现代语言学自考资料_分章节总结
语言学概论笔记自考(一到九章)
语言学概论笔记第一章：语言和语言学一、识记内容。
1口语：语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。
2、书面语：文字出现以后，语言的第二种客观存在形式。
3、符号：指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
4、能指：语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分。
5、所指：也就是“能指成分”，即特定的物质实体，所指的意义内容。
6、聚合关系：在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中，因而聚合成为一个类。
7、组合关系：组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，也体现了部分与整体之间的关系。
8、语言学：是研究语言的科学。
9、普通语言学：语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论。
10、理论语言学：把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等，把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。
11、应用语言学：把侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用。
12传统语言学：一般泛指20世纪以前的语言学，特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学。
13结构主义语言学：索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”，至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”、“结构主义语法”，往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学，那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派，并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学。
二、领会内容（不用识记，大体知道即可）1、言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。
答：人要说话所需要的因素：生活经历、社会环境、当前处理的问题、社会问题、文化问题、哲学问题、逻辑问题。
人要接受语言所需要的因素：组织与分析的能力、心理、生理问题；发音、听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力；复杂的生理和物理问题。
总之一句话，言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程，言者编码，听者解码。
(完整版)自考语言学概论复习资料最新整理
自考语言学概论复习资料最新整理1. 语法：词的构成，变化和词构成词组和句子的规则。
2. 语法意义：语法形式所体现的意义。
3. 语法范畴：语法意义的类。
4. 历时语法：从语法发展变化角度纵向地、动态地研究语法，研究的重点是某些语法现象在特定时间过程中产生和消失的原因及其规律。
5. 共时语法：从某一时期存在的语法现象的角度横向地、静态地研究语法，研究的重点是某一语言在特定空间范围内的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。
6. 个别看法：指对个别看言，语法的研究，既包括研究一种语言的语法系统，也包括研究一种语言中与其他语言不同的语法特点，这类研究的意义在于发现各种语言独特的语法现象。
7. 语法规则：语法规则本身也就是客观存在的语法，即人们说话时直觉和习惯上所遵守的某种语感。
8. 普遍语法：指对人类语言的语法共性的研究，其意义在于发现人类语言中共有的语法机制。
9. 核心语法：又叫小语法，仅指句法结构规则。
10. 外围语法：又叫大语法，它研究与语法有关的词语知识、语义知识和语音知识。
11. 语法形式：能体现一类意义或有共同性作用的形式都是语法形式，能体现语法意义的形式。
12. 语法手段：根据语法形式的共同特点把它们归并为几个基本类别，这种语法形式的类就叫做“语法手段”。
13. 递归：相同的规则可以在一个结构里重复使用。
14. 语境：说话时的环境条件，包括特定的场所、对话人和上下文等。
15. 句子：由若干个词或词组按照一定的规则组合成的，能表达相对完整的意义，前后有较大的停顿并带有一定的语气和句调的语言单位。
16. 句法范畴：由结构的变化来表示语法意义的形式就是司法范畴。
17. 句法手段：通过结构的变化来表现语法意义的形式叫做句法手段。
18. 句法：语法中主要说明句子成分和句子类型的部分称为句法，也称造句法。
19. 词法：语法中主要描写词的形态特征和变化规则的部分称为词法，也称形态学。
20. 词法范畴：由词的变化来表示语法意义的形式就是词法范畴。
自考英语本科 《现代语言学》 复习大纲
C h a p t e r1I n t r o d u c t i o n绪论what is linguistics?定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
自考《现代汉语》各章复习要点
自考《现代汉语》各章复习要点第一章绪论一、知识:1、说出来的话是口语,用笔写下来的是书面语。
2、古汉语包括文言和古白话;现代汉语指当代白话,包括口语和书面语。
3、汉魏以后,出现了一种跟口语比较接近的书面语,如唐宋时代的语录,宋代的平话,元明清的戏曲小说等。
4、古白话或叫早期白话,也有人称之为近代汉语。
如《三国演义》、《水浒传》《红楼梦》《西游记》《儒林外史》都是古白话。
5、现代汉语有两种含义,一是指现代汉民族共同语,一是指普通话和方言。
6、汉语的方言大体可以分为官话区和非官话区两类。
7、官话又称北方方言。
非官话方言区包括吴语、粤语、湘语、闽语、赣语、客家话。
8、联合国规定的六种语言,除汉语外,还有英语、法语、俄语、西班牙语、阿拉伯语。
9、汉语属声调语言,不同类别的声调能区别意义。
10、汉语缺少严格意义的词形变化。
二、简答:1、什么是现代汉民族共同语?答:以北京语音为标准音、以北方话为基础方言、以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的普通话。
2、口语和书面语有什么联系和区别?答:口语是书面语的基础, 书面语不过是口语的记录和加工形式。
口语和书面语在用词造句方面都存在着一些差别。
如果从整体上概括这两种语言形式的特点, 主要判别在风格方面,口语的特点是 " 亲切自然、句子简短、常有省略 " ,书面语的特点是 " 用词精审、结构谨严、逻辑性强 " 。
3、现代汉语跟英语比较有何特点?答:(1)汉语属声调语言,不同类别的声调能区别词的意义。
(2)汉语缺少严格意义的词形变化。
(3)汉语语句的修饰语用在中心语的前边,英语的修饰语有的用在中心语之前,有的用在中心语的后边。
4、现代汉语跟古代汉语比较有哪些特点?答:1)古代汉语有入声字,这些入声字在现代汉语普通话里已经消失, 分别归入阴阳上去四声。
2) 现代汉语比古代汉语有较多的双音词, 主要是名词。
许多古代汉语的单音节词成了构词语素。
语言学概论自学考试 知识点总结 详细版
第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言1.人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较，有哪些显著特点？P50（1）“内容更多”。
人在各种场合都可以说话；人也可以用各种方式说话；人还可以说各种各样的话。
（2）“用处更大”。
交际功能；标志功能；记录功能；思维功能；认知功能。
（3）“能够创造”。
人类的语言有极强的生成能力和极高的运转效率；其他动物无论自身多么完善，都无法做到这一步。
人类与其他动物区别最重要的标志就是人类具有语言能力，只有人类才有语言。
2.为什么不能以“相互能听懂”为标准来区别方言和语言？P51-52【简】单以“相互能够听懂”为标准来确定方言和语言不但会将复杂的问题简单化，而且很可能会在政治上引起严重后果。
如果单凭这一条标准来衡量，则英国人、美国人、澳大利亚人，加拿大人等，说话相互能听懂，因此他们所说的话就都应视为英语的“方言“才对，然而这样处理，他们在民族感情上是不能接受的。
另外，北欧的瑞典，挪威，丹麦三个主权国家的语言差别很小，相互都能听懂，如果按“相互能听懂”来处理，这三个国家使用的就是同一种语言，至少是同一种语言的各个方言，但这三个国家又是不同的民族，应当承认他们使用的是不同的语言。
因此，不能以“相互能够听懂“为标准来区别方言和语言。
3.简述“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类”P53【名/简】不同的语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面有所不同，根据这些特点可以将语言分为“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类”。
1)从语言“历时”演变角度来划分不同的语言，就可以建立“语言的谱系分类”，也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类，就是语言的谱系分类。
2)从语言“共时”状态角度来划分不同的语言，就可以建立“语言的形态分类”，也叫做“语言的结构类型分类”。
4.语言的谱系分类是个层级系统，从大到小分别是：P53语系——语族——（语支）——语言——方言——次方言（土语）5.“语言”和“言语”P54 【名/简】“语言”—说话使用的工具（比如英语、汉语）。
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。
二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学）2)phonology （音系学）3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学) Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s dis tinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are verysimilar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。
00541语言学概论必过资料
第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式一、语言：1．语言是一种社会现象，不是一种物质实体。
2．言语交际是一个编码（说话）和解码（听话）的过程。
（语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为，有声的口头语言，即口语）3．语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言是不完全一模一样的。
二、口语和书面语的主要差别：1．口语：是有声的口头语言。
2．书面语：是经过加工提炼和发展了的口语书面形式。
3．口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
4．书面语比口语更精练、更精确。
5．书面语比口语省略成份少一些。
（多了一些成份）三、口语与书面语的关系：1．口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
2．书面语反过来影响和促进口语的发展。
3．口语、书面语基本是一致的。
（一般情况下）四、书面语产生具有重大的历史意义：书面语的产生克服了口语的时间、空间的限制，是人类进入文明社会的标志。
五、语言和民族：1．语言是民族的重要标志，但不是最可靠的标志。
（1）在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用一种语言。
（2）也有一个民族使用多种语言。
（犹太民族）（3）不同民族使用同一种语言。
（满族、汉族）（4）尽管语言是最直观的，最容易识别民族的标志，从目前了解到的情况来看，“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”，也许是维系一个“民族”的最根本的因素。
因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
不能单凭“互相理解程度”来区分语言和方言。
（广东上海）六、语言与种族的关系：语言和种族没有必然的联系，但不是完全没有联系。
特别就“语系”而言，两者之间的联系还是比较明显的。
（汉语、汉藏语系都有声调）七、语言和种族没有必然联系的根本原因是：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但是语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是先天遗传的，它是一种社会现象，完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
八、语言的客观存在形式：口语、书面语。
语言的客观存在形式首先表现为有声的口头语言即口语，而当出现了文字以后，又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。
自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助,我也是学生,这是由老师总的,我将PPT转为WORD)
第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctionsin linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use,it is said to be descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules to tellpeople what they should sayand what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differsfrom traditional grammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actually use,whether it i s “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point intime is a synchronic study; thedescription of a language as itchanges through time isa diachronic study. In modernlinguistics, synchronic study ismore important.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are thetwo major media ofcommunication.Modern linguistics regardsthe spoken form of languageas primary, but not the writtenform.Reasons:●1. Speech precedes writing;●2. There are still manylanguages that have only thespoken form;●3. In terms of function, thespoken language is used for awider range of purposes thanthe written, and carries alarger load of communicationthan the written.Langue and parole [pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. deSaussure made the distinctionbetween langue and paroleearly 20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the members ofa speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue in actualuse.Saussure made thedistinction in order to singleout one aspect of language forserious study. He believeswhat linguists should do is toabstract langue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual use oflanguage and make them thesubjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in the late1950’s.He defines competence asthe ideal user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language,and performance the actualrealization of this knowledgein linguistic communication.He believes the task of thelinguists is to discover andspecify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.Sapir,Edward uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focus on thepurely structural properties oflanguages and to suggest thatthese properties can beinvestigated from amathematically precise pointof view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to thedefining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish itfrom any animal system ofcommunication.American linguist CharlesHockett specified twelvedesign features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there is nological connection betweenmeanings and sounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog and theanimal it refers to. The factthat different sounds are usedto refer to the same object indifferent languages and thatthe same sound may be usedto refer to different objects isanother good example.Although language isarbitrary by nature, it is notentirely arbitrary. Some words,such as the words created inthe imitation of sounds bysounds are motivated in acertain degree. The arbitrarynature of language makes itpossible for language to havean unlimited source ofexpressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive orcreative in that it makespossible the construction andinterpretation of an infinitelylarge number of sentences,including those that they havenever said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is asystem, which consists of twosets of structure, or two levels,one of sounds at the lowerlevel and the other ofmeanings at the higher level.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure ofindividual and meaninglesssounds, which can be groupedinto meaningful units at thehigher level. This duality ofstructure or double articulationof language enables its usersto talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language canbe used to talk about whathappened in the past, what ishappening now, or what willhappen in the future.Language can also be used totalk about our real wordexperiences or theexperiences in our imaginaryworld. In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.********************************** Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
自考笔记_00535_现代汉语
⾃考笔记_00535_现代汉语⾃考现代汉语第⼀章绪论第⼀节⼝语和书⾯语第⼆节古汉语和现代汉语第三节普通话和⽅⾔第四节汉语的特点和规范化问题第五节怎样学习现代汉语第⼆章语⾳第⼀节语⾳概说第⼆节声母第三节韵母第四节声调第五节⾳节结构第六节⾳变第七节⾳位第⼋节语⾳规范问题第九节朗读第三章⽂字第⼀节汉字概说第⼆节汉字的字体第三节汉字的结构第四节现代汉字的应⽤和整理第四章词汇第⼀节词汇概说第⼆节词的构造第三节词义第四节同⾳词同义词反义词第五节词汇的构成第六节熟语第七节词典第五章语法第⼀节语法和语法分析第⼆节词类（上）第三节词类（下）第四节句法结构第五节句法成分第六节句⼦和句⼦分析第七节句型和句式第⼋节复句第九节句⼦的变化第⼗节语⽓第⼗⼀节常见的语法错误第六章修辞第⼀节修辞的基本要求第⼆节词语的选择第三节句式的选择第四节歧义问题第五节语⾔的节律第六节常⽤修辞格（上）第七节常⽤修辞格（下）欲获取完整版请——索取1.1．汉语⽅⾔的差异主要表现在((1)).(1)语⾳⽅⾯(2)词汇⽅⾯(3)语义⽅⾯(4)语法⽅⾯1.2．现代汉语书⾯语形式的主要源头是((2)).(1)官话(2)⽩话(3)⽂⾔⽂(4)近代汉语1.3．现代汉语词汇中占绝⼤多数的是((2)).(1)单⾳节词(2)双⾳节词(3)三⾳节词(4)多⾳节词1.4．汉语表⽰语法意义的主要⽅式是((4)).(1)形态变化(2)语序(3)虚词(4)语序和虚词1.5．江西省的九江话属于((3)).(1)赣⽅⾔(2)湘⽅⾔(3)北⽅⽅⾔(4)吴⽅⾔1.6．江苏省的镇江话属于((3)).(1)赣⽅⾔(2)湘⽅⾔(3)北⽅⽅⾔(4)吴⽅⾔2.1.1．发⾳体颤动次数多，则((1)).(1)声⾳⾼(2)声⾳低(3)声⾳强(4)与声⾳的⾼低没有关系2.1.2．语⾳的强弱跟说话时⽤⼒的⼤⼩((1)).(1)成正⽐(2)成反⽐(3)没有关系(4)不成⽐例2.1.3．语⾳的本质属性是((3)).(1)物理的属性.因为语⾳是语⾔的物质外壳，它同⾃然界其他声⾳⼀样，产⽣于物体的振动.(2)⽣理的属性.因为语⾳是由⼈的发⾳器官发出来的.(3)社会的属性.因为语⾳要表达⼀定的意义，什么样的语⾳形式表达什么样的意义，必须是全社会约定俗成的.(4)⼼理的属性.因为语⾳的产⽣是⼀种⼼理过程.欲获取完整版请——索取5.11.8．下⾯四个句⼦正确的是((4)).(1)在⼤家积极⼯作下，⼯程进度很快.(2)在⼤家积极⼯作的情况中，⼯程进度很快.(3)由于⼤家积极⼯作下，⼯程进度很快.(4)⼤家积极⼯作，⼯程进度很快.1.1．民族共同语是在⼀种⽅⾔基础上形成的.现代汉语共同语是在(北⽅⽅⾔)的基础上形成的.1.2．现代汉语中表达语法意义的两个主要语法⼿段是(语序)和(虚词).1.3．现代汉民族共同语是以(北京语⾳)为标准⾳，以(北⽅⽅⾔)为基础⽅⾔，以(典范的现代⽩话⽂著作)为语法规范的普通话.1.4．现代汉语的书⾯语和⼝语基本上是(⼀致)的.书⾯语是在⼝语的基础上产⽣和发展起来的，因此，⼝语是(第⼀性)的，书⾯语是(第⼆性)的.1.5．汉语的⽅⾔现在可以分成七区，除了北⽅⽅⾔区、吴⽅⾔区外，还有(湘⽅⾔区)、(赣⽅⾔区)、(客家⽅⾔区)、(闽⽅⾔区)、(粤⽅⾔区)五个⽅⾔区.1.6．南京话属于(北⽅)⽅⾔区，宁波话属于(吴)⽅⾔区，昆明话属于(北⽅)⽅⾔区，兰州话属于(北⽅)⽅⾔区.2.1.1．语⾳是(语⾔)的物质外壳，是社会的(交际)⼯具.2.1.2．语⾳不同于⼀般物体和动物的发⾳，区别就在于(它代表了⼀定的意义内容). 欲获取完整版请——索取6.7.3．排⽐要求并列的⼏项之间(结构)和(字数)相同或相似.6.7.4．设问和反问的区别在于：设问是(⾃问⾃答)，⽽反问是(寓答于问).6.7.5．在现成词语的⽐照下，更换词语的某个词或词素，临时仿造出新词语的修辞⽅式叫(仿词).1.1．北⽅⽅⾔区是指长江以北汉民族居住的地区.(×)1.2．⼝语和书⾯语的表达形式是⼀样的.(×)1.3．普通话就是过去所说的“⽩话”或“官话”.(×)1.4．普通话词汇规范是“以北⽅话为基础⽅⾔”，但不排除其他⽅⾔中有⽤的词汇进⼊普通话.(√)2.1.1．语⾳是语⾔的声⾳，所以必须从物理学⾓度和⽣理学⾓度两个⽅⾯进⾏分析才是全⾯的.(×)2.1.2．⾳节是⼈们听感上最容易分辨出来的⾃然语⾳单位.(×)欲获取完整版请——索取6.4.5．“车上睡不好”是⼀个歧义短语，孤⽴起来看有歧义，放在⼀定的语境中，歧义就消除了.(√)6.4.6．“这个⼈⼜上台了”可以理解为“这个⼈⼜上台演出了”，也可以理解为“这个⼈⼜上台掌权了”，利⽤变换⽅式消除了歧义. (×)2.1.1．《汉语拼⾳⽅案》由⼏个部分组成，其主要作⽤是什么?2.1.2．⾳位和⾳素有什么区别?2.2.1．⽐较z、zh、j这三个⾳素，它们的发⾳⽅法是否相同，⾳⾊是否相同?为什么?2.2.2．⿐⾳的发⾳⽅法是怎样的，普通话中有哪⼏个⿐⾳?2.2.3．汉语普通话中的浊⾳声母和清⾳声母有什么不同?2.2.4．请指出、“爱、⾐、碗、⽉”四个⾳节开头元⾳发⾳的情况.2.3.1．下列⾆⾯元⾳0、o、e、i、u、i、e如何进⾏描写?2.3.2．结合实例分别简述复韵母和⿐韵母的发⾳要领.2.4.1．调值和调类的关系是什么?汉语普通话声调为什么只有四声?它是被什么决定的?举例说明.2.4.2．说明古调类和现代汉语调类的关系.2.5.1．《汉语拼⾳⽅案》规定了“y、w”‘的⽤法，⼜规定了隔⾳符号“”’的⽤法，为什么要做这些规定?2.5.2．iou、uei、uen三个韵母在汉语普通话中的⾳节拼写情况如何?2.6.1．⽐较下⾯两组句⼦中的“孙⼦”和“⼤意”，指出它们的意义和词性有什么不同，为什么?(1)他很喜欢他的孙⼦.(a句)古代的孙于是⼀位军事理论家.(b句)(2)请你概括这篇⽂章的段落⼤意.(a句)⼲任何⼯作都要认认真真，不能马虎⼤意.(b句) 2.6.2．下⾯是关于轻声概念的⼀些论述，如有错，请指出，并说明理由.(1)在汉语普通话语⾳系统声调中，除了四声之外，还有⼀个声调叫轻声.(2)不标调号的⾳节叫做轻声⾳节.2.8.1：请简要回答汉语普通击对北京语⾳中的轻声、⼉化词的规范原则.2.8.2．请指出下列⾳节中，哪些是规范的轻声、⼉化读⾳，哪些不是，为什么?.信⼉地点⼉我们太阳明天2.8.3．下列各词加点的字，哪些属于异读范围，哪些不是?请将不规范的异读改正过来.校对jiao发酵xoap.五更jing挑⽔tiao安宁ning学校xiao酵母jiao更换geng 挑战tiao.宁可ning4.2.1“妈妈”和‘姥姥”这两个词的构造⽅式是否⼀致?为什么?4.3.1．什么叫根词?和词根有什么区别?4.3.2．历史词语和⽂⾔词语的区别是什么?4.4.1(⼀)补出下列省略的成分.——谁来了?——⼩张.——刚才他去哪⼉了?——上公园了.——吃过饭了吗?——没有.(⼆)下⾯句⼦变换式中的“省略”都能成⽴吗?为什么?5.9.1．(1)我的鞋⼦⽐你的鞋⼦⼤.—>(2)我的鞋⼦⽐你的⼤.—>(3)我的鞋⼦⽐你⼤.5.9.2．(1)我的⼉⼦⽐你的⼉⼦⼤.—>(2)我的⼉⼦⽐你的⼤.—>(3)我的⼉⼦⽐你⼤.6.1.1．有⼈说，修辞就是“咬⽂嚼字”，是“⽂字游戏”，这种说法对不对?说说理由.6.1.2．修辞与语⾳、词汇是什么样的关系?6.5.1．节拍与意群的停顿有⽆区别?6.5.2．散⽂中对平声和仄声的运⽤有何讲究?6.5.3．给下列两⾸诗标出乎仄.(1)⽩⽇依⼭尽，黄河⼈海流.欲穷千⾥⽬，更上⼀层楼.(2)鸣筝⾦粟柱，素⼿⽟房前.欲得周郎顾，时时误拂弦2.1.1．《汉语拼⾳⽅案》是由字母表、声母表、韵母表、声调符号和隔⾳符号五个部分构成的.它的主要⽤途是给汉字注⾳和作为推⼴普通话的⼯具.2.1.2．⼀种语⾔⾥能起辨义作⽤的最⼩的语⾳单位叫做⾳位.⾳素是从⾳⾊⾓度划分出来的最⼩的语⾳单位.有的时候⼀个⾳位只包含⼀个⾳素，但有的时候⼀个⾳位可能包括⼀组⾳⾊不同但没有辨义作⽤的⾳家.例如，带(dai)中的“a”⾆位靠前，到(dao)中的“a”⾆位靠后.这两个“0”⾳⾊有细微差异，是不同的⾳素.但是如果将两个“a”位置互换，虽然听起来有些别扭，却不影响对意义的理解.所以在普通话中，两个“a”属于同⼀个／a／⾳位.2.2.1．⽐较z、zh、j这三个⾳素，它们的发⾳⽅法是相同的，都是不送⽓清塞摈⾳，但它们的⾳⾊不同，因为它们的发⾳部位不同，z是⾆尖前⾳，zh是⾆尖后⾳，j 是⾆⾯⾳.欲获取完整版请——索取6.5.2．旧格律诗⽤字讲求平仄，必须依照⼀定的规律.散⽂虽没有这种严格的要求，但是有两点值得注意.第⼀，句⼦要避免连⽤较多的平声或仄声.也就是说；要⼒求平仄(协调.⽐如报纸上的⼀个标题“观众感赞剧⽬新”的声调安排是“平仄仄仄仄仄平”，中间仄声字太多.如果把“感赞”改为“赞扬”，全句成为“平仄仄平仄仄平”，就平仄协调，合乎节律了.第⼆，在语段中，各个句⼦的最后⼀字的声调要错落有致.⼀般地说，句末总接连出现同样的字，例如接连⼏句的末尾都⽤“了”或⽤“的”收尾，就宜加改变.虽然不出现同样的字，接连出现同⾳字，也宜避免.因为散⽂不是韵⽂，押韵反⽽显得不伦不类.6.5.3．(1)⽩⽇依⼭尽.(仄仄平平仄)黄河⼈海流.(平平仄仄平)欲穷千⾥⽬.(仄平平仄仄)更上⼀层楼.(仄仄仄平平)(2)鸣筝⾦粟柱，(平平平仄仄)素⼿⽟房前.(仄仄仄平平)欲得周郎顾，(仄仄平平仄)时时误拂弦.(平平仄仄平)第⼀⾸诗中的“⼀”是⼊声字，届历声，按普通话的读法，则是平声.第⼆⾸诗中的“得”、“拂”也是同样情况.(⼀)指出下列汉字的形旁，并说明形旁与字义的关系.⽰例：顾，形旁“页”，跟脑袋有关，指回头望.简2．贪3．爷4．讥5．枞6．骸3.3.1．形旁“⽵”，同⽵⼦有关，指古代⽤⽵⽚制成的书写材料.3.3.2．形贝“贝”，与财产、经济有关，指⼈对钱财等的过分的占有欲.3.3.3．形旁“⽗”，与⽗亲有关，指⽗亲的⽗亲.3.3.4．形旁“讠(⾔)”，与说话、⾔论有关，指⽤贬抑的语⾔谈论某⼈或某事.3.3.5．形旁“⽊”，与树⽊有关，属于⽊材的⼀种.3.3.6．形旁“⾻”，与“⾻”意义相近.(⼆)改正下列词语中的错别字3.4.1．脍灸⼈⼝3.4.2．刚腹⾃⽤3.4.3．免死狐悲3.4.4．驰聘疆场3.4.5．性格粗旷3.4.6．发奋图强3.4.7．好⾼鹬远3.4.8．三翻两次3.4.9．搀绕3.4.10．吟唱3.4.11．逆烦3.4.12．靡烂3.4.13．功亏⼀匮3.4.1．炙欲获取完整版请——索取3.4.13．篑(三)给下列加点的字注⾳3.4.1．如⽕如荼3.4.2．相形见细3.4.3．恬不知耻3.4.4．良莠不齐3.4.5．连篇累牍3.4.6．病⼈育育3.4.7．针砭时弊3.4.8．义愤填膺3.4.9．直截了当3.4.10．⼀丘之貉3.4.11．哺育3.4.12．参差3.4.13．刹那3.4.14．奇葩3.4.15．泥淖3.4.16．羸弱3.4.17．僭越3.4.18．龋齿3.4.1．tu欲获取完整版请——索取3.4.18．qu(四)在下⾯括号内填上序号：(1)只能填“⼆”；(2)只能填“两”；(3)填“⼆”和“两”皆可.5.2.1．()年级5.2.2．()个年级5.2.3．()⽄5.2.4．()座楼5.2.5．()层楼5.2.6．()两5.2.7．()点钟5.2.8．()瓶油5.2.9．()尺5.2.10．初()5.2.11．()⽉5.2.12．()天5.2.1．(1)欲获取完整版请——索取5.2.12．(2)(五)“没有”后⾯跟体词性结构时，我们把这个“没有”看作是动词.“没有”后⾯跟⾮体词性结构时，我们把这个“没有”看作是副词.根据这个原则，请辨析下列句⼦中“没有”的词性.5.3.1．那本书他根本就没有.5.3.2．北京他⼀直没有去过.5.3.3．才过⼗⼆点，⾷堂就没有吃的了.5.3.4．他没有⼯作.5.3.5．《菊⾖》这部电影你看过没有?5.3.1．动词欲获取完整版请——索取5.3.5．副词(六)“了”的⽤法有好⼏种，⼀种是⽤在动词或形容词之后，如果动词、形容词还带有宾语或补语的话，这个“了”要放在宾语和补语之前，我们把这个助词“了”叫作“了”，如“他批评了我”中的“了”.⼀种“了”出现在句尾，紧跟在名词之后，起到煞句作⽤，我们把这个语⽓词“了”叫做“了：”，如“他批评我了”中的“了”.如果⼀个“了”出现在句尾，紧挨前⾯的⼜是动词或形容词，我们把这个“了”看成是助词和语⽓词的重合体，叫作“了1+了2”，如“被他批评了”中的“了”.请辨析下⾯句⼦中的“了”，究竟是“了，”，还是“了：”，或者是“了1+了2”.5.3.1．她早就去了.5.3.2．开会了，我们听完了报告再说吧.5.3.3．他吃了午饭就去图书馆了.5.3.4．她长得越来越漂亮了.5.3.5．他说过不要去北京了.5.3.1.了1+了2欲获取完整版请——索取5.3.5．了2(七)⽤框式图解法分析下列复杂短语.5.4.1．看不看《李⾃成》这本书5.4.2．花⼉为什么这样红5.4.3．买票的去那⼉排队5.4.4．你去动员他留下来看戏5.4.5．感动得⽼⼤爷话都说不出来5.4.6．不知道他会不会答应让你去5.4.1．联合短语欲获取完整版请——索取5.4.6．连动短语(⼋)指出下列句中的主语，并说明是⽤什么短语担任的.5.5.1．清晨在河边散步确实不错.5.5.2．他的突然离去让许多⼈迷惑不解.5.5.3．派他参加是最合适的.5.5.4．抽烟喝酒是不好的习惯.5.5.5．劳动创造⼈类社会这个理论已被许多⼈接受. 5.5.6．吃得太快不⼀定好.5.5.7．刻苦学习的⼀定能学好.5.5.8．不去才是对的.5.5.9．参加体育锻炼对他恢复健康很有帮助.5.5.10．钢铁是怎样炼成的你知道吗?5.5.1．清晨在河边散步主谓短语欲获取完整版请——索取5.5.10．钢铁是怎样炼成的主谓短语(九)指出下列句⼦中的主语.5.5.1．⼗六点整转播中⽇围棋擂台赛⾸场⽐赛.5.5.2．黎明时候东⽅开始现出⾊肚⽩.5.5.3．昨天我们去过长城了.5.5.4．学校⾥今年⼀下⼦考取⼆⼗多个.5.5.5．上星期天江湾游乐场⾥孩⼦们玩得很⾼兴.5.5.6．在长江边傍晚是最迷⼈的.5.5.7．从⽩天到晚上⾛廊⾥⼀直有⼈.5.5.8．北京⼀定要去⼀次了.5.5.1．⼗六点整欲获取完整版请——索取5.5.8．北京(⼗)确定下列句⼦的句型.5.7.1．请问枕⼱⼀对多少钱?()5.7.2．真贵啊!()5.7.3．在学校西南⾓⼀⽚树林⾥发现了⼀种不知名的茵类植物.()5.7.4．我总觉得他这么处理是有问题的.()5.7.5．这样做是不对的.()5.7.6．⽂科⼤楼学校五年前盖的.()5.7.7．别把⽠⽪果壳到处乱扔.()5.7.8．多么激动⼈⼼的场⾯啊!()5.7.1．主谓谓语句欲获取完整版请——索取5.7.8．⾮主谓句／名词句(⼗⼀)按要求变换下列句⼦.5.7.1．两只⼤⽼虎在笼⼦⾥关着.—>(存现句)5.7.2．五班好多同学是浙江⼈.—>(名词谓语句)5.7.3．⼤家选王⽼师为区⼈民代表.—>(“被”字句)5.7.4．这种花茶我曾经买过.—>(⼀般主谓句)5.7.5．有关改善服务态度的问题，我们讨论过好⼏次了.—>(主谓谓语句) 5.7.6．我们都管他叫⼤哥.—>(⾮“把”字句) 5.7.1．笼⼦⾥关着两只⼤⽼虎.欲获取完整版请——索取5.7.6．我们都叫他⼤哥.(⼗⼆)说出下列紧缩句的逻辑关系.5.9.1．给我双倍⼯资也不⼲.5.9.2．他伯累我不伯累?5.9.3．年纪太⼤我⼲不了.5.9.4．不到万不得已的时候决不能放弃努⼒.5.9.5．他困难我更困难.5.9.6．你去还是⼩王去?5.9.7．⼀买到飞机票咱们就动⾝.5.9.8．买了却不称⼼.5.9.1．让步欲获取完整版请——索取5.9.8．转折(⼗三)辨别下列疑问句的结构类型.5.10.1．今天是晴天吧?5.10.2．那个电影你看了没有?5.10.3．你的那张票呢?5.10.4．你到底⼲不?5.10.5．你是报考中⽂、经济，还是报考外语?5.10.6．你⾼兴不⾼兴⼲那件事?5.10.7．你没吃过什么不⼲净的东西吗?5.10.8．谁不愿意去吗?5.10.1．是⾮问欲获取完整版请——索取5.10.8．是⾮问(⼗四)根据提⽰，填上适当的语⽓词；5.10.1．今年⼆⽉份可能有29天()?(表⽰揣测和估计)5.10.2．⼩王可真能⼲了，还会好⼏国语⾔().(指明事实且带有夸张意味) 5.10.3．我可不可以带他去北京()?(表⽰疑问)5.10.4．你不能掉以轻⼼，千万要注意().(表⽰提醒或警告)5.10.5．只是会说⼏句话()，远远说不上精通.(表⽰仅仅如此)5.10.6．⼩张很讲信⽤，说过的事⼀定会做到().(表⽰道理是很明⽩的) 5.10.7．看来参加这个会的⼈就是这么些().(表⽰某种情况已经成为现实) 5.10.8．这件事就由你去办().(表⽰劝告和请求)5.10.1．吧欲获取完整版请——索取5.10.8．吧(⼗五)修改下列病句，并说明原因.5.11.1．敌⼈散布种种捏造，妄图破坏我们的团结.5.11.2．最近⼏年，舞台艺术⽚⽣产了不少好的作品.5.11.3．去年⾼考时，有⼈认为肯定会考作⽂，谁知打开题⽬⼀看，完全不是这么⼀回事.5.11.4．他们的⼯作是⾟苦的，对他们⽣活上的实际困难，应引起我们的重视. 5.11.5．在下半场的⽐赛中，队员们表现出意志、速度，最后转败为胜.5.11.6．在现代化建设事业中，他们发挥了⽆穷蕴藏着的⼒量.5.11.7．当听到噩耗传来时，⼤家都禁不住⼤哭起来.5.11.8．系主任在新同学进校以后，先把班⾥的⼲部⼀⼀谈⼼.5.11.1．“捏造”是动词，误⽤做名词，改为“谣⾔”.欲获取完整版请——索取5.11.8．“谈⼼”是不及物动词，管不着“班级的⼲部”，可改为“同班级的⼲部⼀⼀谈⼼”，“把：字句的误⽤.(⼗六)改正下列复句中的错误，并说明理由.5.11.1．⼤家如果不认真学好语⽂，就不会有较⾼的思想⽔平.5.11.2．在抢险防洪的战⽃中，经过四个多⼩时惊⼼动魄地和洪⽔搏⽃，同志们奋不顾⾝地跳进了汹涌澎湃的激流，保住了⼤坝，战胜了洪⽔.5.11.3．由于这次事故，淮海中路宛平路地段的交通为此封闭了近三个⼩时，26路电车改由淮海路余庆路驶往徐家汇.5.11.4．硝酸见光容易发⽣分解，因此为了避免见光引起分解，所以把它放在棕⾊瓶⼦⾥.5.11.5，因为作者没有很好地掌握主题，单凭主观想象，加⼊了许多不必要的情节和⼈物，反⽽⼤⼤地削弱了作品的思想性和艺术性.5.11.1．两个分句之间没有必然的逻辑关系，可以把后⼀分句改为“就不会有较⾼的写作能⼒.”欲获取完整版请——索取5.11.5．“因为”表⽰原因，“反⽽”表⽰递进，⼆者不能搭配，把“反⽽”改成“所以”.(⼗七)指出下列句⼦的修辞⽅法.6.6.1．⼼中的歌⼉展翅飞.6.6.2．⼤道上滚过匆忙的车轮.6.6.3．假如你是沙漠，那么我就是胡杨.6.6.4．⼤海⾥，闪烁着⼀⽚鱼鳞似的银波.6.6.5．我就知道，我们之间已经隔了⼀层可悲的厚障壁了.6.6.6．千万个雷锋在成长.6.6.7．“你教的是，⼦⽈诗云’么?”我觉得奇异，便问.“⾃然，你还以为教的是ABCD么?”6.6.8．你⽼拔⼀根寒⽑⽐我们的腰还壮哩6.6.9．下了⼀天雪，到夜还没有⽌，屋外⼀切静极，静到要听出静的声⾳来.6.6.10．⾼⼭顶上修条河，河⽔哗哗笑⼭坡，昔⽇在你脚下⾛，今⽇从你头上过.6.6.11．冻坏了⽪⾁，冻不坏俺们杀敌复仇的决⼼!6.6.12．当年，你和红军战⼠⼀起，挑南⽠、挑柴草、挑⽶、挑盐，直到把草席挑到天安门前.6.6.13．⼴场上⼜燃起欢乐的篝⽕.6.6.1．⽐拟(拟物)欲获取完整版请——索取6.6.13．移就(⼗⼋)指出下列句⼦的修辞⽅法.6.7.1．我爱热闹，也爱冷静；爱群居，也爱独处.6.7.2．有实事求是之意，⽆哗众取宠之⼼.6.7.3．我们必须⼩局服从⼤局.6.7.4．钢材上压着⾷盐，⾷盐上压着⽊板，⽊板上搁着⽩灰.6.7.5．成⼈不⾃在，⾃在不成⼈.’6.7.6．春⾬贵似油，井⽔是美酒，美酒灌麦苗，醉得麦苗绿油油.6.7.7．什么是路?就是从没路的地⽅践踏出来的，从只有荆兢的地⽅开辟出来的.6.7.8．⾎书所能挣来的是什么?不过就是你的⼀张⾎书，况且并不好看.6.7.9．凭着祟⾼的理想、豪迈的⽓概、乐观的志趣，克服困难不也是⼀种享受吗?6.7.10．是谁创造了世间的财富?难道不是我们劳苦⼤众吗?6.7.11．他们绝⼤多数是诗匠，不是诗⼈.6.7.12．满⼭峰都是奇形怪状的⽼松，……颜⾊竞那么浓，浓得好像要流下来似的.6.7.13．这种作风，拿了律⼰，则害了⾃⼰；拿了教⼈，则害了别⼈；拿了指导⾰命，则害了⾰命.6.7.14．亲爱的朋友，当你坐上早晨第⼀列电车⾛向⼯⼚的时候，当你扛上犁耙⾛向⽥野的时候，当你喝完⼀杯⾖浆提着书包⾛向学校的时候，当你向孩⼦嘴⾥塞着苹果的时候，当你和爱⼈悠闲散步的时候，朋友，你是否意识到你是在幸福之中呢? 6.7.15．桃树、杏树、梨树，你不让我，我不让你；都开满了花赶趟⼉.红的像⽕，粉的像霞，⽩的像雪.6.7.1．对偶欲获取完整版请——索取6.7.15．辞格综合运⽤：句号前是拟⼈“你不让我，我不让你”是辞格兼⽤：拟⼈兼回环.“红的像⽕，粉的像霞，⽩的像雪”也是辞格兼⽤；排⽐兼⽐喻(⼀)⽤竖线将下列句⼦中的刚分开.4.1.1．尽管现在加德满都河⾕地区还是冬季，早晚较凉，然⽽在中午和暖的阳光下，穿⽑⾐也不嫌热.4.1.2．风停了，⾬住了，树⽊冲洗得那么⼲净，池⼦⾥的⽔平静得像⼀⾯镜⼦. 4..1．尽管／现在/加德满都／河⾕／地区／还／是／冬季，早／晚／较/凉，然⽽／在／中午／和暖／的／阳光／下，穿／⽑⾐／也／不／嫌／热.4..2．风／停／了，⾬／住／了，树⽊／冲洗／得⽤P么／⼲净，池⼦／⾥／的／⽔/平静/得/像／⼀/⾯/镜⼦.(⼆)下列各句加点的词，哪些是基本义?哪些是引申义或⽐喻义?哪些是修辞上的⽐喻⼿法?4.3.1．.⼩红的脸上起了很多疙瘩.b他的思想上结下了难解的疙瘩.4.3.2．.这问房间新开了个窗⼝.b机场是⼀个城市的窗⼝.4.3.3．.为祖国语⾔的纯洁和健康⽽⽃争.b只有坚持锻炼，才会促进⾝体健康.4.3.4．.我脚⼩，只能穿⼩鞋.b他动不动就给⼈穿⼩鞋.4.3.5．.旧中国，封建主义思想是套在妇⼥头上的绳索.b两根绳索已悬挂在中间. 4.3.6．.北京是中国的⼼脏.b⼀颗⼼脏停⽌了跳动.4.3.1．a基本义b⽐喻义欲获取完整版请——索取4.3.6．a修辞上的⽐喻⼿法b基本义(三)指出下⾯加点的词使⽤的是本义、基本义、引申义，还是⽐喻义.4.3.1．古之学者为⼰，今之学者为⼈.4.3.2．李教授是当今著名学者.4.3.3．春风拂⾯，使⼈格外感到春的柔和.4.3.4．村民们⼀个个满⾯春风.4.3.5．这条裤⼦长短正合适.4.3.6．她整天担⼼出门在外的丈夫有个长短.4.3.7．不要在背地⾥说⼈长短.4.3.8．我们要拒绝腐蚀，廉洁奉公.4.3.9．在某种政治⽓候条件下，社会的沉渣会重新泛起.4.3.10．奔⾛相告.4.3.1．本义欲获取完整版请——索取4.3.10．本义(四)指出下⾯各组词是同⾳现象还是多义现象.4.4.1．信(⼀封信)——信(信不信?)4.4.2．副(副主席)——副(⼀副象棋)4.4.3．(颗粒)饱满——(精神)饱满4.4.4．(油⽐⽔)轻——(年纪)轻4.4.5．(获得)新⽣——(招考)新⽣4.4.6．浓(茶)——(兴趣)浓4.4.7．(不知所)云——(万⾥⽆)云4.4.8．发(信)——发(⾔)4.4.9．⽩(纸)——⽩(卷)4.4.10．发(⼯资)——发(脾⽓)同⾳：1，2，5，7；多义：3，4，6，8，9，10.(五)辨析下列同义词.4.4.1．⽊材——⽊料4.4.2．含糊——模糊4.4.3．场合——场所4.4.4．陪——陪同4.4.5．⽀持——⽀援4.4.6．抱歉——道歉4.4.7．曲解——误解4.4.8．涌现——呈现4.4.1．“⽊材”指采伐后经过初步加⼯的⽊头，“⽊料”指经过进⼀步加⼯的⽊材.“⽊材”所指的范围⽐“⽊料”⼤.欲获取完整版请——索取4.4.8．都表⽰“具体的事物在眼前显现出来”，但“呈现”所持续的时间⽐较长，往往是静态的；“涌现”指许多事物或⼈在短时间内⼤量地接连不断地出现，往往是动态的.(六)修改下列病句，并说明原因.4.4.1．他带着繁重的思想包袱来出席⼩组的讨论.4.4.2．帝国主义再任意宰割亚⾮国家的时期已⼀去不复返了.4.4.3．病⼈的⾐服要消毒，不然它可能会传染病菌.4.4.4．在新时期，我们要继续发扬雷锋精神在群众中的作⽤.4.4.5．班长煽动⼤家踊跃报名参加运动会.4.4.6．在实施⼀项正确的⽅针政策时，不同的态度往往会产⽣不同的后果.4.4.1．“繁重”改为“沉重”，词的搭配不当.欲获取完整版请——索取4.4.6．“后果”改为“结果”，感情⾊彩不对.(七)在提供的同义词中挑选恰当的⼀个.4.4.1．这种仪器⾮常(精细，精致)复杂，操作⼀定要⼩⼼.4.4.2．听到狼的叫声，有⼈(恐慌，惊慌)起来.4.4.3．他真(幸运，福⽓)，买到了⾳乐会的票.4.4.4．王⽼师亲切的(教育，教训，教诲)，使⼩陈明⽩了⾃⼰的错误.4.4.1．精细欲获取完整版请——索取4.4.4．教诲(⼋)填反义词4.4.1．果断——4.4.2．敏锐——4.4.3．敏捷——4.4.4．特殊——4.4.5．陈旧——4.4.6．华丽——4.4.7．紧密——4.4.8．昂贵——4.4.9．平坦——4.4.10．拥护——4.4.1．迟疑欲获取完整版请——索取4.4.10．反对(九)改正下列成语中的错别字.4.6.1，含⾟如苦4.6.2．原形必露4.6.3．遗笑⼤⽅4.6.4．穿流不息4.6.5.笑容可鞠4.6.6．黄梁美梦4.6.7．委屈求全4.6.8．坚如盘⽯4.6.9.欢⼼⿎舞4.6.10．相形见拙4.6.11．随声附合4.6.12．病⼈膏盲4.6.13．⽆可争辨4.6.14．坐收鱼利4.6.15．以⾝作责4.6.16．挺⽽⾛险4.6.1．如——茹欲获取完整版请——索取4.6.16．挺——铤(⼗)给下列成语中加点的字注⾳.4.6.1．⾃怨⾃艾4.6.2．博闻强识4.6.3．暴虎冯河4.6.4．乳臭未⼲4.6.5．估恶不按4.6.6．鳞次栉⽐4.6.7．为虎作伥4.6.8．⽆庸讳⾔4.6.9．倾箱倒箧4.6.10，⽬不暇给4.6.11．未⾬绸缪4.6.12．垂涎三尺4.6.1．yi欲获取完整版请——索取4.6.12.xian(⼗⼀)改正下列复句中的错误.5.7.1．英雄的可歌可泣的壮举，猛烈地拨动着观众的⼼弦，在极度的激动中受到深刻的教育.5.7.2．智⼒测试对诸如艺术和科研等需要独创性的领域中，它是不胜任的.5.7.3．它是把事件的结局先写出来，然后再按照时间的顺序叙述事件发⽣、发展的。
自考语言学概论重点笔记(全国)
高等教育自学考试语言学概论自考复习资料目录第一章语言和语言学 (2)第二章语言的物质载体——语音 (3)第三章语言的建筑材料——语汇 (5)第四章语言的结构规则——语法 (6)第五章语言的表达内容——语义 (8)第六章语言的运用特点——语用 (10)第七章语言的书写符号——文字 (11)第八章语言的发展和演变 (12)第九章语言的获得与学习 (14)第十章语言与文学写作 (15)第十一章语言与民族文化 (15)第十二章语言与科学技术 (16)（2）语言符号不是一成不变的，符号的音和义会随时间的推移和社会的发展而发生变化，这种变化往往是缓慢的，而一般不可能是突然的，否则也会影响社会交际的正常进行。
例如，从中古汉语发展到现代汉语普通话，语音系统发生了巨大的变化，而这种变化经历了一千多年。
很常考必背“线性”和“离散”★★简述语言符号的“线性”和“离散”。
（简答题）1.所谓“线性”，是指语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列，即语言符号是一个接一个出现的，可以分解成原来的一个一个的符号。
2.所谓“离散性”，是指语言符号可以分解还原成原来的一个一个的符号。
3.语言符号的“线性”特性使得语言符号有可能排列组合成大小不等的单位；语言符号的“离散性”特性又使得语言符号有可能形成各种各样的排列组合。
离散性是人类语言和所谓动物语言的关键区别。
很常考必背“层次”和“层级”★★简述“层次”和“层级”。
（简答题）层次是指整个语言系统是由各个子系统有机组合而成的。
如果把一个小单位内部成分的排列组合叫做“层次”，那各个小单位之间的这种联系就是“层级”。
如：“我爸爸爱看电视”是按((我+爸爸)+(爱+(看+电视)))这样的方式组合的。
很常考必背语音的记录方式★★简述语音的记录方式有哪些。
（简答题）1、直音法：直音法包括譬况法、读若法、直音法及相关的纽四声法等。
譬况就是对被注字的读音音的方法打比方，读若是说被注字的读音像另一个字，严格的直音法则是用同音字来给汉字注音。
现代语言学自考 pdf
现代语言学自考一、语言学基础语言学基础是现代语言学自考的重要组成部分，主要包括语言学的定义、语言学的研究对象、语言学的分支学科等内容。
学生需要掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基本方法，为后续深入学习打下坚实的基础。
二、语音学与音系学语音学与音系学是研究语言的发音、音素、音节、音韵等规律的学科。
学生需要掌握语音的发音机制、音素的分类与区别、音节的结构与变化、音韵的规则与变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语音现象。
三、形态学形态学是研究语言中词汇的构成与变化的学科。
学生需要掌握词素、词根、词缀等基本概念，了解词汇的构成方式与变化规律，能够正确地分析和描述语言的词汇现象。
四、句法学句法学是研究语言的句子结构与变化的学科。
学生需要掌握句子的基本结构、句法规则、句型变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的句子结构现象。
五、语义学语义学是研究语言中词汇和句子的意义与变化的学科。
学生需要掌握语义的基本概念、语义关系、语义变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语义现象。
六、语用学语用学是研究语言在实际运用中的意义与功能的学科。
学生需要掌握语境、话语、交际等基本概念，了解语言在实际运用中的功能与意义，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语用现象。
七、社会语言学社会语言学是研究语言与社会因素的相互关系的学科。
学生需要掌握社会因素对语言的影响、语言的社会功能与变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的社会现象。
八、第二语言习得研究第二语言习得研究是研究人们如何学习第二语言的学科。
学生需要掌握第二语言学习的过程、影响因素、学习方法等内容，能够正确地分析和描述第二语言学习的现象。
九、语言习得理论语言习得理论是研究人们如何习得语言的学科。
学生需要掌握语言习得的基本理论、习得机制、习得过程等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言习得的现象。
十、认知语言学认知语言学是研究语言与认知关系的学科。
学生需要掌握认知的基本概念、认知语言学的理论与方法等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言与认知的关系。
自学考试00535《现代汉语》要点整理笔记
自学考试00535《现代汉语》要点整理笔记第一章绪论A现代汉语指的是现代汉民族共同语，是指以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的普通话。
B中国十大方言区：1北方方言区（分为四个次方言：华北官话、西北官话、西南官话、江淮官话）2吴方言区（也叫江浙话，以上海话为代表）3湘方言区（又称湖南话，以长沙话为代表）4赣方言区（又称江西话，以南昌话为代表）5客家方言区（又称客家话，以广东省梅县话为代表）6闽北方言区（以福州话为代表）7闽南方言区（以厦门话为代表）8粤方言区（也叫广东话，以广州话为代表）9晋语方言区（以太原话为代表）10平话方言区（分布在广西中部地区）C现代汉语的特点：一、语音方面：1没有复辅音2音节中元音占优势，复元音构成的音节多3音节有声调。
二、词汇方面：1双音节词占优势2广泛采用词根复合法构成新词。
三、语法方面：1语序和虚词是表达语法关系主要手段（汉语属于孤立语）2词类和句子成分之间不存在一一对应的关系3有丰富的量词。
第二章语音（第一节）语音的性质A语音：语音是语言的物质外壳，是由人类发音器官发出来的表达一定意义的声音。
语音具有三方面的性质：物理性质、生理性质、社会性质。
物理性质包括音高、音强、音长、音色四要素。
语音是由人的发音器官发出来的，因而具有生理属性。
语音是一种社会现象，语音必须是人类发出的能代表一定意义的声音。
社会属性主要表现在民族特征和地域特征，还表现在语音的系统性上。
B语音四要素：一、音高指的是声音的高低，它决定于发音体振动的频率。
一般来说，儿童和女性的声带短而薄，所以发音比较高；而成年男性的声带长而厚，所以发音比较低。
汉语的几种声调主要就是由音高变化决定的。
二、音强指的是声音的强弱，它与发音体振动幅度的大小有关。
振幅大，声音就强。
发音体振幅的大小取决于发音时用力的大小。
音强有时可以用来区别意义，汉语中的轻声音节就是以音强作为主要特征来区别意义的。
现代语言学要点(英语言文学自考)
一下为资料内容：==================================== ==================================== ==========现代语言学学习笔记第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theori es, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic studyPhonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in li nguistic communicationPhonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphem es are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language. Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with re ference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the applic ation of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narr ow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching a nd learning, especially the teaching of foreign and secon d languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and co mputational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "hi gh "(religious, literary) written language . It sets model s for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, an d mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be sci entific and objective and the task of linguists is suppose d to describe the language people actually use, whetherit is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchroni c study of language describes a language as it is at so me particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical d evelopment of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。
自考英语本科现代语言学专业名词大纲复习必过
专业名词第一单元音系学phoneties is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language,it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.articulatory phoneties【发声语音学】how a speaker uses his speech organs to articilate the sounds.auditory phonetics【听觉语音学】it looks at the sounds are the hearer's point of view,i.e.,how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.acoustic phonetics【声学语音学】it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.borad transcription【宽式标音法】is the transcription with letter-symbols only,which is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.narrow transcription【严式标音法】is the transcription with letter symbols together with the diacritics,which is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.Vowel【元音】the air that comes from the lunds meets with no obstruction of any kind in the thoroat,the nose,or the mouth,while in the pronunciation of a consonant 【辅音】the air streamfrom the lungs is obstructed in one way or another. phonemic contrast 【音位对立】refers to the relation between two phonemes,if two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning. Phonology【音系学】is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it arms to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.complementary distribution【互补分布】refers to the relations of phonemic varieties,and two allphones of the same phoneme will never occur in the same position in the phonemic groups，they can not differentiate meanings.Minimal pair【最小对立对】when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings,the two words are said to form a minimal pair.sequential rules【序列规则】is the rules that govern combination of sounds in a particular language.assimilation rules【同化规则】assimilates one sound to another by 'copying' a feature of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.the election rules【省略规则】suprasegmental features【超切分特征】distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegment phonemes.these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable,the word,and the sentence.the main suprasegmenttal features include stress,tone,and intonation. Allophone【音位变体】is the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.Stress【重音】when a certain syllable of a word is stressed,its means that the syllableis pronounced with greater force than the other or others.Tone【语调】tones arepitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.therefore,the tone is asuprasegmental feature.Intonlation【声调】when pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the woed in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like english.第二单元形态学morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.can be divided into inflectional morphology and lexical ordervational morphology. free mprphemes【自由语素】are the morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.bound morphemes【黏着语素】are the morphemes which cannot be used in dependently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word.include:roots and affixes.Roots【词根】a root is often seen as part of a word,it cannever stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning,it mus be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.Inflectional affixes【屈折词缀】or inflectional morphemes manifest warious grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number,tense,degree,and case.Derivational affixes【派生词缀】are added to an existing form to create a word. Stem【词干】the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem,a stem can be a bound root,a free morpheme,or a derived form itself. features of compounds 【复合词特征】1.orthographical features 【书写特征】orthographically,a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between,or as two separate words.2.syntactical features【句法特征】syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by part of speech of the second element.3.semantic features【语义特征】semantically,the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meanins of its components.4.phonetic features 【语音特征】phonetically,the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,whlie the secondelement receives secondary stress.第三单元句法学syntax studies the sentence structure of language.as amajor component of grammar,syntaxconsists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.linguistic competence【语言能力】chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's konwledge of the rules of his language.Sentence【句子】a sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement,questioin or command.move α：the general movement rule that accounts for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.types of sentences:1.simple sentence:a simple sentemce consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2.coordinate sentence: a coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by linking word,such as "and""but""or".plex sentence:a complex sentence contains two,or more,clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other.structures of sentences:1.linear:when a sentence is uttered or weitten down,the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence.meanwhile,they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence.2.hierarchical:sentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntatic category,such as noun phrase or verb phrase.3.diagrams【树形图】the hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diamgram of constituent structure,so called because such a diagram looks like an inverted tree.syntax linguists often use the diagrams to reveal or show the level of the sentence structure,and explain the different levels of a variety of sentence meaning in the same sentence structure.lexical caregories【词类】a language has major and minor lexical categories of a finite set.major lexical caregories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.minor lexical caregories are closed categories because the number of lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.X-bar theory:can reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.NP must contain N,VPmust contain V,AP must contain A,and PP must contain P.it is this obligatory word that gives the phrase its name.this wordis called the phrasal head,and each phrasal category must have a head.NP-movement:NP-movement reders to the fact that noun phrases move from one place to another NP-movement occurs when,for example,a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice.WH-movement:WH-movement is another movement of elements,which refer to the fact that WH words move from one place to anothr in a sentense.WH-movement is obligatory in english.it changes asentence from affirmative to interrogative.AUX-movement:general questions in english may also involve syntactic movement with AUX-movement.AUX-movement is the movement of an auxiliary verb,such as "be""have""do""will""can"and"should",tothe sentence initial position.while the movement of adjectives is for the sake of stylistics.第四单元语义学semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.the naming theory【命名论】one of the oldest notions concerning meaning,and also a very primitive one,was the naming theory,according to this theory,the linguisticforms or symbols,in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects the stand for.so woeds are just names or labels for things.the conceptualist view【意念论】the conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic from and what it refers to,but,in the interpretation meaning,they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. contextualism【语境论】contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context.behaviorism【行为主义论】the behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism.behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as "the situation in which the speaker utters it and the responseit calls forth in the hearer".Argument【论元】An argument is a logical participant in a predication.It is generally identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.it is the collection of all the features of the linguisitc form.it is abstract and de-contextualized. reference means waht a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world.it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.1.synonymy 【同义关系】refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.words that are close in meaning.2.polysemy 【多义关系】reders to the fact that the same one woed may have more than one meaning.a word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.there are many polysemic words in engliah.the more commonly used a word is,the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.3.homonymy【同音/同形异义关系】refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.when two words are identical in sound,they are called homophones.when two woeds are idntical in spelling,they are homographs.when two words are identical in both sound and spelling,they are called complete homonyms.4.hyponymy【上下义关系】refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive woed and amore specific word.the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate,and the words which are more specific in meaning are called its hyponyms.hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.5.antonymy【反义关系】reders to the oppositeness of meaning,words that re opposite in meaning are called antonyms.the sppositeness of meaning can be found on different dimensions and different kinds of antonyms may be recongnized.(A)gradable antonyms【等级反义词】some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.(B)complementary antonyms【互补性反义词】are thosethat are complementary to each other.in apair of complementary antonyms,the denial of one implies theassertion of the other.(C)relational opposite【关系反义词】pairs of woeds that exhibot the reversal of a relationship between the two terms are called relational spposites.componential analysis【成分分析】is a way to analyze word woed meaning.it was proposed by structural semanticists.the approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components,which are called semantic features,plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word,and these feature symblos are usually written in capitalized letters.predication analysis【述谓结构分析】linguistic have proposed different ways to analyze the ,eaming of sentences.one of them is the predication analysis.it is proposed by the british linguist G.Leech.in grammatical anaysis,the sentence is regarded as the basic unit,it is analyzed into such grammatical components as subject,predicate,and attribute.in semantic analysis of a sentence,the basis unit si called predication.the predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a setence.this applies to all forms of sentense,including statements,imperative and interrogative forms,a predication consists of argument and predicate.an argument is a logical participant in a predication.it is generally identical with the nominal element in a sentence.第五单元语用学pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.as the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in acertain context,pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaningstudy.pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning,so they are related to as well as different from each other.the essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning.of it is not considered,the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics.if it is considered,the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. Context: the notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.generally speaking,it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.the shared knowledge is of two types:the knowledge of the language they use,and the knowledge about the world,including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.without this shared knowledge,linguistic communication would be impossible,and without considering this knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningWhile the meaning of a sentence is abstract,and de-contextualized.the ,meaning of an utterance in concrete,and context-dependent.utterance is based on sentence meaning.it is realization of the abtract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words,phrases,clauses.it is the act ofconveying literalmeaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.it is the act performed in saying something.a perlocutionary act act is the act formed by or resulting from saying something.it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.it is the act performed by saying something.Four maximsThe maxim of quantity1.make your contribution as informative as required.2.do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality1.do not say what you believe to be false.2.do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relationBe relevantThe maxim of manner1.avoid obscurity of expression2.avoid ambiguity3.be brief4.be orderly第六单元历史语言学Historical linguistic is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. Apocope【词尾音脱落】is a phenomenon involving the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.Metathesis 【换位】:Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.Epenthesis【插音】: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.Derivation【派生法】is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots,stems or words.Back-formation【逆向构词法】is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word.Semantic narrowing【语义狭义化】is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.Semantic broadening【语义广义化】refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.Protolanguage【原始母语】is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.Haplology【重复音略读】refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.Compounding【复合法】is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit.Blending【混合法】is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words..Semantic shift【语义演变】is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.Great Vowel Shift【元音大推移】is a series of systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.Acronym【首字母缩略】is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words.Sound assimilation【语音同化】: Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on an-other. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner ofarticulation, or of haplology.第七单元社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.Speech community【言语社区】: The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.Speech variety【言语变体】: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.Language planning【语言规划】: language standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries. Idiolect【个人语言特点】is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that com-bines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech.Standard language【标准语】is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by themass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Nonstandard language【非标准语】: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages.Lingua franca【混合语】is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.Pidgin【混杂合语】is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.Creole【克里奥尔语】: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.Diglossia【双言现象】usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.Bilingualism【双语现象】refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.Ethnic dialect【黑人英语】: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.Sociolect【社会语言】are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.Slang【俚语】is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.linguistic taboo【禁忌语】denotes any prohibition by the polite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.Euphemism【委婉语】is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.Regional dialect【区域方言】also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.Register【语域】also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.第八单元心理语言学Pscholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind.as the term suggests,psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics,drawing equally upon the language we acquire,produce and comprehend. Cerebral cortex【大脑皮层】the most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain.Brain lateralization【大脑侧化】the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.Linguistic lateralization【语言侧化】in their research of brainlateralization,psycholinguistics are particularly interested in linguistic lateralization,which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.Dichotic listening【两耳分听】evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks.Right ear advantage【右耳优势】stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear.Critical period hypothesis【关键期假设】refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty,during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily,swiftly,and without explicit instruction.Linguistic determinism【语言决定论】whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language.that is,language determines thought,hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.linguistic relativism【语言相对论】whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently,that is,relative to their linguistic background,hence the notion of linguistic relaticism.subvocal speech【无声语言】when language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other.Hemispheres【脑半球】the brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves,in general,the right hemisphere controls voluntary movements of,and responds to signals from,the left side of the body,whereas the left hemisphere controls vpluntary movements of,and responds to signals from,the right side of the body.broca's area【布罗卡区】was discovered by a French surgeon-broca and then named after him.broca's area is an important language center of the brain,which controls the expressions of languages.wernicke's area【韦尼克区】was discovered by German physician carl Wernicke and then named after him.wernicke's area is an important language center of the brain,which controls the understandings of languages.the angular gyrus【角形脑回】is the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa.第九单元语言习得Language acquisition【语言习得】is concerned with language development in humans.in general,language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language,that is,the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.Acquisition【习得】according to krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.Language transfer【语言转移或正向转移】learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language.Interference【干扰或负向转移】negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.Contrastive analysis 【对比分析法】the contrastive analysis approach was founded on the belief that,by wstablishong the linguistic differences between the native andtarget language systems,it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make. Interlanguage【语际语】SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language.Fossilization【语言僵化】a learner’s interlanguage fossilized some way short of target language competence while the internalized rule system contained rules that different from those of the target language system.Acculturation【语言文化移入】a related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community.this adaptation process is called acculturation.Learning【学习】is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.Formal instruction【正规教学】occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.。
自考《语言学概论》知识点整理(五)(2024版)
答：（1）词的理性意义。有的近义词词义所概 括反映的对象只是基本相同，但它们所指的范围 不完全重合。有的近义词的词义所概括的对象虽 然相同，但在强调的重点、方面或达到的程度都 有所不同。（2）词的非理性意义，即附加色彩。 有些是感情色彩不同；有些是语体色彩不同。
23.简答语义场的层次性和系统性。
2.解释“语义”。
答：语义是同语言形式结合在一起的意义，同语 言形式的结合是语义的基本特征。
3.解释“语言意义”
答：语言意义是一般的、稳定的意义，是语言形 式本身表达的意义。
4.解释“语境意义”。
答：语境意义是个别的、临时的意义，是语言形 式在特定的交际场合、知识背景等语境音素作用 下所表达的意义。
24.解释“关系意义”
答：词语在组合时都要形成一定的结构关系，由 这些结构关系所赋予的意义就叫做关系意义，包 括语法关系意义和语义关系意义。
25.解释“语气意义”。
答：反映说话人使用句子的目的和说话人情绪的 意义，包括陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹等不同的意 义。
26.解释“述谓结构”
答：从语义结构上看，一个句子包括“情态”和 “命题”两部分，情态包括时态、语态、语气等 方面的意义，情态以外的部分即命题。一个命题 在语义结构上可进一步分析为一个“述谓结构”。 一个述谓结构由一个“谓词”和若干个“变元” 组成，谓词一般就是句子中的谓语动词或形容词
32.解释“预设”。
答：预设是句义之间的一种关系，预设是就话语 本身表达的意义而言的，有句义甲就必然有句义 乙。蕴含包含在句子的断言范围内，是句子的基 本信息；预设不在句子的断言范围内，是句子的 背景信息，用公式表示为甲乙。
33.为什么谓词是处于支配地位的核心地位？
答：一个述谓结构可以有多少变元以及可以有何 种性质的变元，都是由谓词的语义决定的。因为 谓词语义规定了述谓结构的内容，从而也就规定 了句子的语义框架，有了这个语义框架，在用符 合谓词语义要求的变元把这个框架填满，就产生 了句子的命题。因此，在述谓结构中，谓词是处 于支配地位的核心成分。
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。
二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学)Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。
自考00830现代语言学串讲
1. What is linguistics?1.1 Definition1.2 The scope of linguistics1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic1.3.3 Speech and writing1.3.4 Langue and parole1.3.5 Competence and performance2. What is language?2.1 Definitions of language2.2 Design featuresStudy questionsChapter 2 Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 Organs of speech2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions2.4 Classification of English speech sounds2.4.1 Classification of English consonants2.4.2 Classification of English vowels3. Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rules3.4.2 Assimilation rules3.4.3 Deletion rule3.5 Suprasegmental features—stress, tone, intonation3.5.1 Stress3.5.2 Tone3.5.3 IntonationStudy questionsChapter 3 Morphology1. Definition2. Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemes2.2.2 Bound morphemes2.2.3 Morphological rules3. Compounding3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compoundsStudy questionsChapter 4 Syntax1.Syntax as a system of rules2. Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentence2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentence2.2.2 The coordinate sentence2.2.3 The complex sentence2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3. Syntactic categories3.1 Lexical categories3.2 Phrasal categories4. Grammatical relations5. Combinational rules5.1 Phrase structure rules5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules5.3 X-bar theory6. Syntactic movement and movement rules6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement6.2 Other types of movement6.3 D-structure and S-structure6.4 Move α—a general movement rule7. Toward a theory of universal grammar7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarStudy questionsChapter 5 Semantics1. What is semantics?2. Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theory2.2 The conceptualist view2.3 Contextualism2.4 Behaviorism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Major sense relations3.2.1 Synonymy3.2.2 Polysemy3.2.3 Homonymy3.2.4 Hyponymy3.2.5 Antonymy4. Sense relations between sentences5. Analysis of meaning5.1 Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning5.2 Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaningStudy questionsChapter 6 Pragmatics1. What is pragmatics?1.1 Definition1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics1.3 Context 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning2. Speech act theory3. Principle of conversationStudy questionsChapter 7 Historical Linguistics1. The purpose and significance of the historicalstudy of language2. The nature of language change3. The historical development of English3.1 Major periods in the history of English3.1.1 Old English3.1.2 Middle English3.1.3 Modern English3.2 linguistic change of English3.2.1 Sound change3.2.2 Morphological change3.2.3 Syntactic change3.2.4 Lexical change3.2.5 Semantic change4. Language family4.1 Classifying genetically related languages4.2 The Indo-English language family5. The causes of language change5.1 Sound assimilation5.2 Rule simplification and regularization5.3 Internal borrowing5.4 Elaboration5.5 Sociological triggers5.6 Cultural transmission5.7 Children’s approximation t oward the adultgrammarStudy questionsChapter 8 Sociolinguistics1. Language variation1.1 Speech community1.2 Speech variety1.3 Regional variation1.4 Social variation1.5 Stylistic variation1.6 Idiolectal variation2. Standard and nonstandard language2.1 Standard and nonstandard language2.2 Lingua francas2.3 Pidgins2.4 Creoles3. Diglossia and bilingualism3.1 Diglossia3.2 Bilingualism4. Ethnic dialect4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect4.2 The social environment of Black English5. Social dialect5.1 Education varieties5.2 Age varieties5.3 Gender varieties5.4 Register varieties5.5 Address terms5.6 Slang5.7 Linguistic taboo5.8 EuphemismStudy questionsChapter 9 Psycholinguistics1. The biological foundations of language1.1 The case of Phineas Gage1.2 The human brain1.3 Brain lateralization2. Linguistic lateralization2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language2.2 Dichotic listening research3. The language centers3.1 Broca’s are a3.2 Wernicke’s area3.3 The angular gyrus3.4 Language perception, comprehension andproduction4. The critical period for language acquisition4.1 The critical period hypothesis4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration oflanguage faculty with age5. Language and thought5.1 Early views on language and thought5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis5.3.1 Words and meaning5.3.2 Grammatical structure5.3.3 Translation5.3.4 Second language acquisition5.3.5 Language and world views5.4 Understanding the relation of language andthought5.4.1 Major functions of language5.4.2 The development and blending of language5.4.3 Thinking without language5.4.4 Language as a conventional coding system toexpress thought5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thoughtStudy questionsChapter 10 Language Acquisition1. First language acquisition1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition ofgrammatical rules1.3 The role of input and interaction1.4 The role of instruction1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement1.6 The role of imitation2. Stages of first language acquisition2.1 The prelinguistic stage2.2 The one-word stage2.3 The two-word stage2.4 The multiword stage3. The development of the grammatical system3.1 The development of phonology3.2 The development of syntax3.3 The development of morphology3.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics4. Second language acquisition4.1 Acquisition vs. learning4.2 Transfer and interference4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route ofdevelopment4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization4.5 The role of input4.6 The role of formal instruction4.7 Individual learner factors4.7.1 The optimum age for secondacquisition4.7.2 Motivation4.7.3 Acculturation4.7.4 PersonalityStudy questionsSuggested Answers to Study QuestionsAn English-Chinese Glossaryis generally defined asThe study of language asIn a narrow sense,linguistics refers to the application ofprinciples and theories to language teachinglearning, especially the teaching of foreignsecond languages. In a broad sense, it refersapplication of linguistic findings to the solutionpractical problems such as the recovery ofA study of the featuresthe English used in Shakespeare’s time isA diachronic studylanguage is a historical study, which studiestime. e.g. a study of the changes Englishundergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronicThe ideal user’knowledge of the rules of his language.transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.performance islanguage usby all the members of acommunity; Langue is the set of conventionsrules which language users all have toLangue is relatively stable, it does notin actual use; parole is the concrete use ofvaries from person to person, andLanguage is a system oflanguage. It means that there is noconnection between meanings and sounds. ALanguage is productivemakes possible theLanguage is a system, whichat the lower or basic level, and the otherthings which are present or not present, realfar-away places. In other words, language canused to refer to contexts removed fromWhile we arethe detailsany language are not genetically transmitted,It refers to thethat distinguishFrench words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.)Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc…Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的).9.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study.They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific.11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1.Arbitrariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con¬struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before.3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structureof individual and meaningless sounds, which can begrouped into meaningful units at the higher level.This duality of structure or dou¬ble articulation oflanguage enables its users to talk about anythingwithin their knowledge.4.Displacement（移位性）: （课本答案：no animalcan “talk”about things removed from theimmediate situation）Language can be used to referto things which are present or not present, real orimagined matters in the past, present, or future, orfar-away places. In other words, language can beused to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker.5. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）：（课本答案：details of human language system are taught andlearned while animals are born with the capacity tosend out certain signals as a means of limitedcommunication）While we are born with the abilityto acquire language, the details of any language arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to betaught and learned.12.Do you think human language is entirelyarbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirelyarbitrary, because there are a limited number ofwords whose connections between forms andmeanings can be logically explained to a certainextent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words whichare coined on the basis of imitation of sounds bysounds such as bang, crash, etc.. Take compoundsfor another example. The two elements “photo” and“copy” in “photocopy”are non-motivated, but thecompound is not arbitrary.Chapter 2: Phonology1.Define the terms:1).phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study ofthe phonic medium of language; it is concerned withall the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages2).auditory phonetics: It studies the speech soundsfrom the hearer’s point of view. It studies how thesounds are perceived by the hearer.3).acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech soundsby looking at the sound waves. It studies thephysical means by which speech sounds aretransmitted through the air from one person toanother.4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is astandardized and internationally accepted system ofphonetic transcription.5).Broad transcription: the transcription withletter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for onesound. This is the transcription normally used indictionaries and teaching textbooks.6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription withletter-symbols together with the diacritics. This isthe transcription used by the phoneticians in theirstudy of speech sounds.7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be addedto the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions thanthe letters alone make possible.8).Voiceless（清音）: when the vocal cords are drawnwide apart, letting air go through without causingvibration, the sounds produced in such a conditionare called voiceless sounds.9).Voicing（浊音）: Sounds produced while thevocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.10).Vowel: the sounds in production of which noarticulators come very close together and the airstream passes through the vocal tract withoutobstruction are called vowels.11).Consonants: the sounds in the production ofwhich there is an obstruction of the air stream atsome point of the vocal tract are called consonants.12).phonology: Phonology studies the system ofsounds of a particular language; it aims to discoverhow speech sounds in a language form patterns andhow these sounds are used to convey meaning inlinguistic communication.13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as thespeech sounds we use when speaking a language. Aphone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does notnecessarily distinguish meaning.14).phoneme: a collection of abstract phoneticfeatures, it is a basic unit in phonology. It isrepresented or realized as a certain phone by acertain phonetic context.15).allophone: The different phones which canrepresent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of thatphoneme. For example [l] and [l]16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers tothe relation between two phonemes. If twophonemes can occur in the same environment anddistinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.17).Complementary distribution: refers to therelation between two similar phones which areallophones of the same phoneme, and they occur indifferent environments.18).minimal pair:When two different forms areidentical in every way except for one sound segmentwhich occurs in the same place in the strings, thetwo words are said to form a minimal pair. Forexample: bin and pin.19).suprasegmental features: the phonemicfeatures that occur above the level of the segmentsare called suprasegmental features. The mainsuprasegmental features include stress, tone andintonation.20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which arecaused by the differing rates of vibration of thevocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaningjust like phonemes. The meaning-distinctivefunction of the tone is especially important in tonelanguages, for example, in Chinese.21).intonation: When pitch, stress and sound lengthare tied to the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectively known as intonation.For example, English has four basic types ofintonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, thefall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.2.What are the two major media ofcommunication? Of the two, which one isprimary and why? 语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Speech and writing are the major media ofcommunication. Speech is considered primary overwriting. The reasons are: speech is prior to writingin language evolution, speech plays a greater role indaily communications, and speech is the way inwhich people acquire their native language.3.What are the three branches of phonetics? Howdo they contribute to the study of speech sounds?语音学的三个分支是什么。
语言学概论自考复习资料
第一章语言和语言学1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系答：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是遗传的，而是一种社会现象。
语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
2. 简答语言符号的特点答：（1）符号和语言，“能指”和“所指”。
能指是能够指称某种意义的成分，所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。
（2）语言符号的“任意性”。
符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系，语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系，完全是任意的，约定俗成的。
（3）语言符号的强制性和可变性。
在同一社会、同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的，而语言又是发展变化着的。
（4）语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。
话只能一个字一个字，一句话一句话地说，因此语言符号是离散的，而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。
3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系答：组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，是横向关系。
聚合关系是在组合的某一个位置上能够相互替换，有共同的特点，故能聚合归类。
组合是横向的结构关系，聚合是归类规则，有了组合、聚合关系，便展现出了整个语言平面，聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的，或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的，而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。
所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一，不可分割。
4. 解释“符号”答：符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。
5. 解释“语言”答：语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分，语言是均质的，是言语活动中的社会部分。
语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。
6. 口语和书面语的关系答：语言的客观存在形式首先是口语，第二种客观存在形式，是书面语。
书面语是在口语的基础上产生的，口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
新版语言学概论自学考试复习资料（沈阳版）
新版语言学概论自学考试复习资料（沈阳版）第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。
人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较,有几个显著和重要的特点:一是“内容更多”。
多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。
二是“用处更大”。
主要:交际功能。
其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。
三是“能够创造”。
具有离散性,能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。
2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况:一个民族使用一种语言。
但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。
这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。
尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。
从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。
3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言,是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。
也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。
从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立“语言的形态分类”,也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。
可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”,或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。
4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤立语;综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语支)、语言、方言、次方言(土语)。
语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别,是语言谱系中最大的类。
语系的下一级叫作“语族”,同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。
形态语(综合性语言)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。
包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。
如俄语、维吾尔语。
孤立语(分析性语言)指没有形态变化的语言。
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Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1.What is semantics？什么是语义学？Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)The naming theory 命名论It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.2)The conceptualist view 意念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3)Contextualism 语境论Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.4)Behaviorism 行为主义论Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “sit uation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.3.Sense and reference 意义和所指They are two related but different aspects of meaning.1)Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of allthe features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.2)Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with therelationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.4.Major sense relations 主要意义关系1）Synonymy 同义关系Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:a)Dialectal synonyms – synonyms used in different regional dialects.British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language.英国英语美国英语Autumn fallLift elevatorFlat departmentWindscreen windshieldTorch flashlightb)Stylistic synonyms – synonyms differing in style.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parentStart, begin, commenceKid, child, offspringc)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningThere are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.Collaborator 合作者/ Accomplice 同谋者，帮凶Like, love, admire, adore, worshipEconomical, frugal, thrifty, mean, miserly, stingyd)Collocational synonyms – synonyms differing in their collocation.Some synonyms differ in their collocation, i.e., in the words they go together with. This is a matter of usage.示例：Accuse…of charge…with rebuke…fore)Semantically different synonyms –synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.示例：Amaze 暗示困惑和迷惑astound 暗示难以置信Escape 意味逃离不愉快或者危险的事flee 意味匆匆离开2）Polysemy 多义关系The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.3）Homonymy 同音/同形异义关系Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that word having different meaning have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.示例：同音异义词：rain/ reign; night/ knight; piece/ peace同形异义词：bow v./ bow n.; tear v./ tear n.; lead v./ lead n.完全同形异义词：fast adj./ fast v.; scale n./ scale v.4）Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the super-ordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.示例：上义词：flower下义词：rose（玫瑰花）, tulip（郁金香）, carnation（康乃馨）, lily（百合花）, morning glory （牵牛花）上义词：animal下义词：dog, cat, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fax, bear5）Antonymy 反义关系The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning, words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。