语言学第四单元课后答案syntax树状图thesrule
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax
Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别，〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别，〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。
word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词〔N〕： student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕： like red go形容词〔adj〕： tall lovely red副词〔adv〕： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。
语言学 Chapter4 课后练习答案教学文案
语言学C h a p t e r4课后练习答案Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determin e a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdvThe man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN NMary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPNYou know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NAGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royce d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellentSurface Structure: CPC SDeep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house that she loved ec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NP13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure: CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the window。
语言学chapter4课后练习答案
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that canappear prior to the conjunction.2) a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to thecategory type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.b) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.c) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.d) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution. Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black sky c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP Adv Adv The man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN NMary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPNYou know that I hate war b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NAGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English examc) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him aRoll-Royced) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellentb) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNHerbert bought a house that she loved ec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure: CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNWhat did Helen e bring e to the partyc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the windowSurface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window。
语言学Chapter-4--Exercises-含答案
语言学C h a p t e r-4--E x e r c i s e s-含答案(总10页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, butthere is no limit to the number of sentences nativespeakers of that language are able to produce andcomprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headedconstruction because it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another withoutloss of grammaticality belong to the same syntacticcategory.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, nounphrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliaryphrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a completestatement, question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at thesame time structurally alone is known as an f__________clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or averb phrase and which says something about the subjectis grammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinateclause is normally called an e_______ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7. G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase andsentence8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4. complex5. embedded6. open7. grammatical8. simple9. sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1 The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome 2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5 The phrase “on the half” belongs to ________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that__________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “They were wan ted to remain quiet and notto expose themselves” is a ____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complex Answers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way wordsare combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis forshort, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of itsimmediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake ofconvenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure thatgroups words into structural constituents and shows thesyntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach Illustrate them with examplesAnswers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences.They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of asingle clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to oneof its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small childrenwith children as its head. The exocentric construction,opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as aconstruction whose distribution is not functionallyequivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. Theyare simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a singleclause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. Thetwo clauses in a complex sentence do not have equalstatus, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
Chapter 4 课后答案
Chapter 4答案Syntax1. Define the following terms briefly.(1)syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the studyof sentence structure.(2)word class: a group of words which are similar in function; words which aregrouped into word classes according to how they combine with other words,how they change their forms, etc.(3)prescriptive approach: This view regards grammar as a set of rules for the“proper” use of a language, that’s to say, it tries to lay down rules to tell peoplehow to use a language.(4)descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with which linguistscollect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describethe regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to someview of how they should be used.(5)IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituentsby using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.For example, the immediate constituents of “The man bought a car” are theman and bought a car. The immediate constituents of the man are the andman, and so on until no further cuts can be made. The ultimate constituentsof “The man bought a car” at the word level are the, man, bought, a, and car.(6)structural analysis: a type of descriptive approach to study the distribution oflinguistic forms in a language through such methods as the use of “test frames”.(7)immediate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into small constituents,which can be further analyzed into smaller constituents. This processcontinues until no further divisions are possible. The first division or unitsare known as immediate constituents.(8)ultimate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into small constituents,which can be further analyzed into smaller constituents. This process continuesuntil no further divisions are possible. The final division or units areknown as ultimate constituents.(9)constituent structural grammar: It refers to a grammar which analyzes sentencesusing only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structurallevels.(10) transformational grammar: a type of grammar which attempts to define anddescribe by a set of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences (withoutungrammatical ones) of a language.(11) ideational function: the use of language as a means of giving structure to ourexperience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function: the use of language for maintaining social roles andinteracting with others.(13) textual function: to create written or spoken texts which cohere within themselvesand which fit the particular situation in which they are used.2. Yes. As we know, morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms andclasses of words, while syntax focuses on the structure and ordering of componentswithin a sentence. The major distinction between morphology and syntaxis that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, while thelatter is concerned with the combination of words.3.(2) Instead of using the form “suggest somebody to do something”, we usually use “suggest + that-clause” or “suggest doing”, here we’d better substitute “advise” for “suggest”(4)The word “request” is a transitive verb which should take an object directly,so the word “for” should be omitted.(6)The word “donate” cannot be followed by double objects as “donate somebody something”. Instead we always use “donate something to somebody”.(10) The subject of the verb “write” is usually a human; an “article” cannot write itself. In this case the passive construction is normally used: The article was very well writ en.(11) Usually we don’t use “be bored of something/somebody”, but “be bored withsomething/somebody” which means losing intere st in somebody/something.(13) Here “myself ” is a reflexive pronoun, which can’t be used as subject, and itshould be replaced by “I”.(14) The word “surprise” is usually used as a transitive verb, so the expression“…surprise for you” is ungrammatical, a nd it can be replaced by “surprisesomebody (with something)” or “I was surprised by your getting married.”(15) The word “sleep” is usually used as an intransitive verb, which can’t take anobject. The cases of “sleep” being used as a transitive verb are semanticallylimited, as in “to sleep a good sleep” or “the room can sleep 3 people”.4.It’s ungrammatical, because “us” is the objective case which can’t serve as the subject,while “she” is the subjective case which can’t serve as the object. The sentenceshould be “We visit her on Sundays”. The personal pronouns “you” and “it” havethe same form whether used as the subject or object.5.(1) NP: A Guns “N” Roses concert, an arena, some 2500 fans, afull-fledged riot,A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena , A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arenanear ST. Louis ,The trouble, venue security, a camera, the front, the stage, thefront of the stage. PP: at an arena, at an arena near ST. Louis, near ST. Louis,in disaster, near the front, of the stage, near the front of the stage. VP: stageda full-fledged riot, asked venue security, confiscate a camera.(2)N: Guns, Roses, concert, arena, ST. Louis, disaster, fans, riot, trouble, Axl Rose, venue, security, camera, front, stage. Prep: at, near, in, of. V: end, stage,start, ask, confiscate, see.6.(1) You mustn’t end a sentence with a preposition.You mustn’t split infinitives.7. (i)SNP VP AdvArt N V NP Prep NPArt N Art NThe dog bit the man in the car.(ii)SArt NArt NPrep NPNP VPArt N V NP PThe dog bit the man in the car.8. (1)a. Terry loves his wife and I love his wife, too.b. I love my wife as well as Terry loves his wife.(2) a. It’s yesterday that they said she would go.b. She would go yesterday as they said.(3) a. The governor is a street fighter who is dirty.b. The governor is a fighter in a dirty street.(4) a. The design has squares and circles, both of which are big.b. The design has big squares, and it also has some circles. (The sizes of the circles are not mentioned.)。
语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V , A or P.The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word ’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of aconjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1) there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP ) can be coordinated.3) coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black sky c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterday d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPN NMary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPNYou know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English examc) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royced) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellent b) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house she loved that Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house that she loved e c) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPS P NPN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure: CPC SAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrow b) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPN What did Helen e bring e to the party c) Who broke the window?Deep Structure:C SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the window Surface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window。
新编简明语言学教程第二版第四章课后习题答案
Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement ofelements that make up a phrase is called phrase structure rule.3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflection and distribution. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. Words of different categories take different inflection. Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2)a category at any level can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?3 elements: head, specifier, complement.The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.Head: Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier: Specifer has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement: Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure: The first one is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure.The second one is corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surfacestructure.7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.1) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Adv2) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det NAdv V P Det N3) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det N4) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrase include a head, a complement , and in some case a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrases.a. rich in mineralsAPA PPP NPNRich in mineralsb. often read detective stories.VPQual V NPA NOften read detective storiesc. the argument against the proposals.NPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalsd. already above the windowPPQual P NPDet Nalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a. A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Infl P(s)NP Infl VPDet AP N None pst V NP PPA Det N P NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b. A huge moon hung in the black sky.Infl P(s)NP Infl VPDet AP N V PPA P NPDet AP NAA huge moon hung in the black skyc. The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Infl P(s)NP Infl VPDet N pst V NP Adv AdvDet NThe man examined his car carefully yesterday.d. A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Infl P(s)NP Infl VPDet AP N PP V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a. Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.Infl P(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb. Helen put on her clothes and went out.Infl P(=S)NP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc. Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Infl P(=S)NP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentence.a. You know that I hate war.SNP VPN V CPC SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warSb. Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.NP VPN VP NPV NP CPDet N C SNP VPN V NPDet A NGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam c. Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPN V A CPC SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det Nhis father bought himd. The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPDet N VP CPV P C SNP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings12.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and surface structure for each of these sentences.a. The essay that he wrote was excellent.CPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S PNP NP Infl VPN N V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellent(surface structure)CPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essayhe wrote thatwas excellent. (deep structure)b. Herbert bought a house that she lovedCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP NP VPN N V NPNHerbert bought a loved e(surface structure)CPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN V NPNHerbert bought a house she loved that. (deep structure)c. The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.CPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP NP VPN N V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics (surface structure)CPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP VPN V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguistics (deep structure)13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a. Would you come tomorrow?CPC SNP VPN Infl V AdvPAdv(surface structure) you Would come tomorrowCPC SInfl NP VPN Infl V AdvPAdv(deep structure) Would you e come tomorrowb. What did Helen bring to the party?CPC SNP VPN Infl V NP PPN P NPDet N (surface structure) Helen did bring what to the partyCPNP C SInfl NP VPN Infl V NP PPN P NPDet N (deep structure) what did e to thec. Who broke the window?(surface structure)CPC SNP NP Infl VPN Pst NPVe broke the window(deep structure)CPC SNP VPDet N Infl VThe window was broken。
(完整版)语言学Chapter4Exercises含答案.docx
Chapter 4From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set ofsyntactic rules.2.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but thereis no limit to the number of sentences native speakers ofthat language are able to produce and comprehend.3.An endocentric construction is also known as headed constructionbecause it has just one head4.Constituents that can be substituted for one another without lossof grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.5.In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase,verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.6.Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7.Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8.Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9.In English the subject usually precedes the verb and thedirect object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF6-10 TTTTT)II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement,question or command2.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the sametime structurally alone is known as an f__________ clause 3.The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verbphrase and which says something about the subject isgrammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5.In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clauseis normally called an e_______ clause.6.Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7.G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase and sentence 8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1.sentence2. finite3.predicate4. complex5. embedded6.open7. grammatical8.simple9. sentence10. subjectIII.There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement :1The head of the phrase“ the city Rome” is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC.PrepositionD. subordinator3Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4.Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A.how words and phrases form sentences.B.what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC.how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD.All of the above.5The phrase “ on the halfA endocentric B” belongs to ________construction exocentric C subordinate Dcoordinate6. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A.noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B.noun phrases can be used to modify another nounphraseC.noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD.noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8.The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9.The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10The sentence “ They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves ” is a____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compound DcomplexAnswers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D10 AIV . Explain the following terms, using examples.1.Syntax2.IC analysis3.Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words arecombined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.3.Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groupswords into structural constituents and shows the syntacticcategory of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V.Answer the following questions:1.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate themwith examples.2.What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3.Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4.What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach? Illustrate them with examples ？Answers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole.A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of itsconstituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They aresimple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coordinatesentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that iscalled coordinating conjunction, such as "and","but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
语言学导论-第4章Syntax
Sentence Structure: Syntax
Syntax 句法学
A branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
Complements 补语
Complements can be phrases Providing information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head Attached to the right of the head
Adv.: to denote property of verbs e.g., Jenny left quietly.
Not always reliable: He stands still. love – hate be aware of – know about
《语言学》Chapter4Syntax习题兼答案
《语言学》Chapter4Syntax习题兼答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with itsmeaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, andadjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements beingconjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, anda specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PP d) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。
语言学第四单元课后答案 syntax 树状图 the s rule
syntax1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPe) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk aboutCPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P Nd) The apple might hit the man.SNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pants b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPNPN V NOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL AHe said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A Nd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN N Herbert found thed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl majors in linguistics8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrowDeep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advcome tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaperDeep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Npass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incidentDeep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nreport the incidentd) What did you eat for lunchDeep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN Nfor lunche) Who should this be reported toDeep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNf) What was Helen bringing to the partyDeep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det Nto the party。
语言学导论-第4章Syntax
NP
N
VP
V
AP
A
PP
P
--
--
phrase level
word level
Phrase categories
The structure:
a picture on the wall
specifier + head + complement
标志语 中心词 补语
Head: the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier: the words on the left side of the heads Complement: the words on the right side of the heads
e.g., The ____ smiles. man boy girl
Word-level categories
Traditional grammar: 8 parts of speech
Noun Verb Adjective Adverb Pronoun Preposition Conjunction Interjection
VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…
e.g., always play games, finish assignments
AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…
e.g., very handsome, familiar with, very close to
PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…
“Oh, Ouch, eh, Hey, …”
Word-level categories
语言学第四单元课后答案syntax树状图thesrule
syntax1.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a)full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb)a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc)often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd)the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Ne)move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3.Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb)Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc)What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NWhat will you e talk about ed)The apple might hit the man.SNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane)He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a)A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb)A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc)An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd)A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pants b)Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but(is) tired of statisticsN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is)tired of statisticsd)The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine)Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective,a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPNPN V NYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb)He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL AHe said that Tom asked whether the class was overc)Gerry can’tbelieve the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A N Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd)Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee)The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was too longb)The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog that he keeps e bitesc)Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN NHerbert found the man (whom)she loved ed)The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl whom he often quarrels with e majors in linguistics8.The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advwould you e come tomorrowb)Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det N Can you e pass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det N should the students e report the incidentd)What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN N what did you e eat e for lunche)Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNwhom should this e be reported to ef)What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det N what was Helen e bringing e to the party。
老师新编_简明英语语言学教程第二版第4章答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the propertie s and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, andadjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements beingconjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PP d) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter-4-Syntax
Number
singular plural
Noun
man men
Pronoun
He They
Verb (agreement)
works work
性 (Gender)
❖ Many inflectional languages have three meaning-related gender distinction: masculine, feminine and neuter.
❖ 许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、 阴性、中性。
❖ In English gender contrast can be only observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns which shows the biological gender.
❖ The categories of the noun, include number, gender, case and countability;
❖ 名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性；
❖ The categories of the verb, for example, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc.
❖ 英语中有被动语态，用“分词”表示。主动 态句子中的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或 用“by短语”
❖ Active voice Jim caught the ball.
❖ Passive voice TБайду номын сангаасe ball was caught.
❖ Passive voice with “by-phrase”
❖ SYNTAX is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language , or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
语言学Chapter4课后练习答案(20200602074319)
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows: NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appearprior to the conjunction.2) a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the categorytype of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposals d) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution. Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA P NPDet AP NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN N Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPN You know that I hate war b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NAGerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English examc) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det N Chris was happy that his father bought him aRoll-Royced) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings 12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellentb) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPN Herbert bought a house that she lovedec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure:CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the party Surface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPN What did Helen e bring e to the partyc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the windowSurface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window。
语言学第四章树形图句法
Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)Syntax (grammar)•Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.4.1 Syntactic relations•Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:–4.1.1 positional relation–4.1.2 relations of substitutability–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence4.1.1 Positional Relation•For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.•The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object•Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.•If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example, The boy kicked the ball–*Boy the ball kicked the–*The ball kicked the boy•The teacher saw the students•The students saw the teacher•Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.•Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.•There are 6 possible types of language:–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order. 4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability•The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.–The ______ smiles.manboygirl•It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man–The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.–He went there last week.the day before.•This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev.•To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence•It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.•For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.•Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction•Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.–an apple–ate an apple–Mary ate an apple4.2.2 Immediate Constituents•Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:–the girl (NP)–ate the apple (VP)–The girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediateconstituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.A (Sentence)B CThe boy ate the appleTwo ways: tree diagram and bracketingTree diagram:Bracketing•Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.•(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))•[S[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions•Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.•Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including–the basic sentence,–the prepositional phrase,–the predicate (verb + object) construction,–the connective (be + complement) construction.•The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)•He hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)•He kicked the ball .(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)•John seemed angry.(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination•Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: 1) Coordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . –These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.•Coordination of NPs:–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]•Coordination of VPs:–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]•Coordination of PPs:–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]•Coordination of APs:–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]•Coordination of Ss:–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].2) Subordination•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.•two dogsHead•(My brother) can drink (wine).Head•Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head•(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.Head3) Subordinate clauses•Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:–complement clauses–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses–relative clauses•John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complement clause)•Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].(adverbial clause)•The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.(relative clause)4.3. Syntactic Function•The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 Subject•In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case（主格）.•The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)•In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.–This definition seems to work for these sentences:–Mary slapped John.■ A dog bit Bill.•but is clearly wrong in the following examples:–John was bitten by a dog.–John underwent major heart surgery.•In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).•Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). •Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as–Bill is a very crafty fellow.•but fails in others, such as–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.–As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.•All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.•The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.What characteristics do subjects have?A. Word order•Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:–Sally collects stamps.–*Collects Sally stamps.B. Pro-forms•The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:–He loves me.–I love him.–We threw stones at them.–They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with the verb•In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:–She angers him.–They anger him.–She angers them.D. Content questions•If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in–John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.–Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?–What would John steal, if he had the chance?–What did John steal from the British Council?–Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?E. Tag question•A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.–John loves Mary, doesn’t he?–Mary loves John, doesn’t she?–*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?4.3.2 Predicate•Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.•It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.–The boy is running. (process)–Peter broke the glass. (action)–Jane must be mad! (state)•The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.4.3.3 Object•Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.–Mother bought a doll.–Mother gave my sister a doll.IO DO•In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case （与格）for indirect object.–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns).–Mother gave a doll to my sister.–John kicked me.•Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.–John broke the glass. The glass was broken by John.–Peter saw Jane. Jane was seen by Peter.•Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.–He died last week.–The match lasted three hours.–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)4.4. Category•The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 Number•Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.•In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.–le cheval royal (the royal horse)–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)4.4.2 Gender•Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis ofword classes.–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seemquite arbitrary in many cases.–For instance, in Latin, ignis‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine. •English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they aremainly of the natural gender type.–he: she: it–prince: princess–author: authoress•In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.–beau cadeau (fine gift)–belle maison (fine house)–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)•Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:–le poele (the stove)–la poele (the frying pan)–le pendule (the pendulum)–la pendule (the clock)4.4.3 Case•The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.•In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:–inflection–following a preposition–word order•as manifested in–teacher : teacher’s–with : to a man–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John4.4.4 Agreement•Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).•This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric （照应）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent, –Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.•or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:–Each person may have one coin.•Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:–This man runs. The bird flies.–These men run. These birds fly.SentenceClausePhraseWord•the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)•has been doing(verbal phrase)•extremely difficult(adjectival phrase)•to the door (prepositional phrase)•very fast(adverbial phrase)•The best thing would be to leave early.•It’s great for a man to be free.•Having finished their task, they came to help us.•John being away, Bill had to do the work.•Filled with shame, he left the house.•All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.•It’s no use crying over spilt milk.•Do you mind my opening the window?Sentence: (traditional approach)simpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundSentence: (functional approach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicative wh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasic sentence types: (Bolinger)•Mother fell.(Nominal + intransitive verbal)•Mother is young.(Nominal + copula + complement)•Mother loves Dad.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).•Mother fed Dad breakfast.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)•There is time.(There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: (Quirk)•SVC Mary is kind.a nurse.•SVA Mary is here.in the house.•SV The child is laughing.•SVO Somebody caught the ball.•SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.•SVOA I put the plate on the table.•SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6 Recursiveness•Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.–All these are means to extend sentences.–How long can a sentence be?•Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.•The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …•John’s sister•John’s sister’s husband•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.•that house in Beijing•the garden of that house in Beijing•the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing•a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing4.6.1 Conjoining 连接•Conjoining: coordination.•Conjunctions: and, but, and or.–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.–Give me liberty or give me death.4.6.2 Embedding嵌入•Embedding: subordination.•Main clauses and subordinate clauses.•Three basic types of subordinate clauses:–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.–Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.4.7. Beyond the sentence(Text and discourse)•The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond thetraditional sentence boundary.•Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.4.7.1 Sentential Connection•Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.–We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.•Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.–He dictated the letter. She wrote it.–The door was open. He walked in.4.7.2 Cohesion衔接•Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.•Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:–Conjunction 连接–Ellipsis 省略–lexical collocation 词汇搭配–lexical repetition 词汇重复–Reference 指称–Substitution 替代, etc.•“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)•“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. 1 can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)•He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.(Reference)•“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)•I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.(Logical connection)。
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题
Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is syntax?----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally means “arrangement” or out together”．Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or withoutappropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence..Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentencesWhat is a sentence?Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of words arranged in a certainorder in accordance with grammatical rules.A sequence c an be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what are ungrammatical.Knowledge of sentence structureStructural ambiguityStructural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more than one meaning. Forexample, the sentence Tom said he would come yesterday can be interpreted in different ways.Word orderDifferent arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For example, with the wordsTom, love and Mary, we may say T om loves Mary o r Mary loves Tom.Grammatical relationsNative speakers know what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly. For, the word enough is example, in The boats are not big enough and We don’t have enough boatsrelated to different words in the two sentences.RecursionThe same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For example, I know that youare happy. He knows that I know that you are happy. She knows that he knows that I know that youare happy.Sentence relatednessSentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.Syntactic categoriesA syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without lossof grammaticality. For example, consider the following sentences:The child found the knife.A policeman found the knife.The man who just left here found the knife.He found the knife.All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun phrase (NP). The nounThe knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.phrases in these sentences function as subject.Traditional grammarIn traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs(predicates), predicatives, …Structural grammarStructural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with theinter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are notjust independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.Transformational-generative (TG) grammarChomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.Adequacy of observationAdequacy of descriptionAdequacy of explanationWriting a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrase structure rules andtransformation rules – which are followed by speakers of the language.TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.Systematic-functional grammarBackground and the goal of systemic-functional grammarM. A. K. HallidayLanguage is a system of meaning potential and a network of meaning as choices.Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized through forms.The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and meaning are realizedthrough forms.The three meta-functions of languageIdeational functionInterpersonal functionTextual functionCategoriesCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.The criteria on which categories are determinedMeaningInflectionDistributionNote: The most reliable criter ion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).The structure: specifier + head + complementHead---- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier---- the words on the left side of the headsComplement---- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rulesThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toPP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.The XP ruleNote: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.Coordination ruleCoordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same typewith the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.----Coordination has four important properties:no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;a category at any level can be coordinated;the categories must be of the same type;the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. Phrase elementsSpecifierHeadComplementSpecifiers---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP. Complements---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl;There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…；aI believed that she was innocent.I sentence-l ike construction may also function as a complement such as in “That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” introduced by complementizers are complement clause.Modifiers---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Sentences (the S rule)S NP VPS NP infl VPMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstracts tense and agreement.category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl’) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’Infl realized by a tense labelInfl realized by an auxiliaryTransformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)Do insertionDeep structure & surface structureWh-movementMove α and constraints on transformationsAuxiliary movement (inversion)Inversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Inversion (revised) Move Infl to C.Auxiliary movement (inversion)Do insertionDo insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Deep structure & surface structureConsider the following pair of sentences:John is easy to please.John is eager to please.Structurally similar sentences m ight be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.Consider one more sentence:Flying planes can be dangerous.It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.D-structure and S-structureTwo levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysisThe organization of the syntactic componentWh-movementConsider the derivation of the following sentences:What languages can you speak?What can you talk about?These sentences may originate as:You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.What language can you speak ?What can you talk about ?Wh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)Move α and constraints on transformationsInversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences a re composed of sequence o f words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level ofD-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. XP can be written as (specifier) X (complement), X is called the_____.23. In a tree diagram, _____is the root of tree.24. The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed________.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.VI. Given examples for word classes by using the words in the following sentence.Her dog always sleeps under the old tree.VII. Construct a sentence that has the following sentences.S Det, A, N, V, P, Det, NVIII. For each of the following sentences, supply three distinct surface structure sentences which may be regarded as derived from them:a.I told him to stop the car.b.He took his coat off.IX. Draw tree diagrams for each of the following entences.1.Mary advised John to see the dentist.2.Mary promised John to see the dentist.3. A clever magician fooled the audience.4.The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.5.They knew that the senator would win the election.6.The mouse ran up the rock.7.The mouse ate up the cheese.8.John gave Mary the book.9.John gave the book to Mary.10.John went to the supermarket.11.The man who came to see me last night is my brother.12.The candle on the desk blows in the wind.13.She passed him the hammer and saw through the window. (2 tree diagrams)14.The boy saw the girl in the car. (2 tree diagrams)15.Flying planes can be dangerous. (2 tree diagrams)16.Old men and women were more careful. (2 tree diagrams)17.The man in the room helps me every day.18.John is easy to please.19.John is eager to please.Suggested answers to supplementary exercisesIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a setof abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to forma complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (calleda lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example:John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparingfor her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:SNP VPDet N Vt NPDet NThe boy likes the music.46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?The tree diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.NP movement involves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice:(A) The man beat the child.(B). The child was beaten by the man.B is the result of the movement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left.Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice. For example:(C) It seems they are quite fit for the job.(D) They seem quite fit for the job.These sentences a re identical in meaning, but different in their superficial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underlying structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.。
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syn tax1. In dicate the category of each word in the follow ing senten ces. a) The old lady sudde nly left. Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He n ever appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate each. a) full of peoplefull of peopleb) a story about a sen time ntal girlNPofte n read detective storiesd) the argume nt aga inst the proposalsDetNthe argume nt aga inst the proposalstree structure forAPVPQual VNPNPPPNPe) move towards the win dowVPPPDet N3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the followi ng senten ces.a) The jet Ian ded.In flP(=S)The jetb) Mary became very ill.In flP(=S)Maryc) What will you talk about?CPmove towards the win dowNP Infl VPPst VNPInflS zNP InflVPNPVPVPNWhat will you e talk about ed) The apple might hit the man.SNPDet NVPAux V NPDet NNPDet NInfl VPPstIan dedbecame very ill欢迎下 3e) He often reads detective stories.S4. The followi ng sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each senten ce, first ide ntify the modifier(s), the n draw the tree structures.a) A frighte ned passe nger Ian ded the crippled airpla ne.In flP(=S)Det AThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)InflNPNVP DetV NPDetTheapplemight hit themanNPQualHe often reads etective storiesORNPPres QualHeoften reads etective storiesInflNPDet A N Pst VVPNP VP VNPNInflP(=S)VPVInfl NPNA frighte ned passe nger Ian ded the crippled airpla neb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unu sual event occurred before the meet ing.In flP(=S)N Pst VAn unu sual event occurred before the d) A qua int old house appeared on the grassy hill.house appeared on the grassy hill5. The follow ing sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences,a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pan ts.InflP(=S)A hugeN Pst VInflmeet ingDet PDet A NA qua int old InflP(=S)Infl NPDet AVPPPmoonNPDet AVPPPNP Det - A PPNP VPN CON NORJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsN Infl VN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Hele n put on her clothes and wentout. SNP VPCONVORHele n put on her clothes and went outNPInflP(=S)Infl VPCONN Pst VPVP\NP入V P Det NHele n put on her clothes and went outV欢迎下载6c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Mary is fond of literature but(is) tired of statisticsORVPNP/T\IV A P NMary is fond of literature but(is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spri ng will come and the snow will melt.CON/T\ IInflP(=S)SS AdvSCON and the mysterious man came in The detective went outNP NVVPCON S SNPINVPCrusoe knows that spri ng will come and the snow willmelt6. The followi ng sentences all contain embedded clauses that fun ctio n as compleme nts of a verb, anadjective, a prepositi on or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. a) You know that I hate war.NP VPb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.NP NS NPDet NAVL ANPNORYouknow thatNV N IhatewarYouknow that I hate warSVPSNPVPC CSHesaid that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can 'believe the fact that Anna flun ked the En glish exam.SNPAuxVPNeg VGerry d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce. S NP can not believe VPVL Chris e) The childre n argued over whether bats had wings. S CP wasA C NP VP CPDet VP z\V PNPThe childre n argued over whether bats had 7. Each of the follow ing sentences contains a relative clause. Drawwin gsthe deep structure and the surface structureVPtrees for each of the sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was too long.Surface StructurePstb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structurewrote that wastoo longDetNPNPNPTheessay that was too longDeep structureThe essay heCPSNP NVP VCPSInfl VPAP Deghe wrote e欢迎下载 10Surface Structurec) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureVPThedog NPhe keeps thatbitesThedog NPNPthat he Pres Vkeeps NPbitesCPSSInfl VPSurface StructureCPCSd) The girl whom he ofte n quarrels with majors in lin guistics.CPCSN Infl VSNPHerbertfound the man she loved whoHerbertN Infl Vfound NP NeDeep structureCPSNPNDetThe girlVPV PPCPCPCPPVhe ofte n quarrels with whommajorsSurface StructureSin lin guisticsSNPPPNPNPofte n quarrels with e majors in lin guistics8. The derivati ons of the followi ng senten ces in volve the inversion tran sformatio n. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPb) Can you pass me the n ewspaper?Deep structureSurface structureThe girl whom hewouldyouwouldcomeAdvtomorrowyoucometomorrowyoupass me then ewspaperSNPSurface structure CPCSNPInflNAdvP AdvAdvP CPSNP N NP Det Ncanc) Should the stude nts report the in cide nt?d) What did you eat for lun ch?Deep structureCPCanCyou pass me the n ewspaperDeep structurethe stude nts should reportthe in cidentshould thestude ntse reportthe in cidentNPINe) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureSurface structureCPyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureNPthisshould be reported to whompN——nflbe reported towhom should thisf) WhatNPINwhatewas Hele n bringing to theparty?Deep structureCPVPNPInflHelen was bringing whatSurface structureCPVPInfl NPwasInflHelen/ NPV INIbringing eNPPtoNPDet Nthe partyPPNPDet Nto the party。