西方文明史论文
西方文明史论文
从宙斯到朱庇特——由希腊神话与罗马神话看罗马文明的兴衰(为什么古希腊人口中的宙斯,变成了古罗马人的朱庇特?为什么酒神狄奥尼索斯,到了罗马就变成了巴克斯?)古希腊文明和古罗马文明是欧洲文明的发源地,是西方文明的摇篮。
作为先后称霸地中海乃至亚非欧三洲的强大文明,古希腊文明与古罗马文明有着千丝万缕的联系。
对于这两大文明的研究直到今天也没有停止,今天我想从一个简单的方面来说说我对这段历史的理解。
首先,对古希腊与古罗马的历史简单介绍一下。
据资料记载,古希腊的历史,最早可以上溯到爱琴文化时期(约公元前3000年—约公元前1100年),但它最繁荣的时期是公元前5世纪至公元前4世纪中期,史称“古典时期”。
公元前146年,古希腊被罗马所灭亡。
古罗马的历史可以追溯到公元前8世纪—公元前6世纪的“伊达拉里亚时期”。
以后经历了“共和时期”(公元前509年—公元前30年)、“帝国时期”(公元前27年—公元476年),以“帝国时期”最为强盛。
两大文明在时间上几乎是承前启后,而在关系上两者却又因果纠缠。
诗人贺维斯曾说:“希腊人成了罗马人的俘虏,希腊文化俘虏了罗马人。
”古罗马人用武力击败希腊人一跃成为地中海霸主,然而古罗马的文化却几乎是完全传承与古希腊。
这一点无论是建筑、雕塑、哲学,都能看出端倪。
大部分文化成就,古罗马都是照搬古希腊人的。
这种文化上的照搬使罗马成为当时世界上最强大的国家之一,然而也使古罗马文明走向灭亡。
而我想从神话传说方面来对问题进行探讨。
古希腊文化中最为主要的部分就是对于神祗的崇拜,神话叙事几乎在每部希腊文学中都扮演了重要的角色,甚至形成了成系统的一套《神谱》(赫西俄德著)。
而以武力著称的罗马文明远远没有如此系统和繁荣的神话体系,所以在征服了希腊地区后,罗马人便将希腊神话纳入了自己的文化体系。
于是,希腊神话中的神王宙斯,在罗马文化中便成为了朱庇特;天后赫拉便成了朱诺、海神波塞冬成了尼普顿、酒神狄奥尼索斯变成了巴克斯……这种罗马文明对希腊文明的剽窃绝不仅仅是巧合,我们可以从很多方面来看待这种现象。
西方文明史论文
亚历山大与希腊化时代“希腊化”（Hellenistic）一词意即“希腊似的”，主要是指希腊文明随着希腊统治的扩张而传播到东方各地，东方被希腊化了。
开启希腊化时代的主角是马其顿人。
马其顿地处希腊的东北边缍，这个偏辟落后的小国是怎样崛起、进而发展成为一个地域辽阔的大国的呢？亚历山大又是怎样在他的帝国内传播希腊文化的呢？亚历山大又对希腊化时代做出什么养的贡献呢？公元前四世纪后半叶。
正当希腊腹地发展了200年的城邦政治制度日趋衰微之时，腓力二世领导下的马其顿王国即蓬勃崛起、一技独秀。
腓力选择借鉴了希腊城邦和波斯帝国的经验，对马其顿的政治制度和币制进行了改革。
公元前338年，马其顿在克罗尼亚战役，进一步挫败了以雅典、底比斯为首的反马其顿盟军，迫使几乎全希腊都承认了他的霸权。
此后，腓力又拟订了进一步开疆拓土的战略方针，他在希腊的拥护者号召把战争引向亚洲，把财富夺回希腊，并举行了向波斯宣战的集会。
公元前336年，壮志未酬的腓力遇刺身亡。
“亚力山大是马其顿国王腓力二世的儿子，也就是该国的王子，他实际上是杀死他父亲之后登上王位的，接着便开始了他惊人的征服之旅，很大程度上是受波斯人在公元前五世纪入侵希腊、洗劫雅典的启发，亚历山大生活在公元前四世纪中叶，大约是波斯战争一百多年后，他随后开始了惩罚波斯帝国的征程。
”（澳大利亚悉尼大学博士丹·坡茨）雄才大略的亚历山大是人类历史上第一位所向披靡、横扫欧亚非的军事天才。
“公元前334年，以亚历山大为首的希腊东征军跨过了赫勒斯滂海峡，在格拉尼库斯河畔首战告捷，第二年又在叙利亚的伊苏斯平原，大败十万波斯军，俘虏了波斯国大流士三世的母亲、妻子和两个女儿。
”（中国人民大学历史系副教授米辰峰）然后亚历山大挥师南下，迅速攻占了腓尼基、巴勒斯坦，兵不血刃、占领了埃及。
“厚颜无耻的埃及法老神庙祭司立刻尊奉亚历山大为阿蒙神之子，埃及法老的合法继承人。
在平定了埃及以后，亚历山大又挥师北上，在公元前331年，在亚述古都尼尼微的附近高加美拉与号称百万的波斯大军展开了决战，开战不久，波斯国王大流士三世又一次弃阵逃跑、全军溃散。
我眼中的西方文明史(西方文明史论文)
西方文明史期末作业Written by XHNWestern civilization in my eyes After learning this lesson for one term，I know a lot about western in many fields such as mythology、philosophy、festival and communication. How can I describe the western civilization? I think it’s one part full of amazing、wisdom、freedom and convert during the synchronous development of the western world.We have learnt several mythologies and I find that the “god” in western mythology is not a serious image, opposite, ZeuS, gods’ leader, always does m any self-willed things which sounds uncomfortable. Just because of it, the “god” makes people feel real and vivid. Not as our country, western people may prefer to believe gods is more similar to normal people, I think, at the least in emotion part.How about philosophy? We also know many philosopher from our country like Lao Tz and Chuang Tse, they usually spread their idea by teach others and write some book. But in ancient Greece, there are three famous philosopher called Socrates、Plato and Aristotle. They prefer to communicate with others than teach others what they think about. I think if we defined that Chinese philosophy likes teaching, then, western philosophy may likes debating. I should admit that the academic atmosphere in that time in western was good, I still remember there are a paint named “the school of Athens”, painted by Raphael, describe how crowd during the school, it reflect that at that time there are many people have huge thirst of knowledge, they have some topic such as “what made the world”、“what’s the resource of the world”…… In a word, the philosophy in western civilization usually make me associate freedom and holy, it’s one thing that you are willing to devote your whole life to learn.There is one well known book called “the Bible”, many festivals are come into being from this book, like Christmas and Easter Day, two festival which used to commemorate the born and revive of Jesus. Different from our country, most of the western festival is closely related with religion, we can see that the belief is too important for western people.As for communicate, I think it’s more affected by political system, freedom and open atmosphere full of the whole western world so that people can express personal opinion without any hesitate. I think it’s a good society custom and will do well for one country’s development.In my eyes, the western civilization is one thing that we would appreciate rather than study it. The civilization show us a glorious thing which created by human, we should know not only our country have broad and profound culture, but also the western world have, so we should learn from each other in mutual emulation.。
西方文化史课程结业论文【可编辑】
跨专业选修课《西方文化史》结课论文姓名：学号：院系：中西思想文化对其政治制度的影响思想文化是一种社会现象，是人们长期创造形成的产物，同时又是一种历史现象，是社会历史的积淀物。
我这里讲到的思想文化是狭义上的文化，指的是能够被传承的国家或民族的历史、地理、风土人情、传统习俗、生活方式、文学艺术、行为规范、思维方式、价值观念等。
在社会历史发展的进程中,西方国家为什么能在短时间内迅速从封建社会过渡到资本主义社会并确立资产阶级民主制度？中国几千年来专制制度为什么会如此根深蒂固，通往现代民主政治之路发展如此漫长？这是一个值得人们深入思考的问题。
我们可以看到，中西方在思想文化上具有明显的差异，同时与之对应的政治制度也有巨大的差异，这两者是否有一定的相关性呢？首先，我们从中西两种不同文明的社会历史方面来分析。
古代的中国，远在封建时代初期，国家权力集中在一家一姓之间，因此这使得氏族和血缘关系在政治上显得格外重要。
血缘关系的扩展，又使得宗法制得以产生，从此“公天下”彻底变成了“家天下”，这也就锁定了政治制度的发展方向：专制集权。
古代中国，由于封建制度的存在，贵族和皇帝只能是附属关系，受皇帝控制而无法做到相对独立，想搞独立的一律被定为“反贼”，并予消灭。
国家最高权力掌握在皇帝手中。
为了维护本民族的权利，必须消灭流失于外邦的利益，因而古代中国始终向往大一统的时代，认为这样才会有安全感，这种思想在无形中增添了封建君主专制制度存在的合法性。
“秦王扫六合，虎视何雄哉！”这种对促成国家统一力量的颂赞，在另一种程度上导致了人民对这种力量的盲目崇拜。
追求国家统一的这种民族历史心态，纵容了封建专制制度的长期存在。
另外，中国是一个农耕民族，自古以自然经济为主，这种经济具有相当程度的稳定性，因而也就具备了长期延续的基础。
中国古代自然经济具有不可避免的脆弱性，很多时候是“看天吃饭”，在自然的力量面前，人们变得柔弱而苟且，天子都不例外。
在荒年，天子往往会颁布“罪己诏”以求上天宽恕，就是个例子。
中外文明史论文
雅典民主政治的实践与探索大约公元前9世纪～公元前8世纪，古希腊逐渐形成了奴隶制城邦国家，城邦文明出现，而雅典就是其中一个重要的城邦，它也因产生了与当时时代环境格格不入的——民主政治——而闻名世界。
从公元前6世纪到5世纪，经过一系列的改革，雅典最终确立起奴隶制的民主政治制度，其中最为著名的就是梭伦改革、克里斯提尼改革和伯利克里改革。
当然，当时雅典的民主政制是很不健全的、狭隘的民主政治制度，但它仍然对现代的民主政治制度以及欧美国家的政制和法律产生了深远影响，是所有现代民主思想的源头。
一、民主政治的奠基——梭伦改革梭伦（约前638～约前559），出身贵族，但青年家道中落，早年经营贸易，与商旅为伍，他反对贵族专权，同情平民，主张在城邦中实行公正立场，以城邦利益为重。
公元前594年，梭伦以其威望和功绩当选为雅典城邦的“执政兼仲裁”（“执政官”），开始进行具有宪政意义的一系列经济、政治和社会改革运动。
雅典当时的战神山议事会是国家权力结构的中枢。
贵族借助这个机构操纵了立法、行政、司法大权。
梭伦恢复了公民大会，使它成为最高权力机关，决定城邦大事，选举行政官，一切公民，不管是穷是富，都有权参加公民大会；设立了新的政府机关——四百人会议，类似公民会议的常设机构，由雅典的四个部落各选一百人组成，除第四等级外，其它各级公民都可当选；设立了陪审法庭，每个公民都可被选为陪审员，参与案件的审理，陪审法庭成为雅典的最高司法机关。
这一切，为雅典政治制度的民主化开辟了道路。
在梭伦进行改革前，雅典农民的境况是极其艰苦的，借了财主的债若还不清，财主就在借债者的土地上竖起债务碑石，借债者就会沦为“六一汉”，他们为财主做工，收成的六分之五给财主，自己只有六分之一。
如果收成不够缴纳利息，财主便有权在一年后把欠债的农民及其妻、子变卖为奴。
在梭伦改革之前，雅典行使的德拉古法以严酷著称、对偷窃水果、懒惰等过失都要判处死刑。
人们指责它不是用墨水写的，而是用血写的，梭伦改革了这一酷刑。
期末论文--西方文明史
浅谈罗马帝国衰落的原因一提起罗马，大家应该都不陌生，一个历史上强大的帝国，然而却也最终逃不过灭忙的下场，个中原因，众说纷纭。
而我在本学期选修了雷芳老师的西方文明史后，对于这一事件也有了一些自己的看法，便说说自己的浅见吧。
我个人认为一个国家的灭亡，无非是四个方面出现问题：政治，经济，军事和文化。
下面我就从这几个方面分析一下罗马帝国。
一，政治第一，罗马帝国时期，罗马的政治制度缺乏明确的继承法，因此后来出现很多继承上的矛盾，领导者换的频率是非常高的，这对于一个国家的稳定是非常不利的。
第二，中央集权的专制制度太严重，普通的公民缺少参与政治的机会，共和国下的公民变成了臣民，人们对国家漠不关心，也不再那么忠诚了。
第三，当时的贪污腐败问题也是相当严重，这加速了国家与普通民众的矛盾。
第四，赋税太过沉重，加重了人民的负担，让国家失去了更多的人民支持。
二，经济罗马的经济问题主要是由奴隶制度与劳动力短缺造成的。
第一，罗马帝国时期，城市里面的很多产品都是靠奴隶制造的，而伴随着罗马帝国版图的增大，战争停止了，也就俘获不了奴隶，奴隶的来源大大减少，劳动力开始不足。
第二，罗马帝国政治的腐败也带给经济更多的压力，比如贫富差距太大。
这也激化了不同阶级的矛盾。
三，军事第一，罗马人崇尚武力，喜欢到处征战。
在罗马帝国时期，罗马人的爱国心、荣誉感、民族精神、尚武精神，加上巨大经济利益的驱使和政治地位提高的诱惑，造就了罗马军队强大的战斗力。
但是，繁荣盛世也成为了腐败的温床，当罗马帝国没有敌人可以征服的时候，他们开始沉浸于安逸的生活，花天酒地的生活磨灭了罗马人的进取心，腐蚀了罗马军人的斗志。
第二，罗马强大的军事力量被用于个人目的。
尤其是在罗马帝国后期，腐败导致帝王对军队的倚重和骄宠，对军队的过分骄宠更加加剧了官兵的腐败，从而形成了一种恶性循环，这大大销蚀了罗马军队的战斗力。
帝国后期，许多帝王荒淫豪奢、腐化至极，贵族地主挥金如土，醉生梦死，致使民不聊生、政局动荡。
西方文明史论文
西方文明史论文The Italian Renaissance1.IntroductionRenaissance was first appeared in the center Italy and it brought up a series of changes and achievements in Europe from the end of 13th century to 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. The word …Renaissance?means …rebirth? which actually indicates the birth of the new culture. The Renaissance is an age rather than an event. There is no moment at which the Middle Ages ended. Late medieval society was artistically creative, socially well developed, and economically diverse. Y et, eventually, the pace of change accelerated, and it is best to think of renaissance as an era of rapid transitions. (Kishlansky, Geary and Brien 208) The renaissance has not only made great contributions to literature, arts, architecture etc. but also its huge influence on politics and the leading role in bringing immense changes on people?s minds and recognition.2.Body2.1A Brief SummaryThe renaissance first appeared in Italy, and then quickly spread to other countries, notably France, and thence to Germany and England and Spain and the Low Countries (i.e. Holland and Belgium).Italy became the first country that posses the conditions mainly because the newly appear of the capitalism and the revival of the classic culture. From northern Italy to central, cities were playing a leading role in Europe. Thanks to their highly developed economy, the signs of capitalism and emerging of bourgeois firstshowed in these areas. Cities as Florence and V enice first becoming independent politically and thus established as the cities of republic were homes to many humanists. Either following the ancient Greek or Rome or combining the classic culture with the native culture in Italy then, they began to do researches and creative activities. They contributed not only to inheriting and introducing the old traditions but also to the secularizing progress of modern Europe.Encompassing the two centuries between 1350 and 1550, it passed throughthree distinct phases. The first, from 1350 to 1400, was characterized by a declining population, the uncovering of classical texts, and experimentation in a variety of art form. The second phase, from 1400 to 1500, was distinguished by the creation of a set of cultural values and artistic and literary achievements that defined Renaissance style. The large Italian city-states developed stable and coherent forms of government, and the warfare between them gradually ended. In the final period, from 1500 to 1550, invasions from France and Spain transformed political life, and the ideas and techniques of Italian writers and artists radiated to all points of the Continent.( Kishlansky, Geary and Brien 208)2.2The reason why Renaissance first appeared in ItalyⅠ.From the cultural perspective, the classic Roman conventions remained in Italy is stronger than any other country in Europe. During the whole middle ages, Italians regarded themselves as the descendants of the ancient Romans. Besides, some schools in Italy kept the Roman educational system.Ⅱ.The prosperity of trade with overseas markets enabled Italy to restored the ancient civilization. The commercial cities inItaly gain tremendous profits by doing business with the eastern countries. Until the 14th century, some of the cities in Italy (i.e. Naples, Florence, V enice, etc.) became the richest cities in the world. Driven by trade, Italy was greatly influenced by eastern cultures, especially Byzantine and Saracens?cultures. Most importantly was that after a long period, the ancient Roman culture rarely remained in the local Europe, while some books were preserved in the Byzantine and Arab. By trading with easterners, the manuscripts were returned to Italy and thus Italians became the first ones who had the opportunity to admire those classic contents.Ⅲ. The emergence of commerce destroyed the feudal system in Italy and created space for the development of cities and conditions for the development of new culture. The peasants left their land and got job opportunity in cities and the self-satisfied Fief System began to decline. The number of the establishment of cities stimulated the changing of the social system. The immense spending and large number of casualties of the Crusades lowered the reputation and authority of the Pope and the Church?scontrolling power over people had also descended. Cities became the dominant symbols of the major changes of the society which provided the proper environment for the modification of the civic culture.Ⅳ. The wealthy merchants in Late Medieval had special fondness on culture and they were willing to provide money voluntarily, which to some extent made it possible for Renaissance to develop in some big cities. In addition, the chiefs of churches and the leaders of various committees abandoned the convention of Abstinence and Ascetic and paid moreattention to these secular concepts. They pursued the luxury life as well as encouraged to expand their religion in secular ways.Ⅴ. The Rena issance was born in the political turmoil. When the Renaissance started, Italy was still not unified and was regarded as part of the Holy Roman Empire. The conflicts between the Italian Pope and the French King brought Italy into tens of little countries. The political chaos weakened the control of culture so it was easy for the formation of new ideas. Under such circumstances, Renaissance was in full swing.All in all, the process of the western society made room for the maturity of Renaissance. The towns and cities also introduced a new sense of social and political cohesiveness. The city was something to which people belonged. In urban areas, they would join social groups of their own choosing and developed networks of support that were not possible in rural environments. Blood relations remained the primary social group. Kin were the most likely source of aid in times of need, and charity began at home.2.3Influence on people?s lifeLife in Florence could be the typical one in the Renaissance period. As the birth place and the most important city at that time, Florence was a prosperous industrial city. Due to the various socialization, a series of social rules had been formulated.There were so many festivals celebrated in Italy and even today, Italy has more religious festivals than any other country. ( e .g . St. John?s Day, St. Peter?s Day and St. Paul?s Day ). The historic Carnival still keeps its attraction till today. The lively city life stimulated people?s pursuit of entertainment. They were no longerworked from dawn to dusk for the sake of happiness of their next life and the savior of their soul but for the instant benefitsand enjoyment. (Burk, Peter 435) In some Italian cities, wealth or occupation determined housing patterns. In others, like Florence, rich and poor lived side by side and identified themselves with their small administrative unit and with their local church. Thus, they could participate in relationships with others both above and below them in social scales. From their superiors they gained connections that helped their families; from their inferiors they gained devoted clients.A growing sense of civic pride and individual accomplishment were underlying characteristics of the Italian Renaissance, enhanced by the development of social cohesion and community solitary that both Church and city-state fostered, it is commonly held that the Renaissance was both elitist and male dominated, that it was an experience separate from that of the society at large,( Kishlansky, Geary and Brien 212)2.4The appearance of the giantsBorn in a family nearby Florence, Leonardo had a variety of interests when he was a child, especially in painting. Leonardo da Vinci?s creative genius embodied the Renaissance ideal of the “universal man.”His detailed anatomical drawings and the method he devised for rendering them, his botanical observations, and his engineering inventions testify to his unrestrained curiosity. His paintings reveal a continuation of the scientific application of mathematics to matters of proportion and perspective. Leonardo?s popular Mona Lisa, is quite possible the best-known picture in the Western World. It is a portrait of a pretty lady whose smile is the essence of the painting and is till a mystery to people nowadays. When looking at her smile, you will get a mixture feeling. Through her smile, Leonardo presented people with a mysterious inner world of a lady. The naturalbackground formed a perfect comparison of the lady?s beauty. Thus an ideal effect showed. The painting showed Leonardo?s humanism to its fullest.The David and the paintings of the Sistine Chapel were the work ofMichelangelo?s youth. His crowning achievement, the building of Saint Peter?s basilica in Rome, was the work of age. The base work of Saint Peter?s had already been laid, and drawings for its completion had been made thirty years early by Donato Bramante. Michelangelo altered these plans in an effort to bring more light into the church and to provide a more majestic fa?ade outside. His main contribution, however, was the design of the great dome, which centered the interior of the church on Saint Peter?s grave. More than the height, it is the harmony of Michelangelo?s design that creates the scene of the building thrusting upward like a Gothic cathedral of old. Michelangelo did not live to see the Saint Peter?s completed.Renaissance art served Renaissance society, reflecting both its concrete achievements and its visionary ideals. This art was a synthesis of old and new, building on classic models, particularly in sculpture and architecture, but adding newly discovered techniques and skills.Renaissance artists did more than construct and adorn buildings or celebrate or beautify spiritual life. Inevitably, their work expressed the ideals and the aspirations of the society in which they lived-the new emphasis on learning and knowledge, on the here and now rather than the hereafter, and most important, on humanity and its capacity for growth and perfection.William Shakespeare stands out as the most outstandingmaster of literature as well as the highest achievements of the Renaissance period. According to the development of his works, his writing career could be divided into three stages. During the first period, he mainly focused on historian plays, comedies and poems. Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Twelfth Night and The Merchants of Venice were all based on love. The most famous one was Romeo and Juliet which depicted the love story between two young people who fell in love with each other but at the same time they were faced with the conflict of their families. The second period was famous for his four tragedies. During this period, his ideal of humanism was in serious collision with the reality. The tragedy of Hamlet was a reflection of the progress and the weakness of humanists.2.5The decline of the RenaissanceThe Italian Renaissance reached its peak in the mid 16th century and then began its declining process that many humanists and genius had passed away in the middle 16th century. Besides, the prosperity of the cultures in every nation had caused unexpected consequences.The most important reason is the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Most damaging was the May 6, 1527, Spanish and German troops' sacking Rome that for two decades all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture. (Baron, Hans 212)3ConclusionThe grand ideas and the splendid culture of the ItalianRenaissance attracted the worldwide attention. Taking place in the period of Europe?s transition from middle age to modern age, the Italian Renaissance led people?s epiphany in science, humanism, art and society. The spiritual treasure the masters created will be the invaluable property for the European as well as the whole world. Many masterpieces of that time have become milestones which can only be emulated but cannot be overwhelmed.In all, the Italian Renaissance?s significance has far overweighed any event before and set a new era of civilization for all the humans.W orks CitedMark Kishlansky, Patrick Geary and Patricia O?Brien, A Brief History of Western Civilization: The Unfinished Legacy 中国人民大学出版社，2008Baron, Hans.The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny.Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966Burke, Peter. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy Princeton University Press, 1999.。
西方文明史 古希腊神话论文
西方近代文化精神的重要源头古希腊神话摘要：神话是一种文化积淀，也是一种民族意识的积淀，直至今天，它仍以无穷的魅力影响着现代人的生活。
在漫长的西方文明发展史中，希腊文明曾放出璀璨的光芒。
古希腊的戏剧、建筑、绘画、雕塑等都从古希腊神话中汲取养料。
所以可以说，古希腊神话是西方文化的重要源头。
古希腊神话是西方文化百用而不厌其烦的素材，这已是人所共知的。
本文重在试图探索西方文化从古希腊神话中汲取的两钟重要的精神血液即人本和理性，这两种精神恰是整个西方近代文化的两个主要精神。
关键词：西方近代文化精神源头古希腊神话古希腊神话故事的形成时期很早，是远古一代代人集体创作的结晶。
神话起初口传，后来见之于书面文字。
它的最早的传世书面文献当推荷马史诗。
史诗中除了主体故事外，还提及了许多其他的神话故事，那些故事显然在当时已是广为流传、普遍知晓的。
在荷马之后不久有古希腊诗人赫西奥德的长诗《神谱》，扼要地记述了许多神话故事，并立力图把那些故事谱系化。
古希腊悲剧的题材基本都是取材于神话，是作家对那些神话故事的现实理解的戏剧体现。
希腊神话在人类思想文化艺术史上始终光彩夺目，经久不衰。
希腊文化源于古老的爱琴文明，和中国商周文明略有相像之处。
他们是西洋文明的始祖，具有卓越的天性和不凡的想像力。
在那原始时代，他们对自然现象，对人的生死，都感到神秘和难解，于是他们不断地幻想、不断地沉思。
在他们想像中，宇宙万物都拥有生命。
然而在多利亚人入侵爱琴文明后，因为所生活的希腊半岛人口过剩，他们不得不向外寻拓生活空间。
这时候他们崇拜英雄豪杰，因而产生了许多人神交织的民族英雄故事。
这些众人所创造的人、神、物的故事，经由时间的淬链，就被史家统称为「希腊神话」，西元前十一二世纪到七、八世纪间则被称为「神话时代」。
神话故事最初都是口耳相传，直至西元前七世纪才由大诗人荷马统整记录于「史诗」中。
我们现在所知的所有古希腊神话的故事都来自《荷马史诗》和赫西俄德的《神谱》和《工作与时日》。
西方文明史论文
罗马帝国衰落的原因罗马帝国（前27年—395年），正式名称为元老院与罗马人民，是古罗马文明的一个阶段。
罗马的不断扩张使其成为一个帝国。
安东尼王朝皇帝图拉真（公元98年-117年）在位时，罗马帝国版图达到最大，经济空前繁荣，西起西班牙、不列颠，东到幼发拉底河上游、南自非洲北部，北达莱茵河与多瑙河一带，地中海成为帝国的内海，全盛时期控制了大约590万平方公里的土地，是世界古代史上最大的君主制国家之一。
395年，罗马帝国一分为二，实行永久分治。
西罗马帝国于476年灭亡，东罗马帝国于1453年灭亡。
偌大的一个强大的帝国是如何历经了分裂、灭亡的呢？狄奥多西一世在392年瓦伦提尼安二世被杀后，宣布基督教为国教，反对一切异教和异端。
狄奥多西一世在394年击败了西部的篡位者欧根尼乌斯后，成为了帝国的唯一统治者，这是罗马帝国的最后一次统一。
此年的罗马统治下的人口有3600万人。
395年狄奥多西去世，他把帝国一分为二，东部分给长子阿卡狄乌斯，西部分给幼子霍诺里乌斯。
东西罗马帝国分裂后，哥特人首领阿拉里克在东北亚游牧民族匈奴族人的强大压力下不断入侵罗马帝国。
而东西罗马帝国不是团结起来一致抗敌，而是坐视阿拉里克强大，希望他去攻击对方。
405年冬，阿拉里克和匈奴联军突破了罗马帝国的莱茵河防线，罗马并无有效的抵抗，实际上等于放弃了高卢的大部分地区。
407年，驻守不列颠的将领君士坦丁三世造反，西罗马帝国皇帝霍诺里乌斯企图使阿拉里克去攻击君士坦丁三世，阿拉里克要求4000磅黄金为代价。
随后，由于霍诺里乌斯先答应而后食言，阿拉里克和匈奴联军入侵意大利，霍诺里乌斯从米兰逃亡到拉韦纳。
阿拉里克南下，围困了罗马。
罗马城内爆发了饥荒和瘟疫，元老院和阿拉里克媾和，交出了5000磅黄金、30000磅白银一起其他许多贵重物品和财宝。
409年，阿拉里克和匈奴联军第二次包围罗马，扶立了一个傀儡皇帝，而龟缩在拉韦纳的霍诺里乌斯在东罗马帝国的支援下才保住皇位。
西方文明史
The Influence of the Discovery of New Trade RoutesⅠ.IntroductionThe discovery of new trade routes was not simply several pathways that we know today. It marked the beginning of the modern era. It changed the world in almost every aspect, for example, economy, politic, culture, and society. Besides, its influence is also world-wide. No continent, Asia, Europe, America, or Africa is free from the aftereffect of it. We should say it is a thunderstorm of mankind history. It turned up a new page of human being.Here in this paper, I mainly focus on the period of the fifteenth century to the nineteenth century. In this period, we discuss the influence it has on the economy, politic, society, and culture of every main continent. If we have learnt the world history, it is not difficult for us to find that during this periods, almost every important historical event was connected with the discovery of new trade routes. For instance, the colonialism, slave trade, and so on.Ⅱ. Comment on the discovery of new trade routesThe first team of exploration for new trade routes came from Portugal. They explored the Atlantic coast of Africa from 1418 and got the India Ocean by this route in 1488. Another team which discovered the New World came from Spain. In 1492, this team was leaded by Columbus who was famous for the discovery of America, and they were funded by the Spanish monarch. They crossed the Atlantic Ocean and landed on America.In 1498, a team from Portugal commanded by V asco da Gama reached India by sailing around Africa. In 1512, Ferdinand Magellan led a Spanish team explored west, finished the first circumnavigation of the world. Later, Dutch, French and English also joined the searching for new trade routes, first to the north, andinto the Pacific Ocean around South America, finally by following the routes discovered by Spanish and Portuguese teams, they discovered Australia in 1606, New Zealand in 1642, and Hawaii in 1778. Besides, from the 1580s to the 1640s Russians also explored almost the whole of Siberia.Ⅲ.The influenceDuring this period, these new trade routes were pioneered, and these discoveries are just like thunderbolt that cleaved the dark sky of mediaeval Europe and old Asia and the blank sky of the America and Africa. Because of the serious imbalance of the development among different continent, the influence of the discovery of new trade routes is very obvious. It completely broke the previous peace of the world.⒈Europe①EconomyFor European people, especially these explorers who were mainly capitalists, these discoveries were exciting. That’s because before the discovery of new trade routes, the economy of Europe faced many acute contradictions. Those were the contradictions between the constantly advancing new technologies which pushed the scale of production larger and larger and the lack of raw materials, laborers, capital and market. Through these new trade routes, they had found the new passages for the development of their rising capitalist economy.First, through new trade routes, these explorers got the capital they need. As we all know, the natural resources of Europe are very limited, especially these noble metal, so at that time, gold and silver were very rare in the market of Europe. But along with the opening of new trade routes, these explorers got the gold and silver by cruel depredation and slaughter. These gold and silver filled up the lack of capital.Second, the New World also provided them raw materials. At that time, the population of Europe was high. However, the lands were small and lean. So the gapbetween the need of raw materials and the practical production was very large. But compared with Europe, the land in the New World was larger and fertile. At the same time, the population was low. So for these explorers, the New World was a heaven for them .From there, they got large amount of raw materials.Third, the discovery of new trade routes indirectly provided the laborers for industrial factories. At that time, agriculture still took a large part of the economy of Europe, so free laborers were in great short. But as the uncountable numbers of gold and silver flooded in, the situation of lacking was changed. The price of gold and silver fell, at the same time, the price of goods raised up. This caused the bankruptcy of farmers, and in this way, these farmers became free laborers. So the short of laborers solved.Fourth, the discovery of new trade routes also solved the problem of market. While the production of the factories was raised constantly, the consumption remained small for the limit of agricultural economy. But the discovery of new trade routes found the new immense market---the New World, Asia, and Africa, by the way, the bankrupted farmers also became consumers of their industrial products. So the limit of market also eased.From these three aspects, we could see that the discovery of new trade routes solved the problems of the development of European economy. By taking use of these advantages, the economy of Europe speeds up. So we should say it was the discovery of these new trade routes that paved the way for the economy of Europe.②PoliticPolitical pattern was always closely connected with the power of every country. European political pattern in this time was not an exception, too.First, because of the interval among the exploration of every country, the power of countries in Europe at this time lost its balance. As the pioneers of these explorations, Spain and Portugal became more powerful than other countries in Europe. Especially Spain, it became the strongest country in the earlier age of this period..Second, as new trade routes were discovered, the old trade center transformed from the Mediterranean countries to the countries located in the coast of Atlantic Ocean. So the trade in Britain, France and other countries located in the coast of Atlantic Ocean became prosperous, and of course, they became strong.Third, the domestic political pattern also changed. As capitalist economy became prosperous, the power of bourgeoisie became strong, in contrast with this, the feudal power declined. Revolutions led by them broke out. The status of feudal lords was threatened by the bourgeoisie.So in this way, the discovery of new trade routes changed the political pattern of Europe. Countries such as Italy and Greece declined and Spain, Portugal, Britain and France grew up. Also these countries faced the bourgeois revolution. This change also founded the basic political pattern of next few centuries.③SocietyFirst, new trade routes helped the development of capitalism, but as capitalism developed, ordinary people were suffered from the deprivation of these capitalists as well as their ruler. Their life was very hard.Second, during the communication with other continents, new species were introduced into Europe, for instance, tomato, corn and potato. The industrial products of their own country and the products of Asia also flooded in their life. Their life was enriched by these new species and products.④CultureAfter the discovery of new trade routes, gave the European chances of importing the prosperous culture of China and India which they longed to absorb. Many Chinese and Indian classics were translated by the missionaries and introduced into Europe. The culture of Europe was made diverse and richened.2 America and AfricaBefore the discovery of new trade routes, America was isolated with othercontinents and Africa a little better than America, but still left behind and poor. The people there still lived a barbarian life. Through the communication with explorers, they learnt a lot, but at the same time, they suffered a lot.①EconomyFirst, they absorbed the economic pattern---capitalism. Although this kind of economic pattern was establish by force and it hadn’t brought them improvement in life, this pattern pushed them out from the original life. It changed thee form of their production, and it increased the production as well as economic benefit. So it paved the way for the development of America and Africa.Second, they learnt the advanced technologies of Europe. Before the discovery of new trade routes, the productivity of America and Africa remained in the original state, industry was like fairy tale for those aboriginal people. But after the introduction of these new technologies, their industry developed; their natural resources mined too, though they were the accessory of capitalism. These technologies were the base of the growing up of America and Africa.Third, as they gained a lot, they also lost a lot. Their gold and silver were robbed away, as well as their natural materials. What’s more, they also lost their living brace---land. The economy of them was involved in the capitalist economic system, and became the economic accessory. These lost led to the long-lasting lag and poverty of the New World.So the influence of the discovery of new trade routes have on the economy of America was immeasurable.②SocietyFirst, their life changed, on one hand, their life was enriched by the new things explorers brought in, for example, horse, cow, wheat, and barley. The social pattern also changed. They were no longer live in the original social form. On the other hand, they suffered o lot. They lost the independence. They were forced to do hard works to create wealth for these greedy explorers. Their life was under the control of colonists.Second, the population was changed too. There were many reasons for this. Onthe one hand, the cruel massacre launched by these colonists, and the diseases brought by colonists. Since the aboriginal people were laggards, they not only didn’t have the ability to defeat these colonists, but also didn’t have the immunity of these diseases. Under this situation, numbers of aboriginal people died. The population of aboriginal people declined sharp. Africa lost about one hundred million laborers, and America lost about ninety to ninety-five percent of the aboriginal population. On the other hand, the immigration from Europe, Africa, and Asia increased the population of America and made the structure of American population become complicated.So from these cases, we could see the influence of the discovery of new trade routes upon America and Africa was immense.②cultureBefore the discovery of new routes, there was no existence of the concept of democracy, revolution and socialism as well as science and literature. But along with the new routes, these thoughts and culture were brought to Africa and America. Later, Asian culture was also introduced into there. These cultures greatly promoted the process of civilization. What’s more, these cultures also have a large function on the independence of the colonies of these places.3 AsiaCompared with Africa and America, the culture and economy were more prosperous. So it could mostly avoid the negative influence of the colonial invasion.①economyFirst, new technologies were inevitably introduced into Asia through the communication with Europe. After the opening of market, new technologies were gradually used by the old, corrupted Asia. These new technologies improved the productivity of Asia, also promoted the development of Asian national capitalism.Second, before the discovery of new trade routes, the old Asia was in a closed state. Agriculture took up the basic part of the Asian economy, and people there liveda self-sufficient life. But after the discovery of new trade routes, the market of Asia was gradually opened, and became the market of their industrial goods. The dumping of goods, especially the smuggling of opium worked the flooding of silver in Asia and this directly led to the poverty of Asia. But on the other hand, it accelerated the collapse of feudal economy. It also made the Asian economy involved in the global capitalist market, and became the accessory of it.Third, the raw materials of Asia also were depredated by the European colonists through these new trade routes. In the trade with Europe, the cheap industrial products occupied a large market of Asia, so the raw materials of Asia became useless and were purchased by the colonists. The fate of mines of Asia was the same.So along with the discover of new trade routes, Asian economy had not escaped from the deprivation of European colonists, and also be involved in the global market. By the way, their national capitalism also developed under this background.②politicFirst, the regimes of Asian countries were no longer independent. With the support of advanced technologies, the military force of Europe was very strong. The corrupted Asian feudal rulers were conquered or they became the sinister partner of these colonists to deprive their people.Second, at this time, with the support of these colonists, the power of some important ministers swelled, and on the other hand, the power of royalty declined. Apart from this, the power of some national capitalists also became strong. All these changes led to the alteration of political structure and quickened the withering of feudal rule.③societyFirst, the dumped industrial products and other new species richened the daily life of Asian. Their life style changed and tended to the western style. The crops were diverse with the introduction of new crops such as corn and potato. This also caused the increase of population since the production was increased.Second, the goods and opium brought in through the new trade routes alsocaused the bankruptcy of people and brought them hardship. On the other hand, the deprivation of their ruler made the situation worse.Third, The short of laborer in New World and the bankruptcy of Asian farmers led to the export of laborers. It made a large amount of Asian laborers dead of the rough conditions and hard work.④cultureThe cultural influence of the discovery of new routes was very strong. It bought the western religion, science literature and thoughts to Asia, and these things greatly shocked the Asian society. The revolution, education as well as literature were all deeply influenced by the western culture.ⅣconclusionThis intention of this paper is to analysis the wide and deep influence brought by the discovery of new trade routes. They were not simply several routes, but the new passages led to the new age. It completely changed every corner of the world, and broke the old pattern of the world.On the economic aspect, these new trade routes made capitalism widely established in the world, also led to the formation of the global capitalist market. It also brought both positive and negative influence to the economy of main continents of the world. On the political aspect, these new trade routes changed the political power in the society of those continents. On the social aspect, they changed the daily life as well as the population of every society. On the cultural aspect, they promoted the communication of culture, and richened the spiritual wealth of human being.I think the discussion before made the influence of the discovery of new trade routes obvious. And everyone should have a clear knowledge of the immense influence it brought to the development of human being.。
西方文明简史论文
Yuan Xinping 201011331310 ActuarialEnlightenment:The "light" of TruthAs I will study in France(bordeneax ----Montesquieu's hometown)as an exchange student next spring ,I'd like to analyse and summarize some information about Enlightenment ,.Just as Miss Xi once said,France was actually the center of the Enlightenment,and Paris was the capital of European culture.Kant had ever said"dare to know！Have the courage to use your own intelligence!"--Maybe this is the motto of Enlightenment. The 18th century marked the beginning of this intellectual movement，which was on the whole，an expression of struggle of bourgeoisie against feudalism. The enlighteners fought against class inequality，prejudice and other survivals of feudalism. They attempted to place all branches of science at the service of mankind by connecting them with the actual needs and requirements of people。
“西方文明史”期末论文
“西方文明史”期末考查期末采用大作业形式进行考查，分两部分：I. 这学期你选修这门课的主要收获；II.在以下题目中，任选一题写一篇短论：1，为什么许多西方人心怀“古希腊情结”？2，为什么说美是古希腊文化的最高理想？3，中世纪是黑暗时代吗？4，试就古希腊艺术与中世纪艺术做一对比，并分析导致其不同面貌的原因。
5，文艺复兴为什么可以说是思想文化领域内的一场“哥白尼革命”？6，如何理解法国哲学家笛卡尔提出的“I think, therefore I am”？7，谈谈你对自由的理解。
8，你如何评价启蒙理性的得失？如何看待文明发展中利弊相参的吊诡现象？9，西方历史上有许多神学家从各种不同角度来论证上帝的存在，但尼采在《苏鲁支语录》中说上帝死了，上帝唯一可以原谅的地方是，他并不存在。
试论尼采这一思想对现代西方文化的影响。
10，试论现代性与传统的对立。
11，试论现代性与大众文化的对立。
12，结合某一具体文学艺术作品谈谈你对现代派艺术的感受。
13，何为大众文化？你对它持何种态度？14，有学者认为，现在的问题已不是西方文明能否继续存在下去，而是是否应该继续生存下去。
他们是在什么背景下做出此类置疑的？你认为他们是否有吹毛求疵之嫌？15，你认为不同文化是样式的不同还是等级的高低？为什么？16，试从文化多元论出发，对哈佛大学教授亨廷顿的文明冲突论做一评论。
17，谈谈宽容在构建和谐的人际关系乃至处理不同文明关系中的作用。
【注意】1，期末作业占学期总分的70%，平时的到课率及课堂答问、讨论占30%。
2，作业应包括以上一、二两个部分。
各部分的篇幅，自己分配比例。
3，两部分总字数不能少于2,000字，也不要超过3,500字。
请尽量简洁明了，字数超出太多将给成绩带来不利影响。
4，两部分的区别：第二部分个人色彩较少，论述时应做到有理有据。
第一部分不怕写得没有系统，可以仅仅是一种最直接的感受、印象，也可以是体会、启发、疑问、意见、建议等等，还可以评说对哪些部分感兴趣，哪些内容听不懂。
中外文明史论文
欧洲文明史欧洲文明源于古希腊的爱琴文明，在其逐步发展和完善的过程中，慢慢形成了差额选举制、任期制、议会制、比例代表制等等一系列的民主制度。
其中雅典是整个希腊民主制度的典范，尤其是在执政官伯利克里执政时期，不仅完善和发展了这些民主制度，而且又逐步形成了一些民主机构如公民大会、五百人议事会等，这些都保证了民主掌握在大多数人的手中。
古希腊民主在尽情发挥自己伟大历史作用、促成雅典政治、经济、文化臻于极盛的同时，又残忍地窒息和扼杀了社会另一部分成员自由发展的能力。
它还剥夺了本邦妇女参政的权利。
所以它既是人类文明的催化剂，又是社会不公的暴力机器。
它给世界文明宝库带进无价之宝，又招致属国属民的怨恨。
这是雅典民主政治的最大局限。
此外，雅典民主是一种直接民主制，同近现代的代议制民主不同，它只能在一个小邦范围内实行，而且直接民主很易滑入极端民主的泥淖。
与此同时，不仅是民主制度在发展，古希腊的文化也是相当繁盛的，不仅产生了泰勒斯、苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德、欧几里德等非常著名，对后世有巨大影响的学者；还有以巴特农神庙和雅典卫城为代表的建筑群；当然也有我们所熟知的雕刻艺术以及家喻户晓的古希腊神话。
古希腊的政治与文化对后世产生了深远的影响，尤其是对欧洲。
随着古希腊文明的衰落，古罗马慢慢的发展起来，依靠凯撒、庞培以及屋大维等人的东征西讨，逐步建立了一个环绕地中海的巨大帝国。
古罗马也有其特有的政治制度。
罗马法便是其中一项不朽的成就。
罗马法主要包括了《十二铜表法》和查士丁尼法典。
《十二铜表法》是古罗马第一部成文法典，是古罗马固有习惯法的汇编，它总结了前一阶段的习惯法，并为罗马法的发展奠定了基础，是“一切公法和私法的渊源”。
许多世纪以来，《十二铜表法》被认为是罗马法的主要渊源。
但它只是在一定限度内维护平民的利益，仍然保留了一些野蛮的习惯法。
它内容相当广泛，条纹比较清晰，标志着罗马成文法的诞生；审判、量刑皆有法可依，在一定程度上限制了贵族的特权与专横，保护了平民的利益；但也保留了一些比较野蛮的习俗。
西方文明史论文
古罗马的交通发展古罗马一度成为当时最强盛的国家之一，这与它四通八达的交通是密不可分的，谚语“条条大路通罗马”流传至今也足以证明古罗马交通之发达。
古罗马的交通方式主要分为道路交通和海运两种。
在道路交通方面，由罗马城向四面八方辐射的道路，成为帝国交通的典型代表。
这些道路的路基主要由碎石、沙子和三合土铺成，在最上面铺上石块；由于意大利半岛上随处可见的石灰岩地形，使得路基的主要成分变得像混凝土，大道两旁设有排水用的水沟，使得道路经久耐用。
现在的法国、西班牙、意大利的部分地区都还在使用罗马时期修建的道路。
古罗马道路的宽度因道路的具体用途而有所不同。
重要性较低的道路可能只宽 1米左右，用于军事用途的大道则可达到4至6 米，而在道路与城门的接口处，为了方便人们通行，防止人口过多而引起交通堵塞，道路的宽度甚至可达 15 米。
在一些特殊的地段修路，古罗马也有突出的表现。
古罗马在造桥和开凿隧道上展现出高超的技术能力，如公元前3世纪，罗马人就掌握了拱券技术并迅速运用于桥梁建设中，此后桥梁的建造基本上采用石制结构，石拱桥被大量建造；在开凿隧道方面，古罗马有成套的钻探、挖坑、掘巷道、照明、通风、打桩、运送和测量的新方法，有研究者认为直到中世纪晚期的时候，世界上还没有国家能与之比肩。
虽然有较多的道路，但是从恺撒至康茂德，禁止有轮车辆在白天通行，人们只好步行，或乘坐奴隶抬行的轿子或担架。
较远的路程，人们则骑马和坐在马拉的驿车或四轮马车上。
乘坐驿马旅行车，平均每天可行60英里。
最初，一些罗马城市的街道相对狭窄，加上人口众多，道路拥堵的情况十分严重。
在之后的城市规划中，罗马吸取教训，更加重视城市生活各方面的需要。
在奥古斯都统治期间，罗马就建立起了帝国的邮递系统――驿站。
合理的驿站间距也充分表现出道路对自然环境和沿途人口及其发展情况的适应。
古罗马的海运也有十分繁荣。
据说古罗马拥有百余条商道供商船航行。
阿特纳奥斯所形容的一艘运粮船420英尺长，船上有一根57英尺长的船辐，这只是相当例外的一个。
西方文明史感悟英文作文
西方文明史感悟英文作文英文：When I look back on the history of Western civilization, I can't help but feel a sense of awe and wonder. Thejourney of Western civilization has been filled with triumphs and tribulations, and it has shaped the world in countless ways. From the ancient Greeks and Romans to the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, the story of Western civilization is one of innovation, progress, and thepursuit of knowledge.One of the most striking aspects of Westerncivilization is its ability to adapt and evolve over time. For example, during the Renaissance, there was a renewed interest in art, literature, and science, which led to a period of great cultural and intellectual growth. This period of rebirth and rejuvenation laid the foundation for many of the ideas and values that we hold dear today.Another key characteristic of Western civilization is its commitment to individualism and freedom. Throughout history, the Western world has been a beacon of liberty and democracy, championing the rights of the individual and the importance of personal autonomy. This commitment to individualism has led to the development of diverse and vibrant societies, where people are free to express themselves and pursue their own dreams and aspirations.However, it's also important to acknowledge the darker moments in the history of Western civilization. The legacy of colonialism, imperialism, and slavery has left a lasting impact on the world, and it's a reminder that progress often comes with a cost. It's crucial to confront and learn from the mistakes of the past in order to build a better future for all.In conclusion, the history of Western civilization is a complex tapestry of triumphs and challenges, and it continues to shape the world in profound ways. By embracing the lessons of the past and striving for a more just and equitable future, we can ensure that the legacy of Westerncivilization is one of progress and enlightenment.中文：当我回顾西方文明史时，我不禁感到敬畏和惊叹。
西方文明史论文
课程名称：西方文明史论文题目：浅议中西古典园林艺术的差异姓名：学号：专业：院系：【摘要】中西方古典园林艺术在其漫长的历史发展中逐渐形成各自鲜明的风格特征，尤其在造园理念上大有不同。
本文主要从哲学思想、审美理想、艺术特点、设计思想等方面分析中西古典园林艺术的差异，并简要介绍两者之间的交流与相互影响。
【关键字】中西古典园林艺术特征差异交流园林是一种文化，所以与东西方的其他文化一样，东西方园林艺术也具有各自的文化特征和风格。
在东方是以苏州园林为代表的中国古典园林,在西方则是以凡尔赛宫园林为代表的法国古典园林。
它们都在东西方的园林中有着极为重要的地位,代表着各自文化艺术中的精华。
本文主要以他们为例来介绍中西方古典园林艺术之差异。
一．古典园林的起源与发展英国植物学家威尔逊称“中国是世界园林之母”中国是一个园林文化发展。
得最早、最完善的国家,同时它也是东方园林的主要代表。
中国古代园林有着漫长的发展史,从先秦到明清,历朝历代,各有成就,也各有特征,但总的说,是一个不断完善、提高的过程。
从《诗经》及《孟子》的记载可知,早在公元前11世纪周文王就筑灵台、灵沼、灵圃,这是最早的皇家园林雏形。
西方园林的起源可上溯到古埃及和古希腊。
公元前500年,以雅典城邦为代表的自由民主政治带来了文化、科学、艺术及园林建设的繁荣兴盛。
罗马继承古希腊传统发展了别墅园和宅园,以精确的数理推导、规则的几何形状、精致的雕塑等,形成了西方园林的基本雏形。
文艺复兴,迎来了园林空前的阶段。
法国路易十四时期由勒诺特主持设计的凡尔赛宫,明显反映了有组织有秩序的古典主义原则,以宏伟华丽的园林风格,成为规整式园林的典范,西方园林由此步入辉煌时期。
二．（一）中西方古典园林艺术的差异1.中国古典园林艺术中的哲学思想——中国古典园林艺术的形成离不开儒家、道家和佛教三大哲学思想。
而对中国园林影响最深远是以老庄为代表的道家思想。
在中国古典园林美学中，道家学说讲求“虽由人做，宛自天开”。
西方文明史论文
古希腊神话（学院：电气工程学院班级:自动化0805 姓名）摘要：古希腊神话主要包括神的故事和英雄传说两部分，是古希腊文化的起点，是古希腊文学的土壤，也是此后的诗歌、悲剧等都以神话和英雄传说的题材，它对于后代作家也有重要的影响。
其中的十二个主神都有鲜明的性格与七情六欲，他们具有人的性格和情绪，具有超人的特殊本领。
古希腊人崇拜众多神祗。
每个城邦都有各自的神祗，并建立庙宇来崇拜他们的偶像。
有关众神的故事往往各有各的说法。
同一位神，在一个城邦或地区具有一组特征，但在别处可能具有全然不同的特征。
所以同一个神话会有几个不同的说法。
古希腊神话故事的形成时期很早，是远古一代代人集体创作的结晶。
神话起初口传，后来见之于书面文字。
它的最早的传世书面文献当推荷马史诗。
史诗中除了主体故事外，还提及了许多其他的神话故事，那些故事显然在当时已是广为流传、普遍知晓的。
在荷马之后不久有古希腊诗人赫西奥德的长诗《神谱》，扼要地记述了许多神话故事，并且力匿把那些故事谱系化。
古希腊悲剧的题材基本都是取材于神话，是作家对那些神话故事的现实理解的戏剧体现。
公元前三世纪之后希腊化时期的亚历山大里亚学者们在对古典作品的收集和注疏中，对古希腊神话的收集和保存作出了巨大的贡献，一些诗人则在学识性原则的指导下，发掘出许多鲜为人知的神话典故。
当时，古希腊人处于低级的社会发展阶段，知识不足，生产水平低下，生活艰难。
有一则神话是这样说的，国王坦塔罗斯受到神的惩罚，浸在齐劲的深水中，身旁有果树。
他低头喝水，水即退去，伸手取果，树即避开，他永远受着饥渴的煎熬。
这则富于哲理的故事描绘了在自然和社会中受到折磨并感到迷惘的古希腊人的形象。
在这种条件下，他们只能借助于想象来认识自然现象和社会现象。
这样，就产生了神话。
希腊神话主要包括神的故事和英雄传说两部分。
神的故事主要是包括关于开天辟地、神的产生、神的谱系、天上的改朝换代、人类的起源和神的日常活动的故事。
在古希腊人的想象中，山川林木，日月海陆，以至雨后的彩虹，河畔的水仙，都是神的身影；生死病死，祸福成败，都取决于神的意志，他们创造了庞大的神的家族。
西方文明史论文
文艺复兴是思想领域的一场“哥白尼革命”西欧的中世纪是个特别“黑暗的时代”。
基督教教会成了当时封建社会的精神支柱，它建立了一套严格的等级制度，把上帝当做绝对的权威。
文学、艺术、哲学一切都得遵照基督教的经典——《圣经》的教义，谁都不可违背，否则，宗教法庭就要对他制裁，甚至处以死刑。
在教会的管制下，中世纪的文学艺术死气沉沉，科学技术也没有什么进展。
黑死病在欧洲的蔓延，也加剧了人们心中的恐慌，使得人们开始怀疑宗教神学的绝对权威。
恩格斯曾在《自然辩证法》中评价哥白尼的《天体运行论》说：“自然科学借以宣布其独立并且好像是重演路德焚烧教谕的革命行动，便是哥白尼那本不朽著作的出版，他用这本书（虽然是胆怯地而且可说是只在临终时）来向自然事物方面的教会权威挑战，从此自然科学便开始从神学中解放出来”。
哥白尼的“日心说”是天文学领域的一场革命，他突破了托勒密的“地心说”，由于时代的局限，虽然哥白尼的观点并不完全正确，但是他的理论的提出给人类的宇宙观带来了巨大的变革。
哥白尼的学说改变了那个时代人类对宇宙的认识，而且动摇了欧洲中世纪宗教神学的理论基础。
由此，哥白尼与文艺复兴都是反对神学，向神学挑战的正义的革命。
恩格斯也曾高度评价“文艺复兴”在历史上的进步作用。
他写道：“这是一次人类从来没有经历过的最伟大的、进步的变革，是一个需要巨人而且产生了巨人——在思维能力、热情和性格方面，在多才多艺和学识渊博方面的巨人的时代。
”（一）首先是人的发现。
与中世纪对比，文艺复兴在意识形态领域内带来了一系列巨大的变化。
最突出的是人价值观念的转变。
在中世纪，理想的人应该是自卑、消极、无所作为的。
文艺复兴发现了人和人的伟大，肯定了人的价值和创造力，提出人要获得解放，个性应该自由。
要求发挥人的聪明才智及创造性潜力，反对消极的无所作为的人生态度。
在文学艺术上要求表达人的感情，反对虚伪和矫揉造作。
如：彼特拉克的《歌集》，薄伽丘的《十日谈》。
这种不可抑制的求知欲和追根究底的探求精神，对一切事物都要研究个究竟，决不满足于一知半解的精神，为创造现世的幸福而奋斗的乐观进取精神，把人们从中世纪基督教神学的桎梏下解放出来，资产阶级正是在这种精神的指引下创造近代资本主义世界的。
西方文明史论文 The Humanism in Renaissance
西方文明史期末考试姓名：白乙静班级：英语1201班学号：1120112106 得分_________ Humanism in the RenaissanceThere is a famous saying:“Human is the measure of all things”said by sophists whose thought has originally opened the door of Humanism during the sixth century b.c.Humanism is an important thought which formed the foundation of the development of Western political,economic and cultural.The Renaissance is the cradle of humanism which pushed this idea to the peak.Meanwhile,the Renaissance was marked by the spread of humanism,so Humanism is the great spirit and the essence of Renaissance.The Renaissance is a great historical cultural event which has an incredible influence in western countries, especially in Italy, France, Spain, England and other countries. Science，philosophy，politics，literature，art have developed a lot during the Renaissance.It took place in 14 ~ 16th century which reflected the requirements of bourgeoisie in Western Europe various countries. During the mid-century,the leading thought is church-centered thought which based on the theological worldview.The medieval Catholic teachings were characterized by God-centeredness, otherworldliness and asceticism.They hold the view that the nature of human is guilty, the highest duties of human is to atone to the God.This idea limited people’s thought and prevent the development of Capitalism.With the expand of the capitalisteconomy,bourgeois class’s various desire became stronger and stronger.At that moment,the Renaissance appeared as the time require. Renaissance sprang as a result of rediscovery and restudy of the Greek and Roman civilization which is based on the conception that the man is the measure of all things, the man-centered culture. It’s also the result of opposition of the medieval theological worldview and the germination of capitalism.Under the dark rule of religion,humanist began to look at the problems of God and Providence with a view to understand man’s work and man’s earthly happiness. Contrary to the subordination of individuals to the feudal rules and the sacrifice of earthly life for a future life in the medieval society, Renaissance humanists found in the classics a justification to exalt human nature and came to see that human beings were glorious creatures capable of individual development for perfection.They dug up “lost texts ”from the forgotten corners to revive the humanism. In reviving classic Greek and Roman culture, they believed they were reviving the past of man in the ancient times and helping developed the capacities and powers that the Greeks and Romans once possessed.The heart of the renaissance philosophy was the assertion of the greatness of man. By emphasizing the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, humanists voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to enjoy life, but had the ability to perfect himselfand to perform wonders.The most important point of humanism is to pay more attention to human instead of church. From daily life to the whole society, from history to spirit, humanists who fought against fate declared that everyone be born to equal.I do agree this idea,because we shouldn’t judge people by their social status like Catholic Church. The idea that everyone was born with First Sin will put people to a ideological prison that prevent their development. These humanists spoke highly of real life and encouraged people to pursuit happiness and love.They declared that everyone should have the chance to get whatever he or she wanted, which gave capitalism a possibility to bud and grow up stronger.Literature is the representative of this idea,and it also have been created splendidly during this period.Humanists have different opinions about literature, and they thought that literature could build up one’s spirit and values. While medicine could cure the dying, literature and philosophy could save their souls. Compared to philosophy, literature was more interesting and attractive, since it could make up stories to let people know complex philosophy. As a result, humanists thought highly of literature, for it lead to the glory of spirit about human beings, thus woke them up in the great darkness. Many great scholars devoted themselves into literature. This is best summarized in the lines ofShakespeare:“What a piece of work is man; how noble in reason; how infinite in faculty , in form and moving how express and admirable ; in acting how like an angel; in apprehension how like a god!”Shakespeare’s Hamlet Emphasized the power, value and dignity of the human beings and holding that human beings are glorious creatures.There are also a lot of humanists who made crucial contribution to the renaissance from the literary field to the field of painting:Bogachu's "The Decameron" ,Rabelai’s "giant" and Cervante’s "Quixote" fully elaborated humanism and satirized the previous old ideas.Da Vinci’s, Michelangelo’s and Rafael's pantings also praised the greatness of the human nature.These great humanists bravely expressed their view against the church-centered thought.The idea of humanism played a important role in Western history and highlighted the culture of civilization.Though emphasizing secular happiness and individualism against the medieval ideas of asceticism,Humanism shifted man’s interest from Christianity to humanity, from religion to philosophy, from beauty and greatness of God to the beauty of human body in all its joys and pains.It waked up the desire of human’s inner thought and facilitate them to fully play their own ability.Besides,it liberated people from social hierarchy then made the foundation of following bourgeois revolution.Humanism offered asubstantial basis of revolution against the feudal rule and became the guiding ideology of the development of capitalism.What’s more,Humanism helped to civilize man, to make him realize his potential powers and gifts. It contributed a great deal to the progress of human society. It represented the new ideas of the rising bourgeoisie. Thomas More, Marlowe and Shakespeare are the best representatives of the English humanists. The humanistic ideas and belief permeated the literature of this period.In addition,it promoted the appear of the modern natural science and Social Science.But every coin has two sides,the negative influence and limitations of the humanism couldn’t be overlooked.The humanism emphasized too much on the individuals, which may be easy to cultivate the subjectivity and extreme individualism.The extreme individualism had done harm to the social justice because the bourgeois class chase their own wealth too much.In the long run,the individualism lead to the colonialism such as “be crazy for gold”and the opening of new sea routes.This idea even arouse the Mammonism which is bad for the social atmosphere.The Humanism has a profound influence on the human civilization.It not only influence the political and cultural area but also pour a fresh blood to modern fashion. As we can see,what is the most fashionable must be the things of their own personality. We all admire the singer or painter who has their individual feature.But we shoudn’t transform thisidea to extreme individualism or selfishness. So,what we should do is to draw the advantages and avoid disadvantages of it.We’d better to seek our own desire bravely and meanwhile obey the principle of social justice.Only in this way can we highlight the civilization and mine our potential to continuously create new things.。
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从宙斯到朱庇特
——由希腊神话与罗马神话看罗马文明的兴衰
（为什么古希腊人口中的宙斯，变成了古罗马人的朱庇特？为什么酒神狄奥尼索斯，到了罗马就变成了巴克斯？）
古希腊文明和古罗马文明是欧洲文明的发源地，是西方文明的摇篮。
作为先后称霸地中海乃至亚非欧三洲的强大文明，古希腊文明与古罗马文明有着千丝万缕的联系。
对于这两大文明的研究直到今天也没有停止，今天我想从一个简单的方面来说说我对这段历史的理解。
首先，对古希腊与古罗马的历史简单介绍一下。
据资料记载，古希腊的历史，最早可以上溯到爱琴文化时期（约公元前3000年—约公元前1100年），但它最繁荣的时期是公元前5世纪至公元前4世纪中期，史称“古典时期”。
公元前146年，古希腊被罗马所灭亡。
古罗马的历史可以追溯到公元前8世纪—公元前6世纪的“伊达拉里亚时期”。
以后经历了“共和时期”（公元前509年—公元前30年）、“帝国时期”（公元前27年—公元476年），以“帝国时期”最为强盛。
两大文明在时间上几乎是承前启后，而在关系上两者却又因果纠缠。
诗人贺维斯曾说：“希腊人成了罗马人的俘虏,希腊文化俘虏了罗马人。
”古罗马人用武力击败希腊人一跃成为地中海霸主，然而古罗马的文化却几乎是完全传承与古希腊。
这一点无论是建筑、雕塑、哲学，都能看出端倪。
大部分文化成就，古罗马都是照搬古希腊人的。
这种文化上的照搬使罗马成为当时世界上最强大的国家之一，然而也使古罗马文明走向灭亡。
而我想从神话传说方面来对问题进行探讨。
古希腊文化中最为主要的部分就是对于神祗的崇拜，神话叙事几乎在每部希
腊文学中都扮演了重要的角色，甚至形成了成系统的一套《神谱》（赫西俄德著）。
而以武力著称的罗马文明远远没有如此系统和繁荣的神话体系，所以在征服了希腊地区后，罗马人便将希腊神话纳入了自己的文化体系。
于是，希腊神话中的神王宙斯，在罗马文化中便成为了朱庇特；天后赫拉便成了朱诺、海神波塞冬成了尼普顿、酒神狄奥尼索斯变成了巴克斯……
这种罗马文明对希腊文明的剽窃绝不仅仅是巧合，我们可以从很多方面来看待这种现象。
我的目标就是从希腊罗马神话的传承中看待古罗马的兴衰。
首先，希腊神话主要包括神的故事和英雄传说两部分。
在希腊神话中，神是一切力量的象征。
众神之主宙斯掌管雷电，海神波塞冬控制着海洋，冥王哈迪斯主宰死亡。
而人间的英雄更是力量无穷，甚至被称为半神，他们的故事在《荷马史诗》有着详尽的描述。
古希腊人在神话中对于英雄主义的追崇已经到了极致。
罗马文明崇尚文治武功，所以希腊神话中的英雄主义精神对于罗马的兴起影响十分巨大。
其次，罗马作为一个迅速崛起的文明，他的文明发展程度是远不及希腊的。
罗马共和初期还不知道什么是文明，曾向希腊学习政治，经济，军事等各方面，并融合自己的特点建立国家。
这种后进式的文明发展模式造成的就是罗马文化的实用主义与功利主义。
同样的，罗马神话不同于希腊神话追求美与文学性。
罗马神话直到很晚才有了近乎完整的体系。
这种忽视文化建设的态度使罗马文明逐渐走向衰落。
所以，从希腊神话与罗马神话的异同中，我们就能看出罗马民族的精神思想。
因为古希腊与古罗马的社会现状不一，所以其心态上和品格上有所差异。
希腊文化活泼、奔放、崇尚智慧、爱好自由和理想主义，但又有点多情、散漫和不切实
际；而罗马文化严肃、质朴、勇敢、虔敬、爱国。
但又有些固执、粗暴、缺乏想象力。
前者崇尚的是乐感文化，长于创造性的理论思考，而后者则忙于文治武功的实践。
所谓上层建筑决定其社会的思想潮流，这种差异也导致了希腊文明与罗马文明的不同结局：长于创造的希腊人无法抵挡罗马军队的入侵，而长于武力的罗马人最终陷入了文化的禁锢之中。
罗马神话的体系是随着罗马对周围地区的占领，逐渐吸收附近文明的神形成的。
罗马人对被占领地区的神与对罗马本国的神同样尊敬。
这种文化的多元化在今天看来是有利于文明发展的。
但在当时，这种现象对于罗马帝国的崩溃是有着很大影响的。
罗马文明依靠战争征服了大量国家，它更像是一个军队化的组织而不是一个可以长久发展的国家。
所以在建国后罗马才会不断吸收各个文明的经验来发展自己的国家。
然而这种文化引进造成的文化分裂是及其致命的。
罗马没有自己独特的文化，而以吸收希腊文化形成的体系对于罗马民族而言有着极大的局限性。
例如，罗马帝国一直存在着两种官方语言,即希腊语和拉丁语，希腊以及近东地区一直没有被罗马化,这间接导致了后期帝国的分裂。
综上所述，罗马兴起是由于引进了希腊文化，大大得丰富了自身残缺的文化体系，而罗马帝国的衰落亦是由于引进了希腊文化，没有一种制度可以长久得实行下去，文明想要持久的发展，最重要的是与时俱进。
不断地改进自身，有了自己本身独特的文化，这样才不会一步一步走向僵化。
古罗马文明起源时，古希腊的文明就像是一堵已经建造好了的围墙，它坚固、高大、雄伟，古罗马人占领了这座围墙，在墙中发展出了更加灿烂的文化。
然而随着文明的发展，这堵墙已经限制了罗马文明，将其禁锢在围墙内，最终崩溃。