that]stiﬂes the ﬂamboyance and con-versational cynicism in sexual matters that slang coinage requires”;the second being that “[l]esbian attachments are sufﬁciently feminine to be more often emotional than simply sexual”—hence,an extensive sexual vocabulary would be superﬂuous.Penelope &Wolfe (1979:11)suggest other reasons for the absence of an elaborate lesbian in-group vocabulary.They argue that such an absence is predictable,given that,in their opinion,the vocabulary ofmale homosexuals (and of males in general)is misogynist.“How would a group of women gain a satisfactorily expressive terminology if the only available terms were derogatory toward women?”they ask.In addition,they note that lesbians “have been socially and historically invisible...and isolated from each other as a consequence,and have never had a cohesive community in which a Lesbian aesthetic could have developed”(1979:12).4A mimeographed pamphlet,entitled “The Gay Girl’s Guide to the U.S.and Western World,”described as consisting of “campy deﬁnitions of coterie terms from the male homosexual world of the post-World War II period;includes French,German and Russian terms”(Dynes 1985:156,emphasis in original)has appeared in several editions and seems to have been published as early as 1949(Hayes 1978:203).The names of the three authors of the text are pseudonyms,and no publisher is given.I have been unable to locate it.I have also been unable to locate two of the lists mentioned by Sonenschein (1969),Hayes (1978),and Dynes (1985);namely Guild (1965)and Strait (1964).A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .250KULICKprison.Furthermore,it was not until the 1960s that the study of homosexual slang began to be conducted by researchers who were not philologists or amateur social scientists,like Cory.Giallombardo,for example,was a trained sociologist.And anticipating Families We Choose (Weston 1991)by more than 20years,she devoted an entire chapter to how an elaborate system of named kin relationships organized social and sexual relationships between the female prisoners she studied.Another early analysis of the social functions of gay slang was anthropologist Sonenschein’s (1969)article.Sonenschein argued that gay slang is not primarily about isolation or secrecy,as previous writers had suggested (e.g.Cory 1951;also recall Burgess’s assertion that the language of homosexuals was “incomprehensible to outsiders”).Instead,homosexual slang serves communicative functions,the most important of which is to “reinforce group cohesiveness and reﬂect common interests,problems,and needs of the population”(Sonenschein 1969:289).In light of later work that came to make assumptions about the existence of a gay or lesbian speech community and stress the “authenticity”of lesbian and gay speech (Leap 1996,Moonwomon 1995),it is interesting to note that early claims like Sonenschein’s about the supposed group cohesiveness of the homo-sexual subculture were being challenged even as they were being made.For example,Farrell (1972)analyzed a questionnaire completed by 184respondents in “a large midwestern city”and provided a list of 233vocabulary items that he asserts “reﬂect...the preoccupations of the homosexual”(p.98).This idea of “the homosexual”was harshly attacked by Conrad &More (1976),who argued that if Kinsey’s reckoning that 10%of the American population is gay was correct,there must be enormous variation between homosexuals,and there can be no such thing as “the homosexual”or a single homosexual subculture.To refute Farrell’s conclusions,they administered a questionnaire consisting of 15words from Far-rell’s list to two groups of students—one gay (recruited through the campus’Gay Student Union),and the other self-deﬁned as straight.The students were asked to deﬁne all the words they could.Conrad &More concluded that not only did all the homosexual students not know the entire vocabulary (knowledge seemed to increase with age),there was also no statistically signiﬁcant difference between the gay and straight students’understanding of the terms.In other words,there is no basis,in the opinion of Conrad &More (1976),to assume that homosexuals constitute a “language deﬁned sub-culture”(p.25).This point was later stated in even starker terms by Penelope &Wolfe (1979),who begin a paper on gay and lesbian language with the assertion that “[a]ny discussion involving the use of such phrases as ‘gay community,’‘gay slang,’or ‘gayspeak’is bound to be misleading,because two of its implications are false:ﬁrst,that there is a homogenous commu-nity composed of Lesbians and gay males,that shares a common culture or system of values goals,perceptions,and experience;and second,that this gay community shares a common language”(p.1).Penelope &Wolfe base this outright rejection of the notions of gay commu-nity or gay language partly on an earlier study that examined gay slang (Stanley A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .GAY AND LESBIAN LANGUAGE 2511970).5In that study,Penelope distributed a questionnaire through homosexual networks,in which respondents were asked to deﬁne 26terms and suggest two of their own.On the basis of 67completed questionnaires,Penelope argued that homosexual slang was not known by all homosexuals—there was,in other words,no homogenous homosexual subculture that shared a common language.Knowl-edge of homosexual slang varied according to gender and according to whether the respondent lived in an urban center or a rural town.She proposed that homosexual slang should be thought of as consisting of a core vocabulary,known by both men and women over a large geographical distance (Penelope’s discussion concerned only the United States),and a fringe vocabulary,known mostly by gay men in large urban centers.Penelope argued that the core vocabulary,consisting of items such as “butch,”“dyke,”“one-night stand,”and “Mary!,”is known to many het-erosexuals,thereby making it “not so effective as a sign of group solidarity as the slang of other subcultures”(Stanley 1970:50).It is the fringe vocabulary which is “the most interesting from a linguistic point of view”(p.53),partly because it is generally unknown to heterosexuals and hence qualiﬁes as a true marker of group membership,and also because many terms in the fringe vocabulary arise from par-ticular syntactic patterns [Penelope lists six:compounds (size queen,meat rack),rhyme compounds (kiki,fag hag),exclamations (For days!),puns (Give him the clap),blends (bluff—a Texas lesbian blend of “butch”and “ﬂuff”to signify “an individual who plays either the aggressive or the passive role”),and truncations (bi,homo,hetero)].While discussions like these about the relationship between gay slang and “the homosexual subculture”were being conducted in scholarly journals,the mag-niﬁcent,still unsurpassed Mother of all gay glossaries,The Queen’s Vernacular appeared,ﬁrst published in 1972by a small press in San Francisco (Rodgers n.d.).Making all previous attempts to document gay slang look like shopping lists scribbled on the back of a paper bag,Rodgers’s magnum opus contains over 12,000entries.And not only is it lavishly illustrated with enough venomous quips and arch mots to last any amply betongued queen at least a weekend [“My dear,your hair looks as if you’ve dyed”(p.207);“He was big enough to make a bead on my rosary of life”(p.173);“Stop pittypooing around and tell me what the bitch said”(p.149)];with entries ranging from anekay (Hawaiian-English gay slang for “heterosexual man”)to Zelda (Cape Town queenspeak for “pure-blooded Zulu”),The Queen’s Vernacular also carefully documents the extraordinary range and variation of homosexual slang that existed throughout the English-speaking world.Although Dynes (1985:156)is correct in noting 5During the course of her long career,the lesbian feminist linguist and writer Julia Penelope has published articles under the surnames Stanley,Penelope Stanley,and Penelope.In the references for this review,those articles are listed alphabetically under the names that appeared on the original publications.In the text,I consistently refer to the author as Penelope,since that is the name under which she has been publishing for many years.A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .。

英语专业学士论文写作要求

学士论文写作要求(Thesis Writing)论文写作要求：1. 题目选择学生须在网院学士论文选题单中选择论文题目，学生的选题不得超出选题单所列选题范围，但可在选题框架内深入和细化题目。

选题单请见附录一。

2.语言要求学士论文一律使用英文完成，论文摘要用中英文完成。

英文须使用正式文体，语言清晰流畅准确，用词恰当，段落分明。

避免使用的主观性语言（如使用“I think”、“I believe”之类），避免使用性别歧视性语言（如使用“he”代表整体等）。

3.长度要求学士论文长度为5000词（不包括论文摘要、目录、书目和附录）。

4.格式要求论文封面、论文摘要（中文）、论文摘要（英文）、目录、书目和附录都必须采用平台上发布的模板。

全文以A4纸打印，并在左侧用抽杆文件夹装订（请见第9页图示）。

1)字体和字号：大标题采用Arial 12号黑体，次标题采用Arial 10号黑体，小标题采用Times New Roman 12号黑体，正文采用Times New Roman12号字。

2) 1.5 行距：一律1.5行距。

3)标题序号：各层次标题序号分别为：a.第一层：I、II、III、IV …b.第二层：1、2、3、4 …c.第三层：1.1、1.2 …；2.1、2.2 …d.第四层：1.1.1、1.1.2…；1.2.1, 1.2.2 …4)文中序号：文中信息列表采用1）→ a→ a) → i5.结构组成学士论文须包括以下部分：1) A standard cover: name of the institution, thesis title, writer’sinformation, submission date, etc.2)Acknowledgement (optional)3)An abstract (in Chinese): a summary of the whole thesis in 500-800Chinese characters, through which a readercould have a brief but complete understanding of the thesis byreading the abstract and not reading the rest of the thesis.4)An abstract (in English): a compact version of the Chinese abstract,using 200 words.5) A table of contents: a list of titles for each section and theircorresponding page numbers.6) A body (See 6 for detailed information below)7) A bibliography: a list of books and articles that have been referredto in the body. (Y ou need to refer to at least 5 sources.)8)Appendices (Optional)6.内容要求论文的内容要求强调论点、论据和结论的清晰性、逻辑性和科学性。

中国地质大学(北京)考博专业英复习材料

晶） is said to have a porphyritic texture（斑状结构）. The classification of fine-grained rocks, then, is based on the proportion of minerals which form phenocrysts and these phenocrysts （斑晶）reflect the general composition of the remainder(残留) of the rock. The fine-grained portion of a porphyritic（斑岩） rock is generally referred to as the groundmass（基质） of the phenocrysts. The terms "porphyritic" and "phenocrysts" are not restricted to fine-grained rocks but may also apply to coarse-grained rocks which contain a few crystals distinctly larger than the remainder. The term obsidian(黑曜岩) refers to a glassy rock of rhyolitic（流纹岩） composition. In general, fine-grained rocks consisting of small crystals cannot readily be distinguished from③ glassy rocks in which no crystalline material is present at all. The obsidians, however, are generally easily recognized by their black and highly glossy appearanceass of the same composition as obsidian. Apparently the difference between the modes of formation of obsidian and pumice is that in pumice the entrapped water vapors have been able to escape by a frothing（起泡） process which leaves a network of interconnected pore（气孔） spaces, thus giving the rock a highly porous （多孔的）and open appearance（外观较为松散）. ④ Pegmatite（结晶花岗岩） is a rock which is texturally（构造上地） the exact opposite of obsidian. ⑤ Pegmatites are generally formed as dikes associated with major bodies of granite （花岗岩） . They are characterized by extremely large individual crystals （单个晶体） ; in some pegmatites crystals up to several tens of feet in length（宽达几十英尺）have been identified, but the average size is measured in inches （英寸） . Most mineralogical museums contain a large number of spectacular（壮观的） crystals from pegmatites. Peridotite（橄榄岩） is a rock consisting primarily of olivine, though some varieties contain pyroxene（辉石） in addition. It occurs only as coarse-grained intrusives（侵入）, and no extrusive（喷出的） rocks of equivalent chemical composition have ever been found. Tuff （凝灰岩）is a rock which is igneous in one sense （在某种意义上） and sedimentary in another⑥. A tuff is a rock formed from pyroclastic （火成碎屑的）material which has been blown out of a volcano and accumulated on the ground as individual fragments called ash. Two terms（igneous and sedimentary） are useful to refer solely to the composition of igneous rocks regardless of their textures. The term silicic (硅质的)signifies an abundance of silica-rich（富硅） and light-colored minerals（浅色矿物）, such as quartz, potassium feldspar（钾长石）, and sodic plagioclase （钠长石） . The term basic （基性） signifies （意味着） an abundance of dark colored minerals relatively low in silica and high in calcium, iron, and

bibliography

bibliographyBibliographyIntroduction:In the academic and research world, the importance of a bibliography cannot be overstated. A bibliography is a comprehensive list of the sources used in a research paper, thesis, or any other written work. It serves multiple purposes, including acknowledging the original authors and their contributions, avoiding plagiarism, providing additional sources for readers to explore, and establishing the credibility of the work.Purpose of a Bibliography:The primary purpose of a bibliography is to give credit to the authors of referenced works. By citing the sources used, researchers show respect for the original authors' ideas and expertise. Additionally, a bibliography allows readers to verify the information presented in the paper and delve deeper into the topic. It also serves as a roadmap for future researchers who want to explore the same or related subjects.Components of a Bibliography:A bibliography typically includes various components, depending on the citation style used. The most common elements found in a bibliography are:1. Author's Name: The surname and first name or initials of the author should be provided. In the case of multiple authors, all their names should be listed.2. Title of the Work: The title of the book, article, or document being referenced should be included. If it is an article or chapter within a larger work, it should be enclosed in quotation marks.3. Publication Information: This includes the name of the book or journal, the publisher, and the publication date. For journals, the volume and issue numbers, as well as the page range, should also be mentioned.4. Web Sources: When citing online sources, the URL, access date, and any associated digital object identifier (DOI) shouldbe included. In some cases, if the webpage does not provide the author's name or publication date, it may be omitted.5. Additional Information: Depending on the citation style, additional information such as the edition, translator's name, or specific page numbers may be required.Citation Styles:There are various citation styles used in different academic disciplines. The most widely used citation styles include:1. APA (American Psychological Association): Commonly used in social sciences, education, and psychology-related fields.2. MLA (Modern Language Association): Primarily used in humanities and liberal arts subjects.3. Chicago/Turabian: Used for history, social sciences, and natural sciences.4. Harvard: Widely used in the sciences and social sciences.5. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): Mainly used in engineering, computer science, and information technology.Each citation style has specific guidelines for formatting the bibliography and in-text citations, so it is crucial to adhere to the specific style required by the institution or publisher.Benefits of a Bibliography:Apart from acknowledging the original sources and preventing plagiarism, a well-constructed bibliography offers several benefits to both the writer and the reader. These include:1. Enhancing Credibility: By providing a comprehensive list of references, the author demonstrates that their work is built upon a sound foundation and relies on accurate and reliable information.2. Extending Knowledge: Readers can use the bibliography to explore additional sources related to the topic. This not onlyimproves their understanding but also allows them to explore different perspectives and build their own knowledge base.3. Simplifying the Research Process: Researchers can save time and effort by referring to the bibliography of a well-written paper. Often, the bibliography itself directs readers to key works, eliminating the need for them to search for relevant sources from scratch.Conclusion:In conclusion, a bibliography is an indispensable component of any academic or research paper. It serves as a testament to the author's academic integrity, provides a roadmap for further exploration, and allows readers to verify and extend their knowledge. By understanding the purpose and components of a bibliography and adhering to the appropriate citation style, researchers can ensure that their work remains credible and contributes to the existing body of knowledge.。

NSABP乳腺癌系列临床试验

50－59岁，ER PR+,DFS明显提高,LN>4,更明显 60－70岁，不论ER PR均提高 <49，不论ER PR，LN，不能提高DFS,OS PR-，TAM减低生存结论肯定TAM疗效，并与年龄、受体、LN有关（奠定基础）
编辑课件
14
B－10试验
背景:70年代免疫调节剂成为热点,治疗肿瘤的效果? 入组1977－1990 随访8年病例 256 乳癌根治术、改良根治，腋LN+：
编辑课件
23
B－24试验
B-17证实放疗对切缘阴性有效,对切缘阳性效果? 入组1991－随访5年病例 1804 弥漫性导管原位癌DCIS：病灶切除，切缘阳性
第一组放疗第二组放疗＋TAM5年结果 TAM组同侧2.1%,对侧1.8%,远处0.2% 结论对切缘阳性的广泛DCIS,病灶切除+放疗＋ TAM, 如此低的复发率说明仍是一种可行的治疗方
化疗组可减低保乳术后同侧乳房复发率
编辑课件
18
B－19试验
入组1988－1996 随访5年病例 1095 改良根治、保乳手术，ER-、腋LN-：
第一组 MTX→5-FU 第二组 CMF 结果 CMF组 DFS,DDFS,明显提高,减低保乳术后同侧乳房复发率及远处转移，但副作用较大，对50岁以上患者无明显优势
第一组 TAM ＋氮芥＋5-FU 第二组 TAM ＋氮芥＋5-FU+阿霉素结果 2组间 DFS,OS无明显差异
结论 TAM与化疗联合应用，可能会影响化疗效果 B－09也有这种现象
编辑课件
17
B－13试验
入组1981－1996 随访8年病例 760 改良根治、保乳手术，ER-、腋LN-：
第一组 MTX→5-FU+四氢叶酸第二组不化疗结果化疗组 DFS,DDFS,OS明显提高。

高三英语学术文章单选题50题

高三英语学术文章单选题50题1. In the scientific research paper, the term "hypothesis" is closest in meaning to _.A. theoryB. experimentC. conclusionD. assumption答案：D。

解析：“hypothesis”的意思是假设，假定。

“assumption”也表示假定，假设，在学术语境中，当提出一个假设来进行研究时，这两个词意思相近。

“theory”指理论，是经过大量研究和论证后的成果；“experiment”是实验，是验证假设或理论的手段；“conclusion”是结论，是研究之后得出的结果，所以选D。

2. The historical article mentioned "feudal system", which refers to _.A. democratic systemB. hierarchical social systemC. capitalist systemD. modern political system答案：B。

解析：“feudal system”是封建制度，它是一种等级森严的社会制度。

“democratic system”是民主制度；“capitalist system”是资本主义制度；“modern political system”是现代政治制度，与封建制度完全不同概念，所以选B。

3. In a literary review, "metaphor" is a figure of speech that _.A. gives human qualities to non - human thingsB. compares two different things without using "like" or "as"C. uses exaggeration to emphasize a pointD. repeats the same sound at the beginning of words答案：B。

IEEE期刊写作入门

How to Use the IEEEtran B IB T E X StyleMichael Shell,Member,IEEEAbstract—This article describes how to use the IEEEtran.bst B IB T E X styleﬁle to produce bibliographies that conform to the standards of the publications of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE).Index Terms—bibliography,B IB T E X,IEEE,L A T E X,paper,style, template,typesetting.I.I NTRODUCTIONT HE IEEEtran.bst B IB T E X styleﬁle described in this document can be used with B IB T E X to produce L A T E X bibliographies of high quality that are suitable for use in IEEE publications.Other potential applications include thesis and academic work,especially when such work is in the area of electrical and/or computer engineering.This document applies to version 1.10and later of the IEEEtran B IB T E X style.Prior versions do not have all of the features described here.IEEEtran.bst will display the version number on the user’s console during execution.The most recent version of this package can be obtained on CTAN[1] and may also be mirrored at various places within IEEE’s website[2].It is assumed that the reader has a basic understanding of the operation and use of B IB T E X.Documentation for the use of B IB T E X includes the user’s guide[3]as well as supplementary information which addresses frequently asked questions[4].The large collection of sample bibliographies and string deﬁnitions at the T E X User Group Bibliography Archive may also be of help[5].General support for B IB T E X related questions can be obtained in the internet newsgroup comp.text.tex.Note that the references section of this document is used for two purposes:(1)to provide information where additional information can be found;and(2)to provide examples of references created using the IEEEtran B IB T E X style.Theﬁrst few citations above fall into theﬁrst category,while virtually all of the citations that follow will serve as examples and are not meant to be actually referred to.Hopefully,it will be clear from context which way a particular reference is used.II.I NSTALLATIONThe IEEEtran B IB T E X package consists of the following ﬁles:IEEEtran_bst_HOWTO.pdf:This documentation.Manuscript created on June20,2002;revised September27,2002.The opinions expressed here are entirely that of the author.No warranty is expressed or er assumes all risk.M.Shell is with the Georgia Institute of Technology.Email:mshell@ See[1]for current contact information.IEEEtran.bst:The standard IEEEtran B IB T E X styleﬁle (unsorted,i.e.,references will appear in the order in which they are cited).IEEEtranS.bst:The IEEEtran B IB T E X styleﬁle,but with additional sorting code(similar to that of plain.bst)which sorts the entries based on the names of the authors,editors, organizations,etc.May be of interest for non-IEEE related work.Do not use for work that is to be submitted to the IEEE. IEEEexample.bib:A B IB T E X database that contains the references shown in the references section of this document. Users can copy the entries therein to serve as starting tem-plates.The entries also have comments which may be of additional help.IEEEfull.bib:Aﬁle that contains a comprehensive set of B IB T E X string deﬁnitions for the full names of IEEE journals and magazines.Because IEEE’s bibliography style uses abbreviated journal names,thisﬁle’s intended use is for work that is not to be submitted to the IEEE.IEEEabrv.bib:Same as above,but contains the abbreviated form of the journal and magazine names.Recommended for work that is to be submitted to the IEEE.IEEEbcpat.bib:Older versions of IEEE B IB T E X styleﬁles usually provide several string deﬁnitions(“acmcs,”“acta,”etc.) for a few of the popular computer related journals.However,it is inappropriate to provide journal name deﬁnitions within.bst ﬁles as this prevents entries that use them from working with other.bstﬁles(that may not contain the needed deﬁnitions). Furthermore,these older deﬁnitions are not abbreviated as needed for IEEE related work.IEEEtran.bst does not provide the older deﬁnitions as it is designed to work with the newer “external”IEEEabrv.bib deﬁnitions instead.To provide for backward compatibility,IEEEbcpat.bib contains these obsolete deﬁnitions and can be loaded prior to any existing database ﬁles that still depend on them.Do not use the IEEEbcpat.bib deﬁnitions for new entries,or work that is to be submitted to the IEEE.B IB T E X.bstﬁles can be accessed system-wide when they are placed in the<texmf>/bibtex/bstdirectory,where<texmf>is the root directory of the user’s T E X installation.Similarly,system-wide.bibﬁles(IEEEful-l.bib and IEEEabrv.bib)can be placed in<texmf>/bibtex/bibOn some L A T E X systems,the directory look-up tables will need to be refreshed after making additions or deletions to the systemﬁles.For teT E X and fpT E X systems this is accomplished via executingc 2002Michael Shelltexhashas root.MikT E X users can runinitexmf-uto accomplish the same thing.Users not willing or able to install theﬁles system-wide can make the copies local,but will then have to provide the path(full or relative)as well as theﬁlename when referring to them in L A T E X.III.U SAGEIEEEtran.bst is invoked using the normal L A T E X bibliography commands:\bibliographystyle{IEEEtran}\bibliography{IEEEabrv,mybibfile}String deﬁnitionﬁles must be loaded before any databaseﬁles containing entries that utilize them—so theﬁle names within the\bibliography command must be listed in a proper order.In standard B IB T E X fashion,new documents will require a L A T E X run followed by a B IB T E X run and then two more L A T E X runs in order to resolve all of the references.An additional series of runs will be required as citations are added to the document.A.Resource RequirementsIEEE’s bibliography style has several unique attributes that increase the complexity of B IB T E X styles that attempt to mimic it.Because the primary design goal of IEEEtran.bst is to reproduce the IEEE bibliography style as accurately and as fully as possible,IEEEtran.bst will consume signiﬁcantly more computation resources(especially memory)during execution than many other B IB T E X styleﬁles.Most modern B IB T E X installations will be able to meet these demands without prob-lem.However,some earlier B IB T E X platforms,especially those running on the MS Windows operating system,may be unable to provide the required memory space.Such platforms often provide as an alternative the higher-capacity1“8-bit B IB T E X”in the form of a“bibtex8”executable which IEEEtran.bst is fully compatible ers who encounter B IB T E X resource limitations should upgrade their B IB T E X installation.More details on this topic can be found in[4].B.Nonstandard ExtensionsAnother,related,issue is that IEEEtran.bst provides exten-sions beyond the standard B IB T E X entry types andﬁelds.These additional features are necessary for IEEE style work and were designed to closely follow the existing as well as“probable future”releases of the standard B IB T E X styles.Nevertheless, users should be aware that many current B IB T E X styles may not be compatible with B IB T E X databases that employ ad-vanced features of IEEEtran.bst.B IB T E X will generate an error 1However,command options may be needed to obtain the higher capacity, e.g.,bibtex8-H e bibtex8-help to list the possible options.if it encounters a(cited)entry type that the styleﬁle does not support,but unsupportedﬁelds within an entry will simply be ignored.For this reason,users are encouraged to keep all nonstandard entry types in a B IB T E X database(.bib)ﬁle of their own.The nonstandard IEEEtran.bst entry types are:(1)“electronic”which is used for internet references;(2)“patent”which is used for patents;(3)“periodical”which is used for journals and magazines;and(4)“standard”which is used for published standards.The most important extensions to the supportedﬁelds will now be brieﬂy mentioned.1)The URL Field:Every entry type supports an optional URL entryﬁeld for documents that are available on the internet.URLs will appear at the end of the bibliography entry and proceeded by the words“[Online].Available:”as is shown in[1].IEEE does not place any punctuation at the end of a URL as this could be mistaken as being part of the URL. URLs are notoriously difﬁcult to break properly.IEEEtran.bst places all URL text within a\url{}command so as to provide“plug-and-play”use with packages that provide such a command.It strongly suggested that,when using entries with URLs,the popular L A T E X package url.sty[6]is also loaded to provide some intelligence in URL line breaking.Alternatively, the hyperref.sty package[7]also provides a\url command. However,unless the user needs hyperlinks,url.sty might be a better approach because it is“lightweight”and less likely to exhibit compatibility issues.Users should be aware that version1.5and prior of url.sty interacts with B IB T E X(version0.99c and prior)in way that can result in the anomalous appearance of“%”symbols within the URLs.To avoid this problem,it is recommended that users modify(or possibly upgrade)their url.sty package if they are using version1.5or earlier.The following code,2when placed just after where the url.sty package(version1.5)is loaded,or at the end of the deﬁnitions within the url.styﬁle(just before the\endinput line),will correct the problem by conﬁguring url.sty to ignore“%”symbols that are immediately followed by line feeds within the\url command:\begingroup\makeatletter\g@addto@macro{\UrlSpecials}{%\endlinechar=13\catcode\endlinechar=12\do\%{\Url@percent}\do\ˆˆM{\break}}\catcode13=12%\gdef\Url@percent{\@ifnextcharˆˆM{\@gobble}{\mathbi n{\mathchar‘\%}}}%\endgroup%If the T E X system is used by others,the original url.sty should be retained and the modiﬁed version given a different name (e.g.,”url15b.sty”).Note that any renamed styleﬁle needs its“\ProvidesPackage”line updated to reﬂect the current ﬁlename or else L A T E X will issue a(harmless)warning.The\url command from recent versions of hyperref.sty does not exhibit this problem.For more details,see[4]. Even with intelligent URL breaking,formatting an entry with a URL can still pose challenges as URLs may contain long segments within which breaks are not possible(or at least 2This T E X code can also be obtained from[4].strongly discouraged).In its publications,IEEE deals with this problem by allowing the interword space to stretch more than usual.To accomplish this,IEEEtran.bst automatically engages a“super-stretch”feature for every entry that contains a URL. The interword spacing within entries that contain URLs is allowed to stretch up to four times normal without causing underfull hbox warnings.Reference[1]illustrates this feature. Section VII discusses how users can control the amount of allowed stretch in entries with URLs.Alternatively,the default value of this stretch factor can be adjusted via a L A T E X command,which must be placed before the bibliography begins:\providecommand\BIBentryALTinterwordstretchfac tor{2.5}However,these adjustment mechanisms are of limited use because reducing the stretch factor usually just results in underfull hbox warnings.Another way to handle problem URLs is to conﬁgure url.sty to allow more possible break points.2)The Language Field:IEEEtran.bst supports an optional languageﬁeld which allows alternate hyphenation patterns to be used for the title and/or booktitleﬁelds when theseﬁelds are in language other than the default.For examples,see sections V-N and VI-B as they each contain a reference that uses the languageﬁeld.This feature is especially important for languages that alter the spelling of words based on how they are hyphenated.Unlike some other B IB T E X styleﬁles,the use of the Babel package is not required to use this feature.In fact,Babel.sty should not be loaded with IEEEtran.cls as the former can interfere with the latter.However,the names given in the languageﬁeld must follow Babel’s convention for the names of the hyphenation patterns.See the Babel documentation for details[8].It is a T E X limitation that,to be available for use,a hyphen-ation pattern must be loaded within a“formatﬁle”(memory image)and,therefore,cannot be loaded when running a.tex ﬁle.A list of available patterns is displayed on the console each time L A T E X is started.If a requested hyphenation pattern is not available,the default will be used and a warning will be ers wishing to add hyphenation patterns will need to activate the desired ones in their<texmf>/tex/generic/config/language.datﬁle and rebuild their L A T E X formatﬁle3.Adding hyphenation patterns does reduce the amount of memory available to T E X, so it cannot be done with impunity.3)Expanded Use of the Howpublished Field:The standardB IB T E X styles support the howpublishedﬁeld for the booklet and misc entry types.IEEEtran.bst extends this to also include electronic,manual,standard and techreport.The rational for doing this is because,with these entry types,there is often a need to explain in what form the given work was pro-duced.The additional information provided by howpublished 3On teT E X(UNIX)and fpT E X systems this can be accomplished simply by running“fmtutil--all”as root.For MiKT E X users,the command “initexmf--dump”will do the trick.is placed,as given,in normal font,just after the title(or booktitle,if used)of the entry.IEEE exploits this feature most often for electronic ref-erences,but it has application with any entry whose exact form would be unclear without additional information(unlike optional notes which tend to be more“by the way”in nature). See section V for more details.e With Cross-referenced EntriesIEEE bibliographies do not normally contain references that refer to other references.Therefore,IEEEtran.bst does not format entries that use cross references(via the crossrefﬁeld) any differently from entries that don’t.Nevertheless,it does allow the entries using the crossrefﬁeld to silently inherent any missingﬁelds from their respective cross-referenced entries in the standard B IB T E X manner.However,users who take advantage of this“parent/child”feature are cautioned that B IB T E X will automatically,and without warning,add a cross-referenced entry to the end of the bibliography if the number of references using the cross-reference is equal to or greater than “min-crossrefs.”Because such additional entries are unwanted in IEEE style,users who employ cross-referenced entries need to ensure that the cross-referenced entries are not added to the bibliography.The default value of min-crossrefs on most B IB T E X systems is two.Unfortunately,this value is set when B IB T E X is compiled and cannot be altered within.bst ﬁles.However,B IB T E X does offer a way to control it on the command line.Therefore,when using cross-referenced entries,users must remember to set min-crossrefs to a large value(greater than the number of bibliography entries)when invoking B IB T E X:bibtex-min-crossrefs=900myfileBecause cross-referenced entries must always appear after any entries that refer to them,it is recommended that the cross-referenced entries be kept in separate(.bib)ﬁle(s)so that they can be loaded after the other(.bib)databaseﬁles:\bibliography{IEEEabrv,mybibfile,myxrefbibs} IV.E XAMPLES OF THE T HREE M OST C OMMONLY U SEDE NTRY T YPESJournal articles,conference papers and books account for the vast majority of references in most IEEE bibliographies. It may be helpful to the user to brieﬂy illustrate a simple example of each of these common entry types before divulging into ones with more complex or obscure details.A typical journal article entry looks like@article{IEEEexample:article_typical,author="S.Zhang and C.Zhu and J.K.O.Sinand P.K.T.Mok",title="A Novel Ultrathin Elevated ChannelLow-temperature Poly-{Si}{TFT}", journal=IEEE_J_EDL,volume="20",month=nov,year="1999",pages="569-571"};which is shown as reference[9].Using an entry key preﬁx that is used only by the given databaseﬁle(“IEEEexample”in the above entry)ensures that the entry key will remain unique even if multiple databaseﬁles are used simultaneously.Although initials are used for theﬁrst names here,users are encouraged to use full names whenever they are known as IEEEtran.bst will automatically abbreviate names as needed(but B IB T E X styles that use full names will require them to be present). Likewise,it is a good idea to provide all the authors’names rather than using“and others”to get“et al.”[10].Section VII describes how IEEEtran.bst can be conﬁgured to force the use of“et al.”if the number of names exceeds a set limit. Within the title,braces are used to preserve the capitaliza-tion of acronyms.The journal name is entered as a string that is deﬁned in the IEEEabrv.bibﬁle.Not only does this approach reduce the probability of spelling mistakes,but it allows the user to instantly switch to full journal names by using the IEEEfull.bib deﬁnitions instead(not for use with work to be submitted to the IEEE).In like fashion,the month is entered as a standard B IB T E X three letter code4so that the month format can automatically be controlled by the string(macro)month name deﬁnitions provided within every.bstﬁle.It is generally a good idea to also provide the journal number,but many journal article references in IEEE publi-cations do not show the number.Section VII discusses how the user can conﬁgure IEEEtran.bst to ignore journal numbers for articles.A typical paper in a conference proceedings entry looks like @inproceedings{IEEEexample:conf_typical,author="R.K.Gupta and S. D.Senturia",title="Pull-in Time Dynamics as a Measureof Absolute Pressure",booktitle="Proc.{IEEE}International Workshopon Microelectromechanical Systems({MEMS}’97)",address="Nagoya,Japan",month=jan,year="1997",pages="290-294"};which is shown as reference[11].IEEE typically prepends“Proc.”to the conference name (when forming the booktitleﬁeld):booktitle="Proc.{ECOC}’99",IEEEtran.bst does not do this automatically as it may not be appropriate for every conference.The conference entry type is also available as an alias for inproceedings.There is no functional difference between the two.Finally,a typical book entry looks like@book{IEEEexample:book_typical,author="B. D.Cullity",title="Introduction to Magnetic Materials", publisher="Addison-Wesley",address="Reading,MA",year="1972"};4For reference,these are:jan,feb,mar,apr,may,jun,jul,aug,sep,oct, nov and dec.which is shown as reference[12].One of the unusual attributes of IEEE bibliography references is that,when formatting entries,they precede the publisher address with a period and a larger than normal space.V.S UPPORTED E NTRY T YPESTheﬁelds that are recognized by each entry type are shown at the beginning of each of the subsections below.A bold font indicates a requiredﬁeld,while a slanted font is used to indicateﬁelds that are extensions that may not be supported by the standard B IB T E X styles for the given entry type.The reader is reminded that IEEEexample.bibﬁle contains the actual B IB T E X entries that were used to make the references demonstrated here.A.ArticleSupportedﬁelds:author,title,language, journal,volume,number,pages,month,year,note, url.Another typical journal article is shown in[13].Because the referenced journal was not published by the IEEE,the IEEEabrv.bibﬁle will not contain the needed string deﬁnition. So,the user will either have to make his/her own supple-mentary string deﬁnitionﬁle,or enter the abbreviated journal name directly into the journalﬁeld.See published IEEE bibliographies for examples of how to properly abbreviate the journal name at hand.Note also how IEEE uses small spaces to divide page(and other)numbers withﬁve digits or more into groups of three.As mentioned previously,the display of the numberﬁeld for articles can be controlled(see section VII).Sometimes it is desirable to put extra information into the monthﬁeld such as the day,or additional months[14].This is accomplished by using the B IB T E X concatenation operator “#”:month=sep#"/"#oct,1)Articles Pending Publication:Articles that have not yet been published can be handled as a misc type with a note[15]: @misc{IEEEexample:TBPmisc,author="M.Coates and A.Hero and R.Nowakand B.Yu",title="Internet Tomography",howpublished=IEEE_M_SP,month=may,year="2002",note="to be published"};(date information is optional)or they can be handled as an article type with the pending status in the yearﬁeld[16]:@article{IEEEexample:TBParticle,author="N.Kahale and R.Urbanke",title="On the Minimum Distance of Paralleland Serially Concatenated Codes", journal=IEEE_J_IT,year="submitted for publication"};B.BookSupportedﬁelds:author and/or editor,title, language,edition,series,address,publisher, month,year,volume,number,note,url.Books may have authors[12],editors[17]or both[18].Note that the standard B IB T E X styles do not support book entries with both author and editorﬁelds,but IEEEtran.bst does. The standard B IB T E X way of entering edition numbers is in capitalized ordinal word form:edition="Second",IEEEtran.bst can automatically convert up to the tenth edition to the“Arabic ordinal”form(e.g.,“2nd”)that IEEE uses.For editions over the tenth in references that are to be used in IEEE style bibliographies,it is best to enter editionﬁelds in the“Arabic ordinal”form(e.g.,“101st”).A book may also be part of a series and have a volume or number[19].C.InbookSupportedﬁelds:author and/or editor,title, language,edition,series,address,publisher, month,year,volume,number,chapter,type,pages, note,url.Inbook is used to reference a part of a book,such as a chapter[20]or selected page(s)[21].The typeﬁeld can be used to override the word chapter(for which IEEE uses the abbreviation“ch.”)when the book uses parts,sections,etc., instead of chapterstype="sec.",D.IncollectionSupportedﬁelds:author,title,booktitle, language,edition,series,editor,address, publisher,month,year,volume,number,chapter, type,pages,note,url.Incollection is used to reference part of a book having its own title[22].Like book,incollection supports the series[23], chapter and pagesﬁelds[24].Also,the typeﬁeld can be used to override the word chapter.IEEE sometimes uses incollection somewhat like inproceed-ings when the book in question is a composition of articles from various conferences[25].For such use,the differences between incollection and inproceedings are minor—one distinctive sign is that,with incollection,the volume number appears after the date,while with inproceedings it appears before.To better support such use,IEEEtran.bst,unlike the standard B IB T E X styles,does not require a publisherﬁeld for incollection entries.E.BookletSupportedﬁelds:author,title,language, howpublished,organization,address,month,year, note,url.Booklet is used for printed and bound works that are not formally published.IEEEtran.bst formats titles of booklets like articles—not like manuals and books.A primary difference between booklet and unpublished is that the former is/was distributed by some means.Booklet is rarely used in IEEE bibliographies.F.ManualSupportedﬁelds:author,title,language,edition, howpublished,organization,address,month,year, note,url.Technical documentation is handled by the manual entry type[26].Note that the cited example places the databook part number with the title.Perhaps a more correct approach would be to put this information into the howpublishedﬁeld instead[27].However,other B IB T E X styles will probably not support the howpublishedﬁeld for manuals.G.Inproceedings/ConferenceSupportedﬁelds:author,title,intype, booktitle,language,series,editor,volume, number,organization,address,publisher,month, year,paper,type,pages,note,url.References of papers in conference proceedings are handled by the inproceedings or conference entry types.These two types are functionally identical and can be used interchange-ably.If desired,the days of the conference can be added to the month via the B IB T E X concatenation operator“#”[28]: month=dec#"5--9,",Although not common with conference proceedings,the volume and numberﬁelds are also supported[29].Note that, unlike the other entry types,IEEE places such information prior to the date.From IEEE’s viewpoint,the location and date of the conference may form the dividing point between information related to identifying which proceedings and information that pertains to the location of the information referenced therein(pages,etc.).IEEEtran.bst supports a paperﬁeld(a nonstandard exten-sion)for paper numbers[30]:paper="11.3.4",The typeﬁeld can be used to override the default paper type (“paper”)[31]:type="postdeadline paper",Section VII describes how these extensions can be disabled if desired for journals with bibliographies that tend not to display such information(while allowing the user to retain such information in the database entries for those journals that do).There are events that happen during conferences that may not be in the written proceedings record(speeches,etc.). Sometimes it is necessary to reference such things.For these occasions,IEEEtran.bst supports the intypeﬁeld(a nonstan-dard extension)which can override the word“in”in the reference[32]:intype="presented at the",Note that when using intype,the booktitleﬁeld is no longer italicized because the book that contains the written conference record is no longer what is being referred to.H.ProceedingsSupportedﬁelds:editor,title,language,series, volume,number,organization,address,publisher, month,year,note,url.It is rare to need to reference an entire conference proceed-ings,but,if necessary,the proceedings entry type can be used to do so.I.MastersthesisSupportedﬁelds:author,title,language,type, school,address,month,year,note,url.Master’s(or minor)theses can be handled with the master-sthesis entry type[33].The optional typeﬁeld can be used to override the words“Master’s thesis”if a different designation is desired[34]:type="M.Eng.thesis",J.PhdthesisSupportedﬁelds:author,title,language,type, school,address,month,year,note,url.The phdthesis entry type is used for Ph.D.dissertations (major theses)[35].Like mastersthesis,the typeﬁeld can be used to override the default designation.K.TechreportSupportedﬁelds:author,title,language, howpublished,institution,address,number,type, month,year,note,url.Techreport is used for technical reports[36].The optional typeﬁeld can be used to override the default designation “Tech.Rep.”[37],[38].L.UnpublishedSupportedﬁelds:author,title,language,month, year,note,url.The unpublished entry type is used for documents that have not been formally published.IEEE typically just uses “unpublished”for the required noteﬁeld[39].M.Electronic(IEEEtran.bst extension)Supportedﬁelds:author,month,year,title, language,howpublished,organization,address, note,url.IEEEtran.bst provides the electronic entry type for internet references[40],[41].IEEEtran.bst also provides the aliases “online,”“internet,”and“webpage”for compatibility with some existing B IB T E X database and styleﬁles.However,“electronic”should be used for all new work.IEEE formats electronic references differently by not using italics or quotes and separatingﬁelds with periods rather than commas.Also, the date is enclosed within parentheses and is placed closer to the title.This is probably done to emphasize that electronic references may not remain valid on the rapidly changing internet.Note also the liberal use of the howpublishedﬁeld to describe the form or category of the entries.The organization and addressﬁelds may also be used[42].N.Patent(IEEEtran.bst extension)Supportedﬁelds:author,title,language,assignee, address,nationality,type,number,day,dayfiled, month,monthfiled,year or yearfiled,note,url. Patents are supported by IEEEtran.bst.The nationalityﬁeld provides a means to handle patents from different countries [43],[44]nationality="United States",ornationality="Japanese",Note that,with the exception of the U.S.,the word for the nationality of a patent is not usually the same as the word for the country that issued the patent.The nationality for a U.S.patent can be entered either as“U.S.”or“United States.”IEEEtran.bst will automatically detect and convert the latter form to“U.S.”as is done by IEEE.The nationality should be capitalized.The assignee and address(of the assignee)ﬁelds are not used by IEEE or IEEEtran.bst.However,they are provided, and proper values should be assigned to them(if known)for all patent entries as other B IB T E X styles may use them.The typeﬁeld provides a way to override the“patent”description with other patent related descriptions such as “patent application”or“patent request”[45]:type="Patent Request",In order to provide full support for both patents and patent applications,two sets of dateﬁelds are provided.One set pertains to the date the patent was granted(day,month and year)the other pertains to the date the patent application wasﬁled(dayﬁled,monthﬁled and yearﬁled).There is a slight complication because IEEE displays only one date for references of patents or patent applications.IEEEtran.bst looks for the presence of the year and yearﬁledﬁles.If the year ﬁeld is present,the set pertaining to the date granted is used. Otherwise,IEEEtran.bst uses the set pertaining to the date ﬁled.O.Periodical(IEEEtran.bst extension)Supportedﬁelds:editor,title,language,series, volume,number,organization,month,year,note, url.The periodical entry type is used for journals and magazines [46].P.Standard(IEEEtran.bst extension)Supportedﬁelds:author,title,language, howpublished,organization or institution,type, number,revision,address,month,year,note,url.。

世界几大著名图书馆英文介绍

1815.After a period of decline
during the mid-19th century the Library of Congress began to grow rapidly in both size and importance after the American Civil War, culminating in the construction of a separate library building and the transference of all copyright deposit holdings to the Library
bookshelves, while the British Library reports about 625 kilometers (388 mi) of shelves. The Library of Congress holds about 147 million items with 33 million books against approximately 150 million items with 25 million books for the British Library
• The Library makes millions of digital objects, comprising tens of petabytes （10的15次方字节）, available at its American Memory site. American Memory is a source for public domain image resources, as well as audio, video, and archived Web content. Nearly all of the lists of holdings, the catalogs of the library, can be consulted directly on its web site.

文献的引用于格式解读

文后括号里表示成(1-2)。 2. 本文引用的小说原文出自: Charles, Dickens. 2002,Oliver Twist.
黑龙江:黑龙江人民出版社。引用格式用第几章第几页表示，比如第3章在书的第98页: Ch3，P98
当引文多于50个字, 诗2行以上的内容, 另起一行, 左边缩进8个字符, 而且不需要引号(很多时候要求小一个字号)。例如：
In most fields, paraphrasing (summarizing or changing the original words to your own words) is preferred above direct quotations. Paraphrase others’ words whenever possible unless there is a specific reason to use a direct quote.
当我们要在一个学术期刊杂志上发表文章时, 应该参考那个期刊上已经发表的论文,仔细研究参考引用的格式,因为通常每个期刊都有自己特定的文献参考引用格式。
中国国内期刊的文献引用标准也很多，有的严格参考国外（美国）的标准，有的在参考国外文献引用标准的基础上规定自己的格式。英文期刊的参考文献格式也不尽相同。毕业论文写作参看教务处毕业论文平台样本格式。
直接引述或间接引述Quote or Paraphrase?
当提及或利用他人资料时，我们可以直接引述 (quote),也可以用自己的话重新表达这些信息 (paraphrase), 到底什么时候应该直接引述，什么时候应该间接引述，虽然没有严格的规定，但是可以依照下面的几个规律帮助做出更恰当的决定：
如何断定是不是common knowledge?

文献综述的定义

文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文，它是科学文献的一种。

文献综述是反映当前某一领域中某分支学科或重要专题的最新进展、学术见解和建议的它往往能反映出有关问题的新动态、新趋势、新水平、新原理和新技术等等。

要求同学们学写综述，至少有以下好处：①通过搜集文献资料过程，可进一步熟悉医学文献的查找方法和资料的积累方法；在查找的过程中同时也扩大了知识面；②查找文献资料、写文献综述是临床科研选题及进行临床科研的第一步，因此学习文献综述的撰写也是为今后科研活动打基础的过程；③通过综述的写作过程，能提高归纳、分析、综合能力，有利于独立工作能力和科研能力的提高；④文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，可难可易，可根据自己的能力和兴趣自由选题。

文献综述与"读书报告"、"文献复习"、"研究进展"等有相似的地方，它们都是从某一方面的专题研究论文或报告中归纳出来的。

但是，文献综述既不象"读书报告"、"文献复习"那样，单纯把一级文献客观地归纳报告，也不象"研究进展"那样只讲科学进程，其特点是"综"，"综"是要求对文献资料进行综合分析、归纳整理，使材料更精练明确、更有逻辑层次；"述"就是要求对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述。

总之，文献综述是作者对某一方面问题的历史背景、前人工作、争论焦点、研究现状和发展前景等内容进行评论的科学性论文。

写文献综述一般经过以下几个阶段：即选题，搜集阅读文献资料、拟定提纲（包括归纳、整理、分析）和成文。

一、选题和搜集阅读文献撰写文献综述通常出于某种需要，如为某学术会议的专题、从事某项科研、为某方面积累文献资料等等，所以，文献综述的选题，作者一般是明确的，不象科研课题选题那么困难。

apa guide 简明apa参考文献格式

APA Referencing2007 Note: this page is only an introduction to the APA (American Psychological Association) referencing system.For a comprehensive guide please refer to:American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American PsychologicalAssociation (5th ed.). Washington DC: APA.It is very important that you check the assignment guide for your Department or School as some details,e.g. punctuation, may vary from the guidelines on this page. You may be penalised for not conformingto your school's requirements.What is Referencing?Referencing is a standardised method of acknowledging sources of information and ideas that you haveused in your assignment in a way that uniquely identifies their source. Direct quotations, facts and figures, as well as ideas and theories, from both published and unpublished works, must be referenced.There are many acceptable forms of referencing. This information sheet provides a brief guide to the APA referencing style for in-text citations and for creating the Reference List (examples are below). Within the text of the assignment the author’s name is given first, followed by the publication date. Include pagenumbers for direct quotations and also where it is useful to provide a page number. A reference list at the end of the assignment contains the full details of all the in-text citations.Why Reference?Referencing is necessary to avoid plagiarism, to verify quotations, and to enable readers to follow-up andread more fully the cited author’s arguments.Steps Involved in Referencing1. Note down the full bibliographic details of the source from which the information is taken. Include therelevant page number(s).In the case of a book, ‘bibliographical details’ refers to: author/editor, year of publication, title,edition, volume number, place of publication and publisher as found on the front and back of thetitle page. (Not all of these details will necessarily be applicable).In the case of a journal article the details required include: author of the article, year of publication,title of the article, title of the journal, volume and issue number of the journal, and page numbers.For all electronic information, in addition to the above you should note the date that you accessedthe information, and the database name or web address (URL).2. Insert the citation at the appropriate place within the text of the document (see examples below).3. Provide a reference list at the end of the document (see examples below).In-Text CitationsUse the name of the author, followed by the year of publication when citing references within the text ofan assignment. Where authors of different references have the same family name, include the author’sinitials in the in-text citation i.e. (Hamilton, C. L., 1994) or C. L. Hamilton (1994). If two or more authors arecited at the same point in the text then they are included in the same in-text citation, separated by a semicolone.g. (Brown 1991; Smith 2003). They are presented alphabetically by author.When directly quoting fromanother source, the relevant page number must be given and double quotation marks placed around the quote.When paraphrasing or referring to an idea from another source which is a book or lengthy text, include therelevant page number, as it is useful to provide a page number for the reader.How to Create a Reference ListA reference list only includes books, articles etc that are cited in the text. In contrast, a bibliography is a list ofrelevant sources for background or for further reading.The reference list is arranged alphabetically by author. Where an item has no author it is cited by its title, andordered in the reference list or bibliography alphabetically by the first significant word of the title.The APA style requires the second and subsequent lines of the reference to be indented, as shown in theexamples below, to highlight the alphabetical order.2。

学术英语（社科）Unit2二单元原文及翻译

学术英语（社科）Unit2二单元原文及翻译第一篇：学术英语(社科)Unit2二单元原文及翻译UNIT 2 Economist1.Every field of study has its own language and its own way of thinking.Mathematicians talk about axioms, integrals, and vector spaces.Psychologists talk about ego, id, and cognitive wyers talk about venue, torts, and promissory estoppel.每个研究领域都有它自己的语言和思考方式。

数学家谈论定理、积分以及向量空间。

心理学家谈论自我、本能、以及认知的不一致性。

律师谈论犯罪地点、侵权行为以及约定的禁止翻供。

2.Economics is no different.Supply, demand, elasticity, comparative advantage, consumer surplus, deadweight loss—these terms are part of the economist’s language.In the coming chapters, you will encounter many new terms and some familiar words that economists use in specialized ways.At first, this new language may seem needlessly arcane.But, as you will see, its value lies in its ability to provide you a new and useful way of thinking about the world in which you live.经济学家也一样。

tpo54三篇阅读原文译文题目答案译文背景知识

托福阅读tpo54全套解析阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (4)题目 (5)答案 (9)背景知识 (10)阅读-2 (10)原文 (10)译文 (12)题目 (13)答案 (18)背景知识 (20)阅读-3 (25)原文 (26)译文 (27)题目 (28)答案 (33)背景知识 (35)阅读-1原文The Commercialization of Lumber①In nineteenth-century America, practically everything that was built involved wood.Pine was especially attractive for building purposes.It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools.It also floats nicely on water, which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation.The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states—Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes, from where they were transported nationwide.②By 1860, the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states. Over the next 30 years, lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity, but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees. In this sense, what happened between 1860 and 1890 represented a significant break with the past. No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles, firewood, and other wood products. By the 1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturingcompanies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.③The commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change. The early, thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood, with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the 1870s, however, the British-invented band saw, with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states' lumber factories.Meanwhile, the rise of steam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient, centralized, and continuous cutting of lumber. Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks, from cutting to the carrying away of waste. Mills also employed steam to heat log ponds, preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.④For industrial lumbering to succeed, a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production. Traditionally, cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams. Once the streams and lakes thawed, workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer. If nature did not cooperate—if the winter proved dry and warm, if the spring thaw was delayed—production would suffer. To counter the effects of climate on lumber production, loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods. In the 1870s, loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads, giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel. The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.⑤But all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter. Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud. In the 1870s, a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons. Railroads were one possibility.At first, the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track.But increasing lumber prices in the late 1870s combined with periodic warm, dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails. By 1887, 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.⑥Once the logs arrived at a river, the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one.Logjams (buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream) were common—at times stretching for 10 miles—and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s. To help keep the logs moving efficiently, barriers called booms (essentially a chain of floating logs) were constructed to control the direction of the timber. By the 1870s, lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.译文木材的商业化①在19世纪的美国，几乎所有建筑材料都含有木材。

中国科学院大学英语B考试大纲

中国科学院研究生院英语B考试大纲笔试部分笔试部分由试卷一和试卷二构成。

试卷一包括：听力、英语知识运用与阅读理解两部分。

试卷二为书面表达部分。

时间总长共150分钟，满分100分。

试卷一（75分）第一部分：听力（20分）本部分考查考生理解英语口语、获取特定信息以及简要笔记的能力，由A、B 两节组成。

A节：共10题，每题1分。

要求考生根据所听到的10段对话，从每题所给的4个选项中找出最佳答案。

每题有12-15秒答题时间。

每段对话的录音只播放一遍。

B节：共10题，每题1分。

要求考生根据所听到的3篇对话或独白简要回答10道有关该对话或独白的问题。

问题在试卷中印出但不在录音中读出。

录音材料只播放一遍。

本部分大约需要25分钟。

第二部分：英语知识运用与阅读理解（55分）本部分考查考生对用于一定语境中的词汇、表达方式和结构的掌握和理解书面英语的能力，由A、B和C三节组成。

A节：共15题，每题1分。

在1篇约300词的短文中留出15个空白，要求考生从短文后提供的30个词或表达式中选出最佳选项，使补足后的短文意义通顺，前后连贯，结构完整。

其中有11-12道题考查词汇和表达方式，3-4道题考查语法和语篇结构。

本节大约需要20分钟。

B节：共20题，每题1.5分，共30分。

考查考生理解总体和特定信息、猜词悟义、推断作者态度和意图的能力。

要求考生根据所提供的4篇文章（平均每篇约400词）的内容，从每题所给的4个选择项中选出最佳选项。

本节大约需要35分钟。

C节：共10题，每题1分。

考查考生对诸如连贯性和一致性等语段特征的理解。

要求考生根据2篇留有5段空白的文章（平均每篇约400词）的内容，在每篇文后所提供的6段文字中选择能分别放进该文章中5个空白处的5段。

本节大约需要20分钟。

本部分总需时间约75分钟。

试卷二（25分）本部分考查考生英语书面表达的能力，由A、B两节组成。

A节：共1题，10分。

要求考生根据所提供的1篇长约450词的、有相当难度的文章写出1篇字数为120—150词的内容提要（约占原文的1/4-1/3）。

研究隐喻的主要学科

2000年10月第16卷　第4期四川外语学院学报Journal of S ichuan International S tudies UniversityOct.,2000V ol.16　N o.4研究隐喻的主要学科3李福印Ξ(香港中文大学外语系,香港)摘　要:本文旨在介绍隐喻在国外英语界的研究动态、发展过程及隐喻的研究对象。

并通过分析隐喻的定义、基本功能及理论,解释为什么隐喻的研究对象如此广博,并成为跨学科研究的对象。

关键词:隐喻;跨域映射中图分类号:H315 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1003-3831(2000)04-0044-06Main subjects on metaphorLI Fu2yin(F oreign Languages Dept.,H ong K ong Chinese University,H ong K ong)Abstract:This paper introduces the current situation of metaphor in the English language studies circles abroad, and the wide range of subject matters of metaphor study.By analyzing the various definitions,the basic functions and s ome of the preliminary theories of metaphor,it explained why metaphor could be approached from such wide disciplines.K ey w ords:metaphor;cross2domain mapping 11隐喻研究的发展英语中的“metaphor”(隐喻)一词来源于希腊语“metaphora”,该词由“meta”和“pherein”合成,意思分别为“over”和“to carry”,合起来意思是“to carry over”(带过来,拿过来)。

英文论文写作文献引用方式详细讲解

Citing Sources: Principles and ExamplesRichard N. L. AndrewsUpdated August 2008It is very important that you develop good habits of documenting the sources of both factual statements and the ideas, opinions, and arguments of other people that you use in any paper you write. One basic reason for this is to be able to support the statements you make and the facts you use if someone else should challenge or disagree with them. A second is to distinguish clearly between someone else’s ideas and arguments and your own, and not confuse the two. And a third is to protect your own integrity against either deliberate or accidental representation of someone else’s ideas or work as your own, which if intentional is known as plagiarism and is a serious violation of the UNC Honor Code and of the standards of ethical writing.Here are a few key recommendations:1.When you take notes on readings, either (1) take direct quotations (usingquotation marks, even in your notes) and a full, exact citation with it at the sametime (i ncluding page number, so that you don’t have to go back and find it again), or (2) write your notes in sentences beginning, “Jones argues that…” or “Smithsays that…” (and again, take an exact citation for future reference). Do not justcut and paste without including quotation marks and a citation, and do not writeout directly copied or closely paraphrased material without including a citation of where it was from – both these practices may lead you later to misremember orrationalize what was your own w riting versus what was the original author’s.2.When you use other authors’ materials in your paper, always use it in the formsdiscussed above, and always cite it (e.e. Andrews, 2003: 2). This also has thebenefit of setting up the other author’s point for you to interpret or critique usingdifferent facts or your own counter-arguments, clearly showing your own ideas as different (“Adams argues that …, on the basis that …. In the case we are presently discussing, however, I believe a different interpretatio n is more persuasive [or, “In this case, however, the facts seem to lead to a different conclusion….”] Forexample, ….”).3.Citations can be done in any of several different ways in different fields andpublications. Unless there is a good reason to do otherwise, I encourage studentsto use the “Author, date: page” citation system (e.g. Andrews et al., 2003: 26).This is the simplest and most efficient way to do it, and it allows you to relateyour references to a single alphabetical reference list or bibliography, avoidcomplicated footnoting (id., ibid., op. cit., etc.), and use footnotes only for moredetailed explanation or interesting side-issues on a particular point in the text ofthe paper.4.Materials cited from on-line sources must include (1) the author and title of theactual document found, and the exact Internet URL where it is located (not justthe search engine page, or the main home page of the site on which you found it);(2) the actual date of its publication, if given; (3) any additional informationavailable about the actual original date of publication and publisher; and (4) thedate on which you accessed the web page (since Internet sites can change overtime, and documents be moved around). If something you find on the Internetcannot be identified in this way, it should be used only as the opinion or positionof the group that runs that site (and should be cited accordingly), or as anunreliable source of information.5.Particularly when using materials from Internet sites, be a critical reader, and docareful checking yourself to determine both the quality of the evidence andreasoning of the paper itself, and what sort of organization is providing thisinformation. Many are ideologically-oriented advocacy groups, even thoughlabeled as “n on-partisan research organizations” or “foundations” or “institutes”;some are deliberately misleading, seeking to persuade you of their credibility orneutrality when they are in fact covertly “fronting for” a different point of view(this is true for example of some groups attacking environmental policies). Check the group’s mission statement and other subsidiary pages about it and about itsagenda; check what kinds of other sites it links you to; check the names of keyindividuals associated with the sit e (you can “Google” them to see what they’vewritten or who else they’re affiliated with); check even the webmaster’s or“contact us” email address to see if it takes you to some other underlying group’s web site. Then read the articles themselves skeptically, as you should anythingelse, with careful attention to evidence and reasoning; and always be aware thatthere may be at least one differing point of view, and look carefully to see whichone you think is most persuasive. For an excellent guide to evaluating evidence in printed sources, which is also a very good starting point on the same issues inInternet sources, see /depts/wcweb/handouts/evidence.html.6.For a very good handout providing additional detail on proper citation,plagiarism, and how to use other authors’ materials properly, see/depts/wcweb/handouts/plagiarism.html (accessed August 22, 2008). Please read it, and print it or download it to your own computer forfuture reference. For excellent handouts on many other aspects of good writingpractices, see /depts/wcweb/handouts/ (accessed August 22,2008).Here are some examples of how to accurately cite several kinds of materials: a book, a book chapter, a journal or magazine article, a newspaper article, a government report, and a report on the Internet:Andrews, Richard N. L. 1999. Managing the Environment,. Managing Ourselves: A History of American Environmental Policy. New Haven: Yale University Press. 416 pp. [Cite in paper as Andrews, 1999: pp.]Applebaum, Richard P., and Gary Gereffi. 1994. Power and Profits in the Apparel Commodity Chain. Chapter 3 in Global Production: The Apparel Industry in thePacific Rim, edited by Edna Bonacich et al. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, pp. 42-62. [cite in paper as Applebaum and Gereffi, 1994: pp.]Darnall, Nicole; Gallagher, Deborah R.; Andrews, R. N. L.; and Deborah Amaral. 2000.Environmental Management Systems: Opportunities for Improved Environmental and Business Strategy? Environmental Quality Management 9(3): 1-9. [This means Volume 9, Number 3, pages 1-9. Cite in paper as Darnall et al., 2000: pp.]Rives, Karen. 2002. The High Price of Free Trade: No End in Sight to N.C. Job Losses.Raleigh News & Observer, August 18, 2002, p. 1A. [Note that while this is anewspaper article found on line, the proper citation is to the author of the article and the actual date of its publication, and the page number if available, not just to the web site or search engine].U. S. Congress. House Committees on Agriculture and on Foreign Affairs. 1990. Review of U.S. International Food Assistance Programs. Joint hearing, November 1, 1989, Serial no. 101-32. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. [This showsproper citation for a government document – in this case a Congressional hearing –showing how to cite the report of a specific committee of the Congress, or of aspecific office or bureau within a larger government agency. If available on theInternet, you would also add the Internet citation using the style below, being sure to use an actual Internet page URL and not simply a search-engine character string.] Connor, Timothy. 2002. We Are Not Machines: Indonesian Nike and Adidas Workers.Ottawa, Canada & Victoria, Australia: Oxfam. On line at/campaigns/nike/pdf/Wearenotmachines.pdf,accessed September 24, 2002. [Note that this is a good example of a paper actually written by one individual and published by one organization, but posted on line on another group’s web site. Be sure to identify the original author and publisher ifidentifiable. Also be sure you are getting an actual URL web address for this specific document, not simply a “frame” citing only the organization’s m ain home page].。

2022年考研考博-考博英语-中国财政科学研究院考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析B卷(带答案)第5期

2022年考研考博-考博英语-中国财政科学研究院考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析B卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题The sculptural legacy that new United States ______ its colonial predecessors was far from a rich one, and in fact, in 1776 sculptures as an art form was still in the hands of artisans and craftspeople.问题1选项A.inherited fromB.inherited inC.adapted toD.adopted to【答案】A【解析】考查固定搭配。

A选项inherited from“从……继承……”；B选项inherited in非固定搭配；C选项adapted to“适应于”；D选项adopted to“采用”。

句意：新美洲从其殖民前辈那里______的雕塑遗产远不是丰富的，事实上，在1776年，雕塑作为一种艺术形式仍然在工匠和手艺人手中。

根据语境，A选项inherited from“从……继承……”搭配legacy“遗产”比较合理，意指从先辈那里继承的雕塑艺术遗产，符合题意。

因此A选项正确。

2.单选题______ the financial means to remain independent, Thomas Edison was compelled to seek employment as a night telegraph operator.问题1选项A.He was deprived ofB.That he was deprived ofC.Although he was deprived ofD.Deprived of【答案】D【解析】考查非谓语动词。

句意：由于没有了维持独立的经济来源，托马斯•爱迪生不得不去找个夜间电报员的工作。

2012-IEEE网络课堂-投稿流程详解

IEEE网络课堂之二网络课堂之二: 网络课堂之二 IEEE期刊会议投稿流程详解期刊会议投稿流程详解李箐 IEEE中国区资讯经理 IEEE中国区资讯经理 2012年 2012年本学期网络课堂系列主题一：如何利用IEEE Xplore提升科研效率-IEL数据库如何利用IEEE Xplore提升科研效率 IEL数据库提升科研效率如何利用检索技巧详解主题二：如何成为IEEE作者如何成为IEEE作者如何成为IEEE–IEEE期刊与会议投稿流程详解 IEEE期刊与会议投稿流程详解 IEEE–IEEE期刊投稿注意事项 IEEE期刊投稿注意事项 IEEE –科技论文英文写作科技论文英文写作主题三：走进全球最大的专业科技协会- IEEE学术研究走进全球最大的专业科技协会- IEEE学术研究走进全球最大的专业科技协会与交流环境详解主题四：加强沟通提升服务-IEEE图书馆员资源专场加强沟通提升服务-IEEE图书馆员资源专场 /online_training.htmlIEEE Volunteer Activities组织技术社团 –45 个技术协会和技术委员会 1860 专业技术委员会 –329 个地方分会 80个国家的1,789 个学生分会每年在全球范围内举办1000多场会议出版世界电气电子工程和计算机领域30％的文献提供900多个现行的产业标准，及400个正在制定的标准IEEE SocietiesIEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Society IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society IEEE Magnetics Society IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society IEEE Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society IEEE Photonics Society IEEE Power Electronics Society IEEE Power and Energy Society IEEE Product Safety Engineering Society IEEE Professional Communications Society IEEE Reliability Society IEEE Robotics and Automation Society IEEE Signal Processing Society IEEE Society on Social Implications of Technology IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society IEEE Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control Society IEEE Vehicular Technology Society IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society IEEE Broadcast Technology Society IEEE Circuits and Systems Society IEEE Communications Society IEEE Components, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology Society IEEE Computational Intelligence Society IEEE Computer Society IEEE Consumer Electronics Society IEEE Control Systems Society IEEE Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Society IEEE Education Society IEEE Electron Devices Society IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society IEEE Industrial Electronics Society IEEE Industry Applications Society IEEE Information Theory SocietyIEEE期刊投稿流程期刊投稿流程Find Journals on IEEE Xplore电子投稿：电子投稿：E-Submission注册帐号进入作者专区/gethelpnow/输入题目和文摘选择关键字输入作者和机构推荐审稿人说明信件上载文章和附件查看进程评审流程Review Process e.g. IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in BiomedicineIEEE Photonics JournalAverage time fromsubmission to firstdecision: 20 daysAverage time fromsubmission to Webposting: 38 daysAverage time fromsubmission toappearing on issue:60 day投稿格式投稿格式：：Tools for Authors/publications_standards/publications/au thors/authors_journals.htmlArticle Preparation and SubmissionIEEE Taxonomy(PDF,374 KB)Reference Preparation AssistantSTIX Fonts Web SiteIEEE Style Manual(PDF, 132 KB)Refine the Use of English in Your ManuscriptIEEE "Information for Authors" kit(PDF, 755 KB)Graphics Checker ToolFrequently Asked Questions on Submitting Graphics(PDF, 20 KB) Titles of IEEE Transactions, Journals, and Magazines(PDF, 728 KB) Using Microsoft Products or PDFs to Submit Graphics(PDF, 2.2 MB)Template for all Transactions*•Template and Instructions on How to Create Your Paper(DOC, 92KB)•Instructions Only(PDF, 108 KB)•WIN and MAC Bibliography File(ZIP, 208 KB)•Unix LaTeX2e Transactions Style File(TAR.GZ, 204 KB)•WIN OR MAC LaTeX2e Transactions Style File (ZIP, 348 KB)•Unix Bibliography File(TAR.GZ, 204 KB)(except IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, IEEE Magnetics Letters, IEEE Photonics Journal and IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation )利用参考文献管理工具设置格式利用参考文献管理工具设置格式IEEE Reference Preparation Assistant/action/showAuthorLoginEditing Assistancehttp://www.prof-/ieee/index.phpIEEE会议投稿会议论文和期刊论文的区别会议主要目的是通过演讲现场交流信息和交换想法会议常常反映最新最前沿的研究，很多研究尚未到达正期刊发表体现更严格的评审以及更高质量的成果没有演讲此类口头交流信息的形式大部分期刊论文至少有3名以式期刊发表的程度。

Springer_CS_Proceedings_Author_Guidelines_19APR2011

Author Guidelines for the Preparation of Contributionsto Springer Computer Science ProceedingsAlfred Hofmann 1,*{alfred.hofmann,ralf.gerstner,anna.kramer , Ralf Gerstner 1, Anna Kramer 1, and Frank Holzwarth 21Springer-Verlag, Computer Science Editorial, Heidelberg, Germany}@2 Springer-Verlag, Technical Support, Heidelberg, Germanyfrank.holzwarth@ Abstract. The abstract is a mandatory element that should summarize the con-tents of the paper and should contain at least 70 and at most 150 words. Ab-stract and keywords are freely available in SpringerLink.Keywords: We would like to encourage you to list your keywords here. They should be separated by commas.1 IntroductionYou will find here Springer’s guidelines for the preparation of proceedings papers to be published in one of the following series, in printed and electronic form:• Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS), incl. its subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence (LNAI) and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics (LNBI), and LNCS Transactions; • Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing (LNBIP);• Communications in Computer and Information Science (CCIS);• Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Tele-communications Engineering (LNICST);• IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology (IFIP AICT), for-merly known as the IFIP Series;• Proceedings in Information and Communications Technology (PICT).Your contribution may be prepared in LaTeX or Microsoft Word. Technical Instruc-tions for working with Springer’s style files and templates are provided in separate documents which can be found in the respective zip packages on our website. * No academic titles or descriptions of academic positions should be included in the addresses. Either this information should be omitted altogether (preferably), or it should be included in a footnote at the end of the first page. Information of this nature, given in the addresses, will be deleted by our typesetters.22Preparation of Your Paper2.1Structuring Your PaperAffiliations. The affiliated institutions are to be listed directly below the names of the authors. Multiple affiliatons should be marked with superscript arabic numbers, and they should each start on a new line as shown in this document. In addition to the name of your affiliation, we would ask you to give the town and the country in which it is situated. If you prefer to include the entire postal address, then please feel free to do so. E-mail addresses should start on a new line and should be grouped per affiliation. Headings.Headings should be capitalized (i.e., nouns, verbs, and all other words except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions should be set with an initial capital) and should, with the exception of the title, be aligned to the left. Only the first two levels of section headings should be numbered, as shown in Table 1. The respective font sizes are also given in Table 1. Kindly refrain from using “0” when numbering your section headings.Table 1. Font sizes of headings. Table captions should always be positioned above the tables. Heading level Example Font size and style Title (centered) Lecture Notes14 point, bold1st-level heading 1 Introduction12 point, bold2nd-level heading 2.1 Printing Area10 point, bold3rd-level heading Run-in Heading in Bold. Text follows10 point, bold4th-level heading Lowest Level Heading. Text follows10 point, italic Words joined by a hyphen are subject to a special rule. If the first word can stand alone, the second word should be capitalized.Here are some examples of headings: “Criteria to Disprove Context-Freeness of Collage Languages”, “On Correcting the Intrusion of Tracing Non-deterministic Pro-grams by Software”, “A User-Friendly and Extendable Data Distribution System”, “Multi-flip Networks: Parallelizing GenSAT”, “Self-determinations of Man”. Lemmas, Propositions, and Theorems.The numbers accorded to lemmas, proposi-tions, and theorems, etc. should appear in consecutive order, starting with Lemma 1. Please do not include section counters in the numbering like “Theorem 1.1”.2.2Page Numbering and Running HeadsThere is no need to include page numbers or running heads; this will be done at our end. If your paper title is too long to serve as a running head, it will be shortened. Your suggestion as to how to shorten it would be most welcome.32.3 Figures and TablesIt is essential that all illustrations are as clear and as legible as possible. Vector graph-ics – instead of rasterized images – should be used for diagrams and schemas when-ever possible. Please check that the lines in line drawings are not interrupted and have a constant width. Grids and details within the figures must be clearly legible and may not be written one on top of the other. Line drawings are to have a resolution of at least 800 dpi (preferably 1200 dpi). The lettering in figures should not use font sizesp o w e r f l u c t u a t i o n (1555 n m ), d B time, msFig. 1. Power distribution of channel at 1555 nm along the link of 383 km (Source: LNCS 5412, p. 323)Fig. 2. Artifacts empowered by Artificial Intelligence (Source: LNCS 5640, p. 115)4smaller than 6 pt (~ 2mm character height). Figures are to be numbered and to have a caption which should always be positioned under the figures, in contrast to the caption belonging to a table, which should always appear above the table.Captions are set in 9-point type. If they are short, they are centered between the margins. Longer captions, covering more than one line, are justified (Fig. 1and Fig. 2 show examples). Captions that do not constitute a full sentence, do not have a period.Text fragments of fewer than four lines should not appear at the tops or bottoms of pages, following a table or figure. In such cases, it is better to set the figures right at the top or right at the bottom of the page. A figure should never be placed in the mid-dle of a paragraph.If screenshots are necessary, please make sure that the essential content is clear to the reader.Remark 1.In the printed volumes, illustrations are generally black and white (half-tones), and only in exceptional cases, and if the author or the conference organization is prepared to cover the extra costs involved, are colored pictures accepted. Colored pictures are welcome in the electronic version free of charge. If you send colored figures that are to be printed in black and white, please make sure that they really are also legible in black and white. Some colors show up very poorly when printed in black and white.2.4FormulasDisplayed equations or formulas are centered and set on a separate line (with an extra line or half line space above and below). Displayed expressions should be numbered for reference. The numbers should be consecutive within the contribution, with num-bers enclosed in parentheses and set on the right margin. Please do not include section counters in the numbering.x + y = z(1) Equations should be punctuated in the same way as ordinary text but with a small space before the end punctuation mark.2.5FootnotesThe superscript numeral used to refer to a footnote appears in the text either directly after the word to be discussed or – in relation to a phrase or a sentence – following the punctuation mark (comma, semicolon, or period).1For remarks pertaining to the title or the authors’ names, in the header of a paper, symbols should be used instead of a number (see first page of this document). Please note that no footnotes may be included in the abstract.1The footnote numeral is set flush left and the text follows with the usual word spacing.5 2.6Program CodeProgram listings or program commands in the text are normally set in typewriter font: program Inflation (Output){Assuming annual inflation rates of 7%, 8%, and10%,... years};const MaxYears = 10;var Year: 0..MaxYears;Factor1, Factor2, Factor3: Real;beginYear := 0;Factor1 := 1.0; Factor2 := 1.0; Factor3 := 1.0;WriteLn('Year 7% 8% 10%'); WriteLn;repeatYear := Year + 1;Factor1 := Factor1 * 1.07;Factor2 := Factor2 * 1.08;Factor3 := Factor3 * 1.10;WriteLn(Year:5,Factor1:7:3,Factor2:7:3,Factor3:7:3)until Year = MaxYearsend.[Example of a computer program from Jensen K., Wirth N.: Pascal User Manual and Report. Springer, New York (1991)]2.7Citations and BibliographyFor citations in the text, we prefer the use of square brackets and consecutive num-bers. Numbers should be grouped where appropriate. 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References1.Smith, T.F., Waterman, M.S.: Identification of Common Molecular Subsequences. J. Mol.Biol. 147, 195–197 (1981)2.May, P., Ehrlich, H.C., Steinke, T.: ZIB Structure Prediction Pipeline: Composing a Com-plex Biological Workflow through Web Services. In: Nagel, W.E., Walter, W.V., Lehner, W. (eds.) Euro-Par 2006. LNCS, vol. 4128, pp. 1148–1158. Springer, Heidelberg (2006) 3.Foster, I., Kesselman, C.: The Grid: Blueprint for a New Computing Infrastructure. Mor-gan Kaufmann, San Francisco (1999)4.Czajkowski, K., Fitzgerald, S., Foster, I., Kesselman, C.: Grid Information Services forDistributed Resource Sharing. In: 10th IEEE International Symposium on High Perfor-mance Distributed Computing, pp. 181–184. IEEE Press, New York (2001)9 5.Foster, I., Kesselman, C., Nick, J., Tuecke, S.: The Physiology of the Grid: an Open GridServices Architecture for Distributed Systems Integration. 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A Bibliography of Publications about the GNU(Gnu isNot Unix)SystemNelson H.F.BeebeUniversity of UtahDepartment of Mathematics,110LCB155S1400E RM233Salt Lake City,UT84112-0090USATel:+18015815254FAX:+18015814148E-mail:beebe@,beebe@,beebe@(Internet)WWW URL:/~beebe/25October2007Version2.21Title word cross-reference -[ZKCS91].-Compiler[PKP02].-programming[KORP95].-v3[Car04]. /[And03]./GNOME[Wri00].’00s[Zad02].1-4[Ano06].1-8[AFS82].10[Uni77].11[Dig80a].11th[Kap92].12th[Bun94]. 1996-1997[Bik96].2[BB91].2.6[BS05].2.x[LSM+00].20[Ano97b].2000[Ste00b].2000/3000[ZKCS91].20th[IEE90].22-24[IEE93].2597-31[MSS95].26-28[IEE90].264DP[Ano98].2B[Gom99].2e[Str94].2nd[HDR04].2nd-4th[HDR04].3[Wes00].3-D[Wes00].3.0[GHM+05].3.1[HHV05].32[TG99].33rd[ACM95]. 390[Pen03].4th[EKR91].5-8[ACM93a].56th[Bon93].5th[AK95]. 64-bit[Jae03].7th[Yuk94].’87[BSK87].’88[SMNF88].129[Ano95c].’90[Mio90].’91[PT91].’92[IEE92d].92-07[VW92].92-19[AY93].’93[ACM93a].’94[BGG+94].’95[AK95,Smy97].97[Laz98].9X[BG95]. abgeschw¨a chte[NO03].ABI[Tro04]. abstraction[BR95].AC[CD95]. Accelerated[Ano97b].Accelerated-X[Ano97b].access[PDG+87].Accidental[Ray99]. Achievement[Coc01].Acid[Lew99b]. ACLs[BS98].ACM[Abr81].ACM/ SIGAPP[DGBH93].acquisition[Mei92]. across[Fri97].Action[NR03].Activities[Ave06].Ada[GB94,BG95]. Ada83[Fel93].ADA94[CGS94].Ada95[Due97].Ada’97[ACM97].Ada9x[Fel93].Adapting[Man92]. Addressing[Sha04].Administration[Har94].Administrations[SC02].administrator[DRP01].administrators[SHN97].Adopting[GHM+05].Advanced[MYU89]. aftaleret[MG05].against[JKS02].Age[Hef97].AI[Lou96].aid[Lal91,Deo90]. AIDA[Ano87].AIDA-87[Ano87].aide[Rus88].aided[Deo90].air[ACW04]. Alabama[IEE92d].Alberta[ACM88]. algebra[Coo95a].algebraic[Kli90]. algorithm[CLS95].Algorithms[Val93]. Alias[Gup03].alle[Mol01].aller[DF00]. allocation[FG92].allocator[Mat03]. Almquist[Ano00].Alpha[Ano98]. Alternative[Ian02].Ambidextrous[O’S02].AMD[Ano01b,Zad02].AMD-PCs[SuS01].AMD64[Hub03]. Amherst[IEE92a].AML[Esp96]. Anaheim[USE90].Analyse[Rau04]. analysis[HLL+95].Analyst[Wil71]. Analyzer[LO89].Anarchism[Mog99]. Anatomy[Yan92].animation[MWG+90]. Annual[Ano87].Anpassen[G¨u n02].ANSI[PKP02].Antarctica[Ana99]. Anwenderhandbuch[Ano01b,Ano01b]. Anwendung[G+00].Anwendungen[PKP02].Apache[Fie99]. application[AHG94].applications[Hin87].apprentice[Wat85]. Approval[CWB+04].April[IEE92d]. arbeiten[Ste00a].Architectures[Val93]. Arden[LHCH93].Aristotle[HLL+95]. arithmetic[F¨a r05].ARM[Kuk98].arrays[Che95].Art[DGBH93].Article[Gom99].Asbestos[Lew99a].Asia[IEE94a].Asia-Paciﬁc[IEE94a]. ASIS[RSZ96].Asked[And03].Aspect[CC05].Aspect-oriented[CC05]. AspectJ[CC05].aspects[HK03]. Aspekte[HK03].assembly[Win95]. Assignment[Sha03].assisted[LF90]. Astronomy[MP00].asynchronous[BG95].ATARI[TSM88]. Atlanta[Dig82].Attacks[JKS02].audio[MMR95].August[Lei93a]. Austrian[WP04].authentication[Coc01]. author[MG05].authoring[WRSG92]. authors[Mol01].Autoconf[VETT00,Fri97].Automake[VETT00].Automated[BY92,BY91].automatically[Wen90].automatically-generated[Wen90]. Automating[Mof02].Automation[IEE89].automaton[Mak03]. Autotools[Zad02].Autovectorization[Nai04].Autumn[Ano89].av[Esp96].awk[Lie92,AKW88].Backend[Liu06].Background[Per02]. Bad[Ros02a].Banﬀ[ACM88].base[Sta88d,Yeo05].based[Car89,MSS95].Bash[Ram94a]. Basis[PKP02].Bazaar[Ray99]. Beachtung[St¨o04].Beck[Oms03]. Bedingungen[SG05].Befehle[G¨u n02].3Before[CR W+04].Beginning[Wri00]. Begriﬄichkeit[Geh96].Beijing[Bao93]. Beitrag[Oms03].Bek¨a mpfung[Rau04]. Benchmark[CH91,Bes04]. benutzergerechter[FG85].ber¨a kningar[J¨o n05b].Best[Sid03].Beta[Ano98].Betriebssystem[SuS01]. better[Li91].between[SC02].Beyond[Wol98].BFD[Cha91].bible[WY94].bibliography[HM89].B ib T E X[Che86].B ib T E X-Mode[Che87a]. big[Val91].Bildbearbeitung[DF00]. Bilder[DF00].Binary[Lew99a,Cha91]. binding[Coo95a].Biopolis[Ano06]. Birmingham[IEE92d].Bison[Vol89,DS90].bit[Jae03,STS92]. Bit-Mapped[STS92].Bittco[Kuk98]. Blame[CWB+04].blind[Man92].Bonas[QR92].Book[Bra92].Bookshelf[GS00].Boundary[WP04]. Branch[Sim00].branches[GK92]. Brave[TG99].Breed[Vol89].Bremen[EKR91].brief[Kri90]. Brighton[AT92].bring[VMKB05]. Bringing[San03].British[SM89b]. browser[Yac88].browsing[RM92]. brukergrensesnitt[Esp96].BSD[DF00,Guy00].BSDL[Jak03].Buﬀer[Wag03].builder[Mei92]. Building[TG99].Builds[Mof02]. bulletin[Fre87].Buttons[STS92].C[Lea88,PH82].C.[Oms03].C/C[FD92,Eig03].C0[Edd96].C99[She07].CA[Lei93a].cache[Cha92]. CADE[Kap92].CADE-11[Kap92]. CADE-12[Bun94].Calc[Gil93,Ano96]. Caldera[Ano98].call[GKM82].Canada[HDR03].Capitalism[CMJ+04]. Capturing[Pal87].card[Dig80b].Cards[SSC93].cas[Cor00].CASCON[BGG+94].case[YAS91].Cat[MS91].CATCH[LF90].Cathedral[Ray99].Cayenne[Ano98].CC[Sta88e].CCA[Com84].CCG[Mor91]. CD[DF00,Rod00].CD-ROM[Rod00].CD-ROMs[Ano01c].CDs[G¨u n02]. Central[Har94].Centre[Rit88].CERN[VW92].CERNLIB[FP94].certiﬁcation[Mag00].certiﬁed[DRP01]. Certifying[SK04].cﬂow[Gol06].Chˆa teau[QR92].Chain[Sch03]. Challenges[VH04].Change[Fly87b]. Changing[Edw98].Chapter[AFS81]. Chapters[AFS82].characterization[CH91].checking[WK93].checkpoint[LF A92]. checkpointing[LF90].checks[Due97]. Chicken[Les03].Chosen[JKS02]. Chosen-Ciphertext[JKS02]. ciberespacio[Les01].Ciphertext[JKS02]. claim[Sie99].Claiming[Mog03b].Claims[Mog03a].Clara[Ano94b].Clark[Kim01].Classes[Mor92]. Classifying[Li91].Cliche[Wat94].Cliche-based[Wat94].cliches[Car89]. clone[Joh94a].CLOS[SO91].Closed[Eri01].Cnest[KC92].CO[USE88]. coagulating[Mor91].code[Yac88]. CodeWarrior[Kro99].c´o digo[Les01]. Coding[Ano95b].Cognitive[CWB+04]. collaboration[Wii91a].collaborative[Wii91b].Collection[CR92b,EGH+05].Collider[ZC95].coloring[Mat03]. Columbia[MG94].Columbus[Bon93]. command[Cra90].Commands[Coh82]. commentary[Max01].Comments[Wil71]. Commercial[Gre80].Common[Gad88]. Commons[VH04].Communication[Bao93].Communism[CMJ+04].Community[Pel89].Comparison[SO91]. compatible[DS99,DS90].Competition[HK03,Cor00].Compile[Bot03].compiler[LF90,CZ99]. compiler-assisted[LF90].compilers[Sal88].Complete[Ano98].4Components[R W87].comprehensive[Gar00].Compression[KW94].COMPSAC[IEE95b].Computation[Mio90].computations[Eat97]. Computersysteme[FG85].concepts[Geh96].Concern[HOST05]. Concurrent[MWB89].Conditions[WP04].Conference[Ano87]. conﬁguration[Bur95].CONS[Gre80]. consciousness[Ale92].construction[HMR93].containers[Dav91].content[BCvE+05]. Continental[Bao93].contract[Oms03]. contribution[Oms03].Contributions[EGH+05].contributor[Jon01].contributor-run[Jon01].control[BG95]. Convention[Bao93].Converting[Rad92]. cookbook[Fin80a].’COOL[MR94]. cooperation[MG05].coprocessor[AD04]. Copyfuture[Kenxx].Copyleft[Hef97]. copyright[Geh96].Copyrights[Vai01]. copywrongs[Vai01].CORBA[BES+01]. Core[Max01].Corp[Ano98].corporate[YLG05].CORRECTNESS[BY91].Corrector[Dig75a].corrig´e s[Rod00]. Cost[Gal60].could[Gal04].Course[AFS81].courseware[BHMB03]. Court[Maj03,H¨o p04].Craft[Fin91]. Create[AG95].Creating[STS92]. Creation[Cha01a].Creative[VH04]. creativity[Vai01].Creator[Coc01]. criminal[Rau04].criminal-political[Rau04]. criminological[Rau04].Crisis[Les03]. Critic[Lew99a].Cross[Mit94].cross-compiler[He95].Cross-Development[Mit94].Crowder[Ano00].Crusade[Wil02]. cryptographic[AD04].CS[AFS81]. Cscope[KC92].CSiBE[Bes04].CUG333[Wit90].CUG334[Kot91].CUG359[FD92].CUG368[Ohl92].CUG372[Mor92].CUG392[Arc94]. Cultural[NS05].Curley[Ano00]. Curricula[CWB+04].Customizable[Sta79].customizer[Rus88].customizing[Rus88]. CVS[Sim00].Cyberpiracy[Rau04]. Cyberpiraterie[Rau04].cyberspace[Les99].Cyclic[Due97].Cyrix[Ano01b].D[Kuk98,Wes00].Dalek[OCH90a,OCH90b].Dallas[IEE95b].Danger[Cha01a]. Danish[MG05].dans[S´e d02].dansk[MG05].DARPA[Coc01].Data[Dig82,Dat85].database[Phi93]. Dateien[DF00].d’autore[Mol01].Day[Pow00].DC[IEE89].Death[Mog99]. Debacle[Ian02].Debian[Ano98,Mur94]. Debug[Per02].debugger[Sta88a]. Debugging[SP93].DEC[Dig75a].DEC-20[AFS81].decade[Pes93]. December[IEE92c].Deception[Sta02a]. decision[Wen90].Declarative[Dvo04]. DECsystem[Uni77].DECsystem-10[Uni77].DECUS[Dig82]. deduction[Kap92].Defamation[Ros02b]. Defense[CWB+04,Bol02].deﬁnition[Lal91].Deﬁnitive[WvH04].del[Les01].delivering[Hen92].demystiﬁed[Sut02].Dependable[EHP94]. dependence[HMR93].Depth[CWB+04]. Derivative[Maj03].description[Pyr84]. descriptions[SC88a].Descriptor[Cha91]. design[PDG+87].Desktop[RB92]. Details[CR W+04].detection[Joh94a]. Determining[Pow00].deutsche[Oms03]. deutsches[H¨u p01].develop[MSS95]. Developer[Ano98].Developers[HDR03]. Developing[BGR89].development[Yac88].d’exploitation[Cor00].DGDBM[Fra95].5Dialogue[Lew99a].Dictionary[Ray91]. dictionary-based[SGD05].Dies[Coc01]. Digest[IEE90].Digital[Hef97].digitale[Zic01].directed[Kli90]. directing[SM89a].dired[STS92].diritto[Mol01].DISCO[Mio90]. discourse[Kit94].discussed[J+05].disk[Ano88a].disparate[Hin87].Display[Sta79].dispositions[Mol01]. disposizioni[Mol01].Dispute[Sta04a]. distributed[CKH91].Distribution[V¨a l04].DivX[Zic01]. DJGPP[FP94].DL[WBB01].Document[Fur90].documentation[SC88b].Documenting[Sta79].documents[Bec93]. Doku[Ano01c].Domain[Geh96].Don’t[CWB+04].Doors[Eri01].DOS-Programme[Str94].Down[NS01]. downgrader[McH92].download[Ano88a]. driven[Phi93].Drivers[Ano97b]. Drucken[G¨u n02].DSP[Lea94].Dual[Ano98].dummies[Bel00].DVD[SuS01].Dynamic[NS01]. dynamically[HH88].early[KTP95].Eclipse[GP05]. Econometrics[Edd96].economics[Gla04]. Economy[Gho07].EDCC[EHP94]. EDCC-1[EHP94].edge[Tor99].Edit[von88].Editieren[Str94].editing[PH82].edition[CS91].Editor[Dig75a,Gal60].Editorial[Eri99]. editors[Fin80a].education[YAS91]. Edwin[Bir93].Eﬀect[LO89].Eﬀective[Rob96].eﬀectivity[H¨o p04].eﬃcient[Hen92].EHTS[Wii91a].Eiﬀel[SO91,CZ99].Eighth[IEE92c]. einrichten[Ste00a].Einsatz[SG05]. Electrotechnical[Yuk94].Elektronische[Ano01a].Eliminating[GK92].Ellis[Coc01].Emacs[Fin80a,Cic78].Emacs-Based[LO89].EMACS-Intr[AFS81].Emacs-type[KK94].embedded[KW94]. embrace[Sam06].Emotional[Sta04a]. empirical[FG92].Empress[Ano97b]. Emulating[Smi90].end[Tho92]. EndNote[Lie92].Endorses[Sta04a]. Energy[VW92].Enforceability[Rav00]. Enforcing[Mog01a].engine[Ert94]. England[IEE90].Enhancement[HNT93]. enjeux[Cor00].Entire[Mof02]. entrepreneur[Gil04].Entwicklung[O’Rxx].Entwurf[Lei93b]. environment[McA85,HOST05]. environments[Oma89].EP90[Fur90]. Epoch[OSM94].Epsilon[Joh92].erkl¨a rt[J+05].erstellen[G¨u n02].ES-Kit[CKH91].eServer[AD04]. Essays[Gay02].essential[Har00]. EtherPage[Kuk98].ethics[Mag01c]. EUODHILOS[OSM94].EUODHILOS-II[OSM94].EuroFORTH[Ano94a].Europe[PT91]. European[ACW04].EurOpen[Ano92]. EurOpen/USENIX[Ano92].EUUG[Ano89].Evaluates[Maj03]. evaluation[PDG+87].Evangelizing[Coc01].even[SSAO04]. event[Mei92].events[Wii91b].ever[H¨o p04].Everywhere[Ana99]. Evolution[Wal93].evolutionary[O’S03]. evoluzione[Zic01].Exam[AFS81]. exception[Tie90].execution[GKM82]. exercices[Rod00].Experiences[AAB+05b].experiment[MWB89].Experimental[Yan90].expertext[WRSG92].Experts[Sta04a]. explained[J+05].explicit[Car89]. explicit-state[DDHS03].exploring[Blo04].Expo[Ano06].Expose[O’S02].Extending[Che95]. Extensible[Sta79].extension[KX86]. extensions[Rit88,Chi97].extraction[Kit94].eye[Hol05].6Face[Edw98].Face-oﬀ[KS03]. Facilitating[Rav00].facility[Yan92]. Factoring[L´o k04].Fall[KOI94].Fall-in[KOI94].Fast[Wen90].fault[KTP95].Fault-Tolerant[IEE90]. Fear[Ros01c].Feasibility[SC02]. features[Fri97].February[Lea92]. Federal[BSK87].Festschrift[Oms03]. FFT[F¨a r05].Field[EW01].Fight[Rau04]. Fighting[DDHS03].File[Cha91].ﬁles[Fra95].Filesystem[BS98].ﬁlling[Fel93].Final[AFS81].Finder[LOW91].ﬁne-grain[MT94].ﬁnite[Mak03].ﬁrmware[Sut02].ﬁrst[H¨o p04].ﬁrst-ever[H¨o p04].ﬂavors[Fri97].Flex[Nic93].ﬂexible[Bor88].Floating[He95].Florida[SS93].FLOSS[O’S03].ﬂow[ACW04].ﬂy[BGM99].Foe[Wel94a]. Forge[Kuk98].formal[PT91]. Formalizing[R W87].format[SC88b]. FORML[Ano94a].Forth[Ano94a,Ert94]. Fortran[AG95].FORTRAN77[But95]. Forum[Sta02a].FOSS[Bol02].Fotos[DF00].Fourth[Ano88b].FPGA[ZKCS91].Fragen[Sie99]. framework[Hub04].free/libre/open[O’S03].Free/Open[NR03]. FreeBSD[Coc01].Freedom[Cha01a,Jak04].FREENIX[USE02].Freeware[Geh96]. freie[Lin02,Jak03].Freier[Sie99]. Freiheit[Jak04].French[S´e d02]. frequency[Blo04].Frequently[And03]. freundlicher[Oms03].Friend[Wel94a]. friendly[Sch90b].front[Tho92].FS[Whe03].FTCS[IEE92b].FTCS-22[IEE92b].FTCS-23[IEE93]. FTM[MHP94].Fujitsu[YM93].full[LSF94].function[Sch90a]. Functional[ACM92].functions[LN92]. Funds[Coc01].Future[Sta04a].g[Sid03].Gaithersburg[Fur90].Games[SuS01].GAR[Mof02].Garanties[S´e d02].Garbage[CR92b]. Gawk[Gor96,GA W87].GCC[Sta00b,Edd96].Gcj[Tro04].gdb[But95,Sta88a].ge-packt[G¨u n02]. GEANT[FP94].gekonnte[Ste00a]. Gelato[Ano06].Genehmigung[Oms03]. General[Dat85].g´e n´e rale[CF98]. generated[Wen90].generating[KN93]. generation[Wen90].generator[DS90]. Generic[Dav91,Mer03].GeNUAdmin[Har94].GeoRef[Lie92]. Georgia[Dig82].German[Geh96].Gers[QR92].Geschichte[Geh96]. Gesichtspunkte[St¨o04].gestalten[DF00]. Gestaltung[FG85].Get[Fie89].Gets[CWB+04].Getting[Woe94a]. gew¨a hrleistungsrechtliche[St¨o04].GIMP[DF00,Bun00].GIMP-[DF00]. GIMPLE[Mer03].Glibc[Gar00].Global[Ano98].Glue[Car89].GNARL[GB94].Gnat[Fly87a,CGS94]. GNOME[Ste00a].Gnu[Fis69,Sta85]. GNU-ADA94[CGS94].GNU-Aid[Deo90].GNU-Emacs[Lan89,Rod00].GNU/Linux[Kuk98,BGM99].GNU/Linux-Anwenderhandbuch[Ano01b].GNU/ Cfengine[BS98].GNU/Linux[Ano98,Mur94,Lin02].GNU/ Linux-Systeme[G¨u n02].GNUlib[Ohl92]. GnuPG[JKS02].GNUPLOT[Kot90]. GO[Ano98].GO-Global[Ano98].goals[RSZ96].good[KS03].government[Sim05].gperf[Sch90a].GPL[Jak03,Guy00].Gprof[GKM82].Graﬁk[Str94].Graﬁken[DF00].grain[MT94].grammars[EKR91].Grand[Bao93].graph[GKM82].graphic[Tho90a].graphical[BBNP93]. Graphics[Kuk98].Graphing[Vau96]. GraphOn[Ano98].graphs[HMR93]. greater[SSAO04].Greenstone[WBB01].7GRef2End[Lie92].groﬀ[Rob94b]. Grokking[Bun00].group[KP93]. Grundlagen[Str94].GSL[Rap94].GTK[DF00,Wri00].GTK-Versionen[DF00].guarantee[St¨o04].Guarantees[S´e d02]. guide[Dig74].Guile[Lor95].gut[Cam00]. H[Oms03].H8[Ano93a].H8/[Ano93a]. Hacker[Ray91].Haftung[Geh96]. haftungs[St¨o04].haftungs-[St¨o04]. haftungsrechtliche[Sie99]. Haftungsrisiko[Spe01].Haifa[FG92]. Hamm[Ano98].Handbook[Hig93]. handling[Tie90].handout[Dig82].Hard[Mog03a].hardware[VMKB05]. hardwarenahe[PKP02].hash[Sch90a]. Hawaii[MS91].hazard[Mak03].HC6811C[He95].HCI[Rit88].heat[Gal04].help[PDG+87].Hertin[Oms03,Oms03].Heterogeneous[Har94].high[Eat97].high-level[Eat97].high-quality[Smy97]. higher[Car89].highly[BB91].highly-portable[BB91].Hilton[ACM89]. History[Geh96].HORATIO[McL92]. host[AHM+07].Hotel[Bao93].Hours[P+99].HP[Dol91].HP-ST[Dol91]. HRSTS[Har77].Human[BSK87]. Human-computer[BSK87].Hurd[Ano01a].hybrid[Sch91a]. Hypertext[Con87].i-protocol[DDHS03].i386[Ano01a].IA[TG99].IA-32[TG99].IBM[Bee86,Uni85a].IBM-PC[Uni85a]. IBM-PC/MS-DOS[Uni85a].ICANN[AT92].ICANN-92[AT92].ICE[Ano06].Icon[Mit84].IDA[SC02]. IDE[Avi98].Ideas[Wal93].IFIP[BSK87]. II[Ano01c,OSM94].im[EW01].image[BK91].images[KB90].Immersive[Coc01].Impact[Gil05]. Impatient[AL92].implementation[Tie90]. Implementierung[Lei93b]. Implementing[BG95].implications[Gom99].Improved[OCH90a].Improvement[Bes03].Improvements[BOM97].improving[BR95].Indent[Arc94]. independent[Lin02].Industry[Edw98]. Inel[SuS01].Inel-[SuS01].INET[Lei93a]. Infection[Ros01c].Info[Pes93]. Information[Pel89].Infrastructure[Nov03].ing[Jon01].initial[JJ91].Initiative[Coc01]. initiatives[Man92].Innovations[Gil05]. ins[DF00].insertion[LFA92].inspiration[Dvo04].installation[SLC88,Mag00].instruction[Deo90].integers[GM94]. integrated[HM89].integrating[Hin87]. integration[BSW95].Intel[Ano01b]. intellectual[Vai01].intellectuelle[Cor00]. Intelligent[Deo90].inter[Hub04].inter-procedural[Hub04].INTERACT[BSK87].Interaction[BSK87].Interactive[WKC+90].InterBase[Ano98]. Interchange[SC02].Interface[SMNF88]. interfaces[BBNP93].Intermediate[Gup03].Internals[BBD+96].Internationalizing[Rei93].Internet[DF00,Ian02].Interoperability[BES+01]. Interpretation[AFS81].interpreter[Rap94].Intr[AFS81].Intro[AFS82].introduction[Dig75a]. Invalidity[Mog03b].invariant[GM94]. investigation[FG92].involvement[CFGS05].IP[Str94].ISP[Ave06].ISSAC[Lev95a].ISSAC’95[Lev95b].Issues[Wii91a]. Italian[Mol01].Itanium[Ano06,Ave06]. Itanium-based[Ano06].IV[BSW95].8James[Kim01].Japanese[HK95].Java[CDG97].jedermann[Str94].Jikes[AAB+05a].Jim[Coc01].Journyx[Ano98].Judgement[Pow00]. July[IEE92a].June[IEE90,Abr81]. Juristische[HK03].Just[CMJ+04].K42[AAB+05b].Kanji[MYU89]. KBEmacs[Wat85].KDE[Ano98,Thi99]. KEK[AY93].Kerberos[Coc01].Kernel[Wel95].Kernels[dlPRGB99]. Key[O’Rxx].Keynote[Tho90a].kind[Avi98].Kingdom[AT92].Kit[CKH91].KNOPPIX[Ano01c]. know[Woe94a].knowing[TG99]. kommentiert[J+05].kommerziellen[Sie99].Konkurrenz[HK03].Konvertieren[G¨u n02]. kriminalpolitische[Rau04]. kriminologische[Rau04].kurz[Cam00]. LaGrande[And03].Land[Ber96]. Landeshauptstadt[SG05].language[Hin87].languages[Cra90]. Laptop[Ano97b].large[ACW04].last[Cra89].LaTeX[Str94,Kot90].laws[Les99].leadership[Fie99]. Learning[CR91].legacy[Joh94b].legal[Sie99,HK03].Legality[Pow00]. Legalize[Sta03b].Legally[Sam06]. legislative[Mol01].Leif[SC88a].length[Che95].L’essentiel[Rod00]. Lessons[Bor88].Letters[Gal60].level[Sta88a,Mag00].Lexical[Nic93]. leyes[Les01].LGPL[Jak03,Jak03]. Liabilities[EW01].liability[Geh96,Spe01].LIB[Cha91]. libC[Gar00].libero[Mol01].libg[Lea88]. libraries[McL92].Library[GB94].libre[CF98].libres[Cor00].libstdc[Car04].Libtool[VETT00]. Licence[O’S03].license[CF98,Sie99]. Licenses[Rav00].Licensing[Hef97].Lifetime[Coc01].light[Mol01]. Lilypond[Sha05].line[KN93].Lineage[CR W+04].Link[Ano98].Linux[Ygg93].Linux-Anwenderhandbuch[Ano01b,Ano01b]. Linux-Betriebssystem[SuS01].Linux-compatible[AAB+05b].Linux/GNU/X[Ygg94].Linux/GNU[Jan01].Linux/GNU/X[Ygg93]. LinuxCAD[Kuk98].Linuxzeitung[Lin02].LISA[USE94]. Lisp[Lew88,Gre80].Lisp-based[Iwa02]. list[Uni77].listings[Win95].literacy[YAS91].literate[KC92].Little[Val91,Les03].Live[FK90]. livelock[DDHS03].Lizenz[Sie99]. Lizenz-[Sie99].LLC[Ano98].LMAKE[Lei93b].Loadable[Wel95]. locality[F¨a r05].Logic[Vor92].Logical[LO89].logiciel[CF98]. logiciels[Cor00].Longhorn[And03]. look[Sal88].Loop[Cha92].LOTOS[Sch90b].Louis[ACM97].Low[BOM97].low-cost[Smy97].Low-Level[BOM97].LPAR[Vor92].M[Gay02].Mach[Kup93,Mor96].Mach-Based[Mor96].MACHINE[BY91,CDG97].Macintosh[Ano88a].Macs[STS92]. MACSYMA[Cla90].Mailing[VWM98]. Mailman[VWM98].mainframe[YM93]. maintainability[SSAO04]. maintenance[Car89].make[SM89a,Lei93b].Make-Programmes[Lei93b].Makes[Fri97].Making[O’S02]. management[Dig82].manager[STS92,VWM98].Managing[BS98].Manifesto[Sta85]. Manipulation[Le´o98].manual[Dig75b]. manuel[Rod00].manufacturing[VMKB05].Mapped[STS92].March[EKR91].9Marjorie[Ano00].Markenrecht[Fal03]. Market[Rav00].Marketplace[Wal93]. Markup[Kim01].Mass-Market[Rav00]. MasterConsole[Kuk98].Mastering[WM01].matching[Joh94a]. Mathematical[Hig93].Matrix[Edd96]. Matters[Mog01a].Maverik[Wes00].May[Dig82].McLean[ACM93b].MDK[Rui02].Me[CRW+04].Meaning[Maj03].meant[TG99]. Measurements[Bes03].mechanism[KTP95].mechanisms[PDG+87].med[Lan89]. Mediterranean[Yuk94].meeting[Bon93]. meets[F¨a r05].memory[WK93].menu[Pal87].Menu-based[R W89]. Merging[Kit94].message[MT94]. message-driven[MT94].messages[KN93]. MetaCard[Ano97b].method[KN93]. Methoden[FG85].methods[NS05]. Metro[Ano98].mezzi[Zic01].Micro[Vol96].Micro-C[Vol96].Micro-Kernel[Wes00].micronC[Ano93a]. microprocessor[BY92,BY91]. microprocessors[But94].Microsoft[PKP02,Gal04].Microway[Ano98].middleware[AJ05]. minds[NS05].Mineralogy[PH82].MINIX[TSM88].MIX[Rui02].MIZ[LN92].MIZ-PR[LN92].MLISP[Uni85c].MMBase[BCvE+05]. mnemonics[Cra90].MO[ACM97].mode[Che86].model[KN93]. Modellbahnsteuerungssoftware[Ano01b]. Modeller[J¨o n05b].Models[J¨o n05b]. Modern[Fin91].Modes[CWB+04].Modiﬁcation[Ano94a].Modul[Per02]. Modula[Ano91,BB91].Modula-2[Ano91,BB91].Modularity[NR03].module[Hub04]. Modules[Wel95].Modulo[Hag04]. Monatsblatt[Lin02].monitoring[Kis90]. Monterey[USE02].monthly[Lin02]. Montreal[Lev95a,Lev95b].most[WM01].Motif[Ano98].motion[Hol05].Motorola[He95].Mouse[Mor92].move[Ano93a].Moving[Par91].mp3[Zic01,EMD03].MS[Ohl92].MS-DOS[Ohl92].MS-Windows[HWZxx]. MSP[YM93].Mudﬂap[Eig03].Mule[HNT93].multicomputers[MT94]. Multiconference[Ten93].Multics[Gre80]. MULtilingual[HNT93]. multimanipulator[MWB89].Multimedia[SuS01].multiple[KP93]. multiplication[GM94].multiprocess[VGD+97].multiuser[Wii91a].Munich[SG05]. music[Tho90a].Musings[Ray99]. Musterl¨o sungen[PKP02].MX4[Kuk98]. nach[WP04].Names[Coc01].Naming[Ros01a].Nebulous[Mog03a]. Need[Coc01].needs[Ous99].nell’era[Zic01].NetBeans[Ano98]. NetWare[Ano98].Network[Kis90]. networked[BBNP93].networking[Mag01b].networks[AT92]. Netzwerkspiele[Str94].neuem[Ano01c]. neuen[PKP02].neural[Ale92]. Newcastle[IEE90].Newmat[Edd96]. newsletter[Uni85b].Next[Lat03]. NGSCB[And03].nicht[Sur01a]. nineteenth[IEE95b].No[Sie04].No.91TH0350[MS91].No.91TH0350-9[MS91].No.91TH0394[MSNS91].No.91TH0394-7[MSNS91].No.94CH35712[IEE94c].Nonsense[Fal03].Noordwijkerhout[PT91].Notes[AFS81]. Nottingham[SM89b].November[ACM89,ACM97].Nuclear[BPG94].Number[F¨a r05]. Numbers[Whe03].Numerical[Wil71]. Nutzung[Sie99].NY[Kap92].OASIS[BBNP93].10Oberammergau[BPG94].Oberﬂ¨a che[Ste00a].object[Hin87]. object-oriented[CKH91].objective[Sal88].objects[BG95]. ObjectTeam[Ano98].objektorientiert[Ste00a].Octave[Eat97]. October[CS96].oﬀ[KS03].Oﬀene[HK03].oﬀers[Avi98].Ohio[Bon93].On-[Tra95].on-line[KN93]. on-the-ﬂy[BGM99].One[Bes04].online[PDG+87].OPAL[Mei92].open[YM93,Hac98].Open-Right[Sur01a]. open-source[O’R99,McG01].Open-Source-Software[HK03,Sur01b]. Open-Source-Software-Entwicklung[O’Rxx].Open-standard[AHM+07].Opening[NS05].Openoﬃce[Ano01b]. operating[PH82].operating-system[AAB+05b]. operations[MMR95].ophavs[MG05]. ophavs-[MG05].Opinion[Sec95].optimal[Ste00a].Optimization[LH03]. Optimizations[CZ99].Optimizer[Dvo03]. optimizing[EM93].Oracle[Ano00].order[Car89].Oriented[Coh82].Orlando[SS93].OS/2[DF00].OSGi[GHM+05].Osprey[Liu06].OSS[Whe03].OSS/FS[Whe03].¨Osterreichischem[WP04].other[Les99]. otras[Les01].output[She07].Overﬂow[Wag03].Overhauling[Zad02]. Overview[Mur94].Ownership[Gho07].PA[BSW95].Paciﬁc[IEE94a].Pack[G+02].packages[FP94].packt[G¨u n02].Paint[Wol98].Pajamas[Lew99a].Palladium[And03]. Palm[RM99].Pan[BV87].papers[Kri90]. paradigm[VGD+97].parallel[EM93]. parallelen[Lei93b].Parallelization[AAB+04].Parliament[Sta04a].parser[DS90].Part[PH82,Ros01a].parted[SuS01].Passport[Sta04a].PASTIS[MWG+90]. PASTIS-program[MWG+90].Patent[Gil05].patents[Gil04].pattern[OK94].Patterns[GS00].Paul[Oms03].PA W[FP94].PBE[Rus88]. PC[Str94,Bee86].PC-based[MSS95].PC/MS[Uni85a].PCIXCC[AD04].PCs[SuS01,FP94].PDF[DF00].PDF-Dateien[DF00].PDP[Dig80a]. PDP-11[Dig80a].Pedagogy[CMJ+04]. Peer[CWB+04].[Ano93a].6000[SCH+91b].Cfengine[BS98]. GNOME[Wri00].GNU[Ygg93,Jan01]. libre[O’S03].Linux[Ano98,Mur94]. Linux-Systeme[G¨u n02].MPI[Coo95a]. MS-DOS[Uni85a].open[O’S03,NR03]. SIGAPP[DGBH93].SIGOA[Abr81].Tk[Ass95,AG95].USENIX[Ano92]. VMS[Dig80b].X[Ygg93].Penguins[Ana99].Pennsylvania[ACM89].People[SM89b]. perfect[Cra89].Performance[BOM97]. Perl[Sha95,Wal99].Perl5[Bea94]. permission[Oms03].Personal[Kuk98]. persons[Man92].Perspective[Kuk98]. Perspectives[FFHL07].PGP[JKS02]. Ph¨a nomenologie[Rau04]. Phenomenology[Rau04].Pick[Kuk98]. pipeline[Fel93].pipelined[Kri90].piracy[EMD03].pitfall[KOI94].PL8[GHL+04].Plan[Sta04a,Ano95c]. Planning[Tra95].Plans[Bes04].platform[Pen03].Platforms[Ano06]. Plots[Ste93].Plotting[WKC+90].Plug[DF00].Plug-ins[DF00].pluralistic[O’S03].pocket[Uni77].point[He95].pointer[Eig03].political[Rau04].polymorphic[LN92]. polymorphism[BR95].Pooling[SC02]. port[Bea94].portability[ATHW92]. portable[BB91].portal[YLG05].Porting[Sta88e].Portland[Abr81]. POSIX[dlPRGB99].Possibilities[Bes03]. Potato[Ano01a].pour[Cor00].11Power[G+02].powerful[WM01]. PowerPC[But94].PPoPP[FP95].PR[LN92].practical[Mei92].practice[Fin80a].practices[Sai02]. pragmatic[Sam06].Praxis[Cla90].pre[Ano01c].precision[F¨a r05].Preface[RB05].preprocessor[Iwa02]. presented[ACM92].pressure[Mak04]. prevails[H¨o p04].previewer[KK94]. prime[F¨a r05].primer[Buc82a]. Principles[CR W+04].privacy[Mag01c]. problem[Tie88].problems[Man92]. Problemsets[AFS81].procedural[Hub04].Proceedings[Ano06]. Process[GS00].Processing[Gre80]. processor[Cra89].processors[Kri90]. Productivity[Kuk98].Products[Ano97b]. Profession[San03].professionellen[DF00].professionelles[SuS01].proﬁler[GKM82]. proﬁling[SCH+91b].proﬁt[Ous99]. program[Dig75b,Le´o98].Programmable[OCH90a]. Programmbeispiele[PKP02]. Programme[Str94].programmed[Sch91a].programmer[Dig75b].programmers[Ude89].Programmes[Lei93b].Programmieren[Ste00a]. Programmierung[PKP02]. Programming[AKW88,Ano97a]. Programmming[Dig80b].Programs[AFS81].PROGRESS[Sch91a]. PROGRESS-editor[Sch91a].Project[Fie89,Coc01].Projects[Mec05]. Promoting[LH03].pronunciation[HK95]. pronunciation-information[HK95]. PROOFS[BY91].property[Vai01]. proprietary[Bou05].propri´e t´e[Cor00]. Prose[Gre80].protected[BG95]. protection[NO03].protezione[Zic01]. protocol[DDHS03].Prototype[LO89]. prototyping[BBNP93].prover[LN92].Providing[BS05].pryzm[Ano97b]. Public[Geh96].Public-Domain-Software[NO03]. publique[CF98].publisher[Oms03].Put[CWB+04].Python[DF00,How98]. quality[Smy97].quasi[O’S03].quasi-legal[O’S03].Quelltext[DF00]. quels[Cor00].query[Phi93]. Questioning[Mog03a].questions[Val91]. Quick[Ste93].QuickStart[Ano97b]. Quincy[Ste00b].quite[Hac98].Quiz[AFS81].radio[Blo04].Rahmenbedingungen[WP04].rapid[Yan90].Raritan[Kuk98,Kuk98]. RAS[Ave06].Raum[Sie04].real[Sta80a]. real-time[Sta80a].r´e alisation[Rod00]. Realisering[Esp96].Realisierung[Per02]. Reality[Coc01].really[Guy00].reaping[WG05].Reasoning[Vor92]. rebel[Moo01b].recenti[Mol01].Recht[H¨u p01].rechtliche[Feixx,SG05]. Rechtsfragen[Man03].Rechtsfreier[Sie04].Rechtssicherheit[Sie04].Recipients[Coc01].recognizer[Mak03]. recompilation[SM89a].Recorded[Les03]. Records[Eri01].Recovery[LOW91]. recursive[LN92].Red[Kro99]. redundancy[Joh94b].reference[Dig75b]. Reﬂections[Cus04].regard[St¨o04]. Region[Bao93].register[FG92]. Reimplementing[VGD+97].Reinvent[CR W+04].relationship[BD03]. release[Pyr84].Relevant[Wol04]. reliable[Bou05].Rematerialization[Pun04].replicated[Fra95].representation[Mer03].Republic[BSK87].Research[LH03]. resource[MS02].responsabilit´e s[S´e d02]. response[EMD03].12responsibilities[S´e d02].Ressource[Ano01a].results[MHP94]. Retargeting[Col02].retrospective[Bor88].retuschieren[DF00].Reusable[R W87]. Reviews[Ano00].Revisiting[SGD05]. Revolution[DOS99].Revolutionary[Ray99].rewards[WG05]. rewriting[Sch91a].Richard[Gay02]. Richardson[Ano00].richtig[DF00]. Ride[Sta04a].riferimento[Mol01].Right[Sur01a].rights[Gom99].Ripple[LO89].RIPS[MWB89].rise[Vai01].Risiken[SG05]. Risikoanalyse[Feixx].risk[Feixx].risks[Spe01].Robotics[Fly87b].Robots[Fly87a].role[O’S03].ROM[Rod00].ROMs[Ano01c].room[Hol05].ROSS[McA85].RPC[Tie88].RS[SCH+91b].RS/6000[SCH+91b].RT[PH82].RT-11[PH82].rule[Cla90].rule-based[Cla90].run[Jon01]. Running[McA85].Runtime[GB94].S[Pen03].S/390[Pen03].Safely[von88]. Sair[Mag00].SAMBA[Ano97b].Sams[P+99].samspil[MG05].sans[STS92].Saratoga[Kap92].SAT[McH92].Sather[SO91].SCAI[AK95].scalable[AAB+05b]. Scandinavian[AK95].Scanner[Nic93]. SCC[SSC93].scheduler[UZ97]. scheduling[Kri90].Scheme[DF00,AFS81].SCHEME-Manual[AFS81].Schenker[Sha05].Schl¨u sse[O’Rxx]. Schnittstelle[Per02].Schritt[Str94]. Schutz[NO03].schweizerische[Sur01b]. Sciences[Hig93].scientiﬁques[Rod00]. Scientists[Coc01].SCO[DF00,Mog03a]. Scope[NS01].Scottish[Rit88]. Screamer[Ano98].screen[Gos83]. Scribe[Bla89b,Bla89a].scripting[Fri97].scripts[Kis90].Scuttles[Mog03b]. Searching[RM92].Season[Eri99]. Second[BSK87].secrets[Gil04].secure[BM02].Security[Coc01].Seek[Coc01].Seeking[CR W+04]. Selected[Gay02].Selection[Sha04].Self[Sta79].Self-Documenting[Sta79]. Self-Service[CR W+04].Semantic[Coc01]. semantics[Kli90].semantics-supported[Kli90].Sense[Fal03].September[CS99].Server[Ano97b,AJ05].servers[KMG+93]. service[Fow93].services[BM02].session[Wat87].sessions[Dig82].set[Sch90b].Shackled[Sta04b].Shadow[Sta04a].Share[CWB+04]. Shared[Fie99].Shareware[Geh96]. sharing[Wii91b].shell[Fow93].Shortage[CMJ+04].should[SSAO04]. SIG[Dig82].SIGDOC[ACM89]. SIGGRAPH[ACM88].signal[KORP95]. Signatures[BR95].SIGPLAN[Abr81]. SIGPLAN/SIGOA[Abr81].simple[Kaw92].Simplicity[Kim01]. simulation[ZC95].Simulator[ZKCS91]. Singapore[Ano06].Sinn[Fal03]. situational[KN93].sixth[Ano94b].skills[Bik96].sky[Hol05].Slot[Sha03]. small[F¨a r05].SmallEiﬀel[CZ99]. sociopolitical[Gla03].software[Gal60,Ano97a]. Softwarelizenzen[Jak03].Solaris[DF00,Sec95].Solution[Hom00]. Solutions[Kuk98].solves[Fri97].Solving[Tie88].Some[Wil71].Sound[Str94].soup[Fis69].source[Sta88a,Hac98].source-level[Sta88a].Sources[von88]. sous[Hom00].Southeast[ACM95]. Southeastcon[IEE92d].Space[BES+01]. Spare[CR W+04].SPE[Gad88].speaking[Sam06].Special[Ano00]. Specialist[SM89b].speciﬁc[AHG94]. speciﬁcations[Kli90].spectrum[Blo04].。