现代外语教学笔记
现代西班牙语第十一课课堂笔记
第十一课一、陈述式过去完成时（一）变位（二）用法过去完成时是一个相对的时态，表示在另一个过去的动作之前或过去的某一时间之前已经完成的动作。
Me dijo que su padre había salido.Cuando llegué José se había marchado.Encontré el libro que había dejado en la biblioteca.Ayer ya habían cenado a las seis.过去完成时的动作和另一个过去时的关系，类似现在完成时和现在时的关系。
Me pregunta si se han marchado los alumnos.M e preguntó si se habían marchado los alumnos.（三）直接引语和间接引语直接引语变间接引语的时态变化1．主句动词如果是陈述式简单过去时或过去未完成时，直接引语中的动词是陈述式现在完成时或简单过去时，变成间接引语时，要用陈述式过去完成时。
Me dijo (decía): “ Ana ha salido.”Me dijo (decía) que Ana había salido.Me dijo (decía): “ Ana llegó ayer.”Me d ijo (decía) que Ana había llegado el día anterior.2．主句动词如果是陈述式现在时、现在完成时或将来未完成时，直接引语中的动词是陈述式现在完成时或简单过去时，变成间接引语时，时态不变。
Te digo (he dicho, diré): “ No ha venido (vino) nadie.”Te digo (he dicho, diré) que no ha venido (vino) nadie.练习：把原形动词变位成适当的人称和时态。
读《现代外语教学：理论、实践与方法》札记
读《现代外语教学：理论、实践与方法》札记近期重温了《现代外语教学：理论、实践与方法》，有了新的感悟，也获得了更多的教育教学实践的经验和体会，受益匪浅。
该书在吸取当代西方外语教学理论研究成果的基础上，结合我国的外语教学实际，对影响外语教学的各种重要因素进行了较为详细的分析和讨论。
同时，对外语教学所涉及的实践和方法等方面的问题也进行了深入而广泛的介绍和探讨。
下面是笔者在阅读这本书的过程中所做的阅读笔记以及各个章节给我的一些感悟和启示。
绪论——呼唤具有中国特色的外语教学理论的指导书籍的封面简介概述了本书的主要思路：在吸取当代西方外语教学理论研究成果的基础上，结合我国的外语教学实际，对影响外语教与学的各种重要因素进行了较为详细的分析和讨论。
同时，对外语教学所涉及的实践和方法等方面的问题也进行了深入而广泛的介绍和探讨。
参加工作以来,也积累了较为丰富的教学经验，但是读过这本书后发现自己在外语教学理论研究方面还是不够，视野不够开阔，教学实践水平的发挥和教学质量的提高受到了很大影响。
绪论中提出中国的外语教学实践更需要自己的教学理论的指导。
外国的东西再好，毕竟不是从我们的实际出发，不适合我们的国情，因此不能直接应用。
不同语言背景和文化背景中的外语教学必须要有自己的外语教学理论。
教学中，我发现由于中西文化背景的不同带来的困惑和错误比比皆是，如在表示问候、告别以及表达个人愿望、拒绝、接受、感谢、谦虚等时的规则都有差异，这就要求我们把国外相关理论结合教学实践，灵活运用。
另外，我们学生学习外语的目的性过强，即考试，也就意味着除考试之外的日常应用，学生的积极性和兴趣都很低，口语表达能力弱。
因此，这也就要求教师课堂教学的目的不局限于为了培养学生的应试技巧，而要注重培养他们自主学习的能力、良好学习习惯及最基本的交际能力。
第一章当代外语教学理论研究中的几个重要发展趋势书的第一章探讨的是当代外语教学理论研究中的几个重要发展趋势，分为五节，给我感悟颇多。
外语教学法复习笔记
外语教学法复习笔记第一章总论The Nature of FLTM外语教学法的性质FLTM is a science which studies the processes and pattern of foreign language teaching ,aiming at revealing the nature and laws of foreign language teaching .that is to say ,it examines the practices and procedures in foreign language teaching; studies approaches ,methods and techniques; and also studies principles and belief that underlie them. In short ,FLTM is an inter-disciplinary science and it makes uses of theories of different subiects.学科性质It includes a lot of disciplines such as linguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Therefore, we say that FLTM is an inter- disciplinary science and it makes use of many subjects.语言研究的历史we are quite certain that ,according to the records available ,language study is at least more than 2500 years old.The goal of foreign language teaching—is to help the learner master the target language in the shortest possible time. What do we mean by mastering the target language? —We mean that the learner is able to have successful communications with others in the target language.Theories of Linguistics语言学理论⑴Traditional linguistics: 传统语言学the traditional linguistics we mean the traditional study of language in ancient Greece. it has a tradition of more than 2000years. In the fifth century B.C. the ancient Greeks began to make a serious study of language in the realm of philosophy.古希腊的两个著名论战：one was between the naturalists and the conventionalists on the relations between form and meaning.The naturalists argued that the forms of words reflected directly the nature of objects while the conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words.The other was between the analogists and anomalists on the regularizes of language.—the analogists thought that language in general was regular and there were rules for people to follow while the anomalists thought that language was basically irregular and that was why there were so many exception and irregularities in the Greek language.Natural of traditional linguistics传统语言学的特征：Trditional linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to understand the classic words of ancient times and to teach students. They gave priority to the written form and used words as their starting point. They often took a prescriptive approach when they discussed rules of language.⑵American structuralism 美国结构主义It started at the beginning of the 20th century in America. It became popular and influential in the 1930s and 40s through the world. The two forerunners of structuralism— Franz Boas and Edward Sapir. Franz Boas found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structures of those languages. Sapir found that although Indians’ languages had no writte n forms, they were very systematic and were very efficient in communications within their communities. The father of American structuralism —Leonard Bloomfield. He accepted the theories and principles of behaviourism. He characterized language and language acquisition in terms of behaviourist terminology. He thought language was a habit of verbal behaviour which consisted of a series of stimuli and responses. He argued that to acquire a language was to form a habit of verbal behaviour and learning a second language was learning a new habit. He thought that speech was primary and writing was secondary.⑶Transformational generative linguistics 转换生成论The transformational generative linguistics was first put forward by Noam Chomsky in 1957. He wrote a book Syntactic Structures to spread his theory. His main points---Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device(LAD). This LAD is made up of general principles called universal grammar. Once the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. The child will use and test the principles again and again until his hypothesis agree with the actual grammar of the language. Chomsky has also made the distinction between the linguistic competence and linguistic performance. ⑷linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge that at native speaker of that language processes. Linguistic performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speakers. Chomsky believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker so as to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences. In order to gain the goal, Chomsky argues that we should use a deductive, hypothesis-testing approach should be used.⑷Functional Linguistics 功能语言学It develops from the London School of linguistics and the precursor of it was Bronislaw Malinowski. Malinowski’s conclusion is that “the meaning of any single word is to a very hign degree dependent on its context.” And an utterances has no meaning at all if it is out of the context of situation. It was Malinowski who created the phrase “context of situation”. J.R.Firth, a linguist, approached the context of situation from a different point of view. He accepted Malinowski’s view and he thought the meaning of linguistic items depends on the context of situation. Firth’s main approach to the notion of function in context was by means of concept system. He believes any linguistic item has got two sets of context: the context of the other possible choices in a system and the context where the system itself occurs. People refer to his theory as system-structure theory. Halliday developed Firth’s theory of systemic linguistics and made progress in the study of context. He thought linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The substance is the material of language which can be phonic or grahic. The form is the organization of the substance into meaningful events. The context is the relation of the form to non-linguistic features of the situations in which the language operates, and the relation of form to linguistic features otherthan those of the item under attention. He also said that language has formal meaning and contextual meaning.theformalmeaning of a linguistic item is its operation in the network of formal relations. The contextual meaning of an item refers to its relation to extra features, i.e. the context. Halliday thought a particular situation type consists of three dimensions: the ongoing social activity, the role relationship involved, and the sysbolic or rhetorical channel. He called these t hree dimensions “field”, “tenor”,and “mode”. He believes that there is a systematic relationship between the context and the text.Theories of Psychology心理学理论The first laboratory of experimental psychology was set up at the University of Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. It announced the official birth of psychology. It was opened by Willhelm Wundt.第一个心理实验室建立⑴Gestalt psychology 格式塔心理学It was founded by a group of German psychologists in the 1920s. Their research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the study of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perception experience. They found that people perceived objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component pars. They used the word Gestalt, which means “ organizedshape ” or “whole form” in English, to name their school of psychology They argued that an object was not the sum of the individual parts. For example, an article is not the sum of individual words that make up the article. So people’s mind should be under stood in terms of a whole.⑵Psychoanalysis心里分析It is theory of the mind put forward by Sigmund Freud. Freud found that many of his patients’ mental problems were caused by some disturbing events in their childhood. But the patients could not remember these disturbing events. The part of the mind which is out of the reach of consciousness was called by Freud the subconscious mind, Which was the most important concept in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind and he was the first to study unconscious mind. Freud believed the contents of the unconscious mind consist of buried memories and instinctive wishes and will influence the activities of the conscious mind. The basic approach of Freud was to analyse the irrational behaviour of the patients, including their dreams and slips of the tongue.⑶Behaviourism 行为主义In 1913, the American psychologist John B. Watson published an article “ Psychology as the Behaviourist Views it ”. The article was regarded as a formal introduc tion to behaviourism. Watson did a lot of experiments with nonhuman animals and animal’s behaviours without any consideration of the animal’s mind. The goal of psychology set out in his articles was to understand the environmental conditions that would cause an animal to behave in a particular way. According to Watson, there was no fundamental difference between human behaviour and that of other animals. Watson’s ideas were accepted by many psychologists. The dominant position of behaviourism was maintained until the mid-1960s.The leader of behaviourism was Skinner.He developed a new kind of apparatus for studying learning in animals and a new way of describing the learning process. Watson’s theory is called classic behaviourism while Skinner’s theory is called neo-behaviourism. The early behaviourists focused the attention on the topic of learning and they tried to characterize learning in terms of stimuli and response. Stimuli are observable events in the world that affect behaviour and responses are observable behavioural acts. Skinner argued that learning process could be divided into two kinds: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning a stimulus that did not elicit a response comes to elicit a response. By operant conditioning the occurrence of a response will bedetermined by the consequences of the response. For example, we look up a word in a dictionary because we can find out the meaning of the word in it.⑷Cognitive psychology认知理论The term cognition means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. The most important factor that has made cognitive psychology the dominant approach is the development of the computer technology. The brain works in a similar way to process information. The brain receives information through senses, processes it and sends it out as behaviour actions.The American linguist Noam Chomsky greatly influenced cognitive psychology. In his book Syntax Structure (1957) Chomsky argued that language should be viewed as a system of mental rules which are wired into the brain as a result of evolution. Cognitive psychologists maintain that all the relationship among stimuli, responses and consequences are learned and are integrated into the animal’s knowledge.There are two principal types of cognitive structures—schemas and concepts. Schemas refer to sets of rules that define particular categories of behaviour. Concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relation with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two process —assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the process by which new item are added to a concept or schema. Accommodation refers to the process by which the existing concept or schema is changed on the basis of new information.Theories of Second Language Acquisition二语获得论⑴The habit formation theory It comes from the behaviourist psychology and was very popular in the 1950s and 60s. According to behaviourists, learning a second language means the formation of a set of linguistics habits. Imitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit-formation. According to the habit-formation theory, the old habit—mother tongue of the learner will either facilitate or get in the way of the second language learning. Negative transfer means the learner transfers the ways of expression in the mother tongue to the target language. They will cause errors.⑵The hypothesis of linguistic universals 语言共性说It believed that there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all the natural languages in the world. The hypothesis of linguistic universals is born of the study of linguistic universals. Core grammar and peripheral grammar: Chomsky divides the grammar of a natural language into core grammar and peripheral grammar. According to him, human beings are born with a language acquisition device which consists of a set of general principles. The core grammar of a natural language agrees with the inborn set of general principles while the peripheral grammar can not be governed by the language acquisition device. The core grammar agrees with the inborn general principles and is much easier to learn.⑶The acculturation theory 文化认同说The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture. It involves social and psychological adaptations. The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition. Factors which determine the degree of acculturation success: The social and psychological distance play a decisive role in acculturation success. Negative psychological factors that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries.⑷The discourse theory 话语交际说It was put forward by Hatch in the late 1970s. It was developed from Halliday’s theory of first language acquisition. The theory believes there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of second language acquisition — only through communication discourses.⑸The monitor theory 监控理论It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have to ways of developing their competence — acquisition and learning. The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency. Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language. ②The monitor hypothesis Different functions—According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for thefluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages. Three conditions —In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language. ③The natural order hypothesis Same order — The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language. Speed —In Krashen’s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition. It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition. ④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition— According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input. They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input. ⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose —It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group. The three affective factors which determines the speed of success —motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Influence of the three factors —learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure. That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.⑹The cognitive hypothesis 认知假说①Cognitive psychologists regard learning as a cognitive process because they think it involves internal presentations which offer regulation and guidance for performance. ②Notions —In the cognitive theory, automaticity and restructuring are the most important notions because learners have to select appropriate vocabulary, grammatical rules and conventions governing language use. ③Modes —Cognitive psychologists think the process of language communication is a kind of information processing. When processing information, people use two ways which are called automatic and controlled modes. Teaching and practice will help the learner to acquire the automatic processing capacity. ④Different stages —The cognitive theory holds that language learning at the beginning stage involves more of the process of automaticity while at the advanced stage it involves more of the process of restructuring.A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching(外语教学的简要历史)⑴The Reform Movement(1882-1906)Grammar-Translation Method —It was the first method used at the end of the 18th century. The principal aim was to help learners to acquire a readingknowledge of the target language. This method did not pay attention to the importance of speech. The primary of speech — In 1882, Victor published a pamphlet entitled Language Teaching Must Start A Fresh Which started the reform movement. The principles of the movement were the primacy of speech and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom.⑵Modern language teaching and research (1906-1940) During this period, the teaching of English as a second /foreign language because a profession. There appeared a number of world-famous scholars and books. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral Method in his teaching.⑶Structural language teaching (1940-1970) In this period, structural language teaching was used as the main method and its theoretical basis was American structuralism and behaviourism. During the Second World War, American structuralists created a new method, called Audiolingugual Method, In the 1950s, a new method called Transformational Generative Linguistics was born. It criticized the Audilingual Method.⑷Communicative language teaching (1970- ) At the end of 1950s, Chomsky’s transformational generative linguistics started a revolution. And then the end of 1960s, cognitive psychology came into being. They caused the appearance of a new teaching method. ①Communicative language teaching This is probably the main trend dominating the language teaching profession today. ②New theories of second language acquisition Influenced by Chomsky’s hypothesis of language acquisition device(LAD) and the cognitive psychology, many new theories of second language acquisition were introduced in the 1970s. ③New methods of language teaching Communicative language teaching is the main trend in this period. But there are some other methods which are also tried. ④New approach to language syllabus While some applied linguists were trying to find the best way to teach languages, some other applied linguists began to design the notional syllabus. ⑤Exploration of the human relations People have realized that relations between teachers and students, and relations among the students themselves are very important in language teaching. They try to find the better relations among them.1-What are the function and result of the two controversies in ancient Greece? 古希腊两个著名论争的功能和结果？One controversy was between the naturalists and the conventionalists. The naturalists argued that the form of words reflected the nature of objects. The conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words. The othercontroversy was between the analogiata and the anomalists on the regularities of language. The analogists claimed language was regular and there were rules for people to follow. The anomalists maintained there were no rules . Their debate roused people’s interest in language and led them to the detailed study of Greek. The direct result was the appearance of a book of Greek grammar.2 What are the main features of traditional linguistics?传统语言学的主要特征Traditional Linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to read classic works. Traditional linguists believed that the written form of language was superior to spoken form. They tried to set up principles and standards for people to use language correctly.3-What are the contributions made by Franz Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield to the development of American structuralism? 这些人对美国结构主义发展的贡献Franz Boas and Edward Sapir were forerunners of American structuralism. Boas studied the American Indians’ languages and found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structure of those languages. He had to describe those language as they were used. This started American structuralism. Leonard Bloomfield accepted the theories and principles of Franz Boas. He argued that linguists should describe instead of prescribing what people say and should take an inductive approach in analyzing data. In 1933, he published the book Language.It soon became the bible of American structuralism.4-What is the influence of behaviourism over American structuralism? 行为主义对美国结构主义的影响In 1933, the American psychologist John Watson published an article entitled Psychology as Behaviourist Views It . This was the formal introduction behaviourism. Watson believed we had no direct way to observe the animal’s mind. We could only observe the animal’s behaviour and the external environmental conditions. Behaviourists studied the relation between stimuli and responses. They divided learning process into two kinds. One kind is now called classic conditioning. The other is called operant conditioning. Behaviourism helped the development of structuralism.5-- What is Chomsky’s explanation of the first language acquisition process? 乔姆斯基对母语获得的解释Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is made up of a set of general principles called universal grammar. When the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. Children’s language acquisition processcompletes when the universal grammar is successfully transformed into the grammar of a particular language.6-What is the difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance? 语言能力和语言应用的不同Linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge of the language that a native speaker of that language possesses. Linguistic performance refers to the actural utterance produced by the native speakers.7-How does transformational generative linguistics differ in research methods?在研究方法上转换生成语言学有什么不同？Transformational generative linguistics opposes the structuralist method of taking linguistic performance as the goal. It also attacks the inductive approach. It believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker and try to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences.8--What is the main feature of functional linguistics?功能语言学的特征Functional linguistics, founded by Malinowski and developed by Firth, believ es “the meaning of any single word is to a high degree dependent on its context” It introduced the phrase “context of situation”. The theory is based on the notion of function in context. Its point of view is that linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The theory also divides a particular situation type into three dimensions.9--What is the basic theory of Gestalt psychology? 格式塔心理学的主要理论Gestalt psychology appeared in the 1920s. Its research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the exploration of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perceptional experience. It claimed that people received objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component parts. The word Gestalt means “organized shape” or “whole form ” in English.10--What is the basic theory of psychoanalysis? 心里分析的主要理论The basic theory of psychoanalysis is put forward by Freud. The theory divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind is only a very small part of the whole mind while the rest remains unconscious. Psychoanalysis aims to analyse the irrational behavour of patients.11--What are the principles of behaviourism? 行为主义的原则The principles of behaviourism are as follow: Psychologists should study what could be observed publicly and objectively instead ofconsidering animal’s mental events because these things could not be seen. Behaviourism believes that the study should be focused on learning and the relation between stimuli and responses.12--What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? 经典性和操作性条件反射的区别Classical conditioning means the stimulus that does not elicit a response comes to elicit a response after it is paired several times with a stimulus that already elicited a response. Operant conditioning means the occurrence of a response will be determined by the consequence of the response.13-- What are the three factors that have helped to set up the cognitive psychology? 认知心理学发展的三个前提条件The three factors are the development of computer technology, Jean Piaget’s research work on the reasoning abilities of children, and the work of the American linguist Chomsky.14--How does the cognitive psychology explain the acquisition of knowledge? 认知心理学如何解释知识获得The term cognitive means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. As for the acquisition of knowledge, cognitive psychology believes that there are two principal types of cognitive structures which are called schemas and concepts. The schemas refer to sets of rules that define categories of behaviour and concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relations with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two processes — assimilation and accommodation.15--How does the habit-formation theory explain the second language acquisition process?习惯养成论如何解释二语获得过程Habit-formation theory was put forward by a group of behaviorists. According to their theory, learning a second language means the formation of a new set of linguistic habits. Imitation and practice play n important role in the process of habit-formation. Imitation will help learners identify the association between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the association and help learners to form the new linguistic habit.16--how does the hypothesis of linguistic universals explain the second language acquisition process? 语言共性说The hypothesis says there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all natural languages into core grammar and peripheral grammar. Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). The second language learners usually acquire the core grammarof the target language and then the peripheral grammar. The core grammar of the learner’s mother tongue will help the learners to learn the target language.17--How does the acculturation theory explain the second language acquisition? 文化传递说Acculturation means individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge and behavior in order to do well in another culture. It believes that second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition.18--How does the discourse theory explain the second language acquisition process? 话语情境说The discourse theory argues that there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of the second language acquisition –only through communication discourse can the learner acquire the second language.19---What are the five hypothesis of the monitor theory? They are the acquisition –learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis.20--How does the cognitive theory explain the second language acquisition process? The cognitive theory claims that second language learning should be regarded as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. The process of second language acquisition is a process in which the internal representations are being restructured constantly. The acquisition involves two process- automaticity and restructuring. Language learning at the beginning stage involves none of the process of restructuring.21-What are the principles and consequences of the Reform Movement? The principles of the Reform Movement were the primacy of speech, the centrality of the connected text as the kernel of the language teaching process, and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom. The consequences were great. Many people took part in the reform and movement. A lot of book were published. An applied linguistic approach to language teaching began to take shape.22--What’s the contribution made by Daniel Jones and Harold Palmer to the development of Daniel Jones teaching? Daniel Jones was the first one that helped to make a profession the teaching of English as a second /foreign language. And he did a lot of research on the profession of foreign language teaching. He wrote a number of books from his research. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral。
现代外语教学笔记
现代外语教学
一．教学理论和实践的关系
我们所说的理论指导实践，实际上不一定是直接的，并不是要求老师将别人的理论直接拿到课堂上去应用，而是说，教师应该有相当的理论意识，应该始终关注外语教学理论的发展，应该不断吸取相关理论的合理成分，在相关理论的启发下，或在借鉴他人理论的合理成分的基础上，结合所教的学生的特点，结合学校的教学条件，探索符合本人、本校和所教学生实际的教学方法。
二．理想的外语教师符合的要求
1.优秀的人品
2.扎实的外语基本功
3.良好的研究能力
4.广播的知识
5.较强的课堂组织能力以及沟通能力
6.敬业精神
三．对学习主体研究的内容（外语教学理论研究的重点发生转移）
1.学习者个人差异的研究：生理因素、认知因素、情感因素。
2.学习过程的研究。
对原有知识的研究；对学习策略的研究。
四．自主学习者
自主学习既是一种学习态度，又是一种独立的学习能力。
（Dickinson）态度就是一种对自己的学习做出决策的责任；能力就是对学习过程的决策和反思。
自主性包括这样两个特征：一是，学习者应该对自己的学习复杂；二是，学习者有权利决定那些传统上由老师决定的事项。
五．宏观策略框架——kumaravadivelu
使学习机会最大化
促进协商交流
使教师意图和学生理解之间的差距最小化
激活直觉启发式教学培养语言敏感度
把语言知识放在语篇中传授
综合各项语言技能
提高学习者自主性
增强文化意识
与社会问题接轨。
六．
第一层：本体论层次
第二层：实践论层次第三层：方法论层次。
现代西班牙语第七课课堂笔记
第七课陈述式简单过去时（一）变位trabajé, trabajaste, trabajó, trabajamos, trabajasteis, trabajaron comer:comí, comiste, comió, comimos, comisteis, comieronvivir:viví, viviste, vivió, vivimos, vivisteis, vivieron* 简单过去时的单数第一人称和第三人称变位的最后一个音节带重音符号。
* 部分不规则动词的简单过去时的变位需要有正字法变化的动词变位a. 以–car和–gar 结尾的动词，在元音e 的前面分别将c改为qu，g改为gu.tocar: toqué, tocaste, tocó, tocamos, tocasteis, tocaronpagar: pagué, pagaste, pagó, pagamos, pagasteis, pagaronb. 以–guar结尾的动词，在元音e的前面必须在u上加分音符号“¨”. averiguar: averigüé, averiguaste, averiguó, averiguamos, averiguasteis, averiguaronc. 以–zar 结尾的动词，z 元音e的前面时改为c.empezar: empecé, empezaste, empezó, empezamos, empezasteis, empezaron.有共同不规则变化的动词pedir: pedí, pediste, pidió, pedimos, pedisteis, pidieronelegir: elegí, elegiste, eligió, elegimos, elegisteis, eligieron seguir: seguí, seguiste, siguió, seguimos, seguisteis, siguieronreir: reí, reíste, rió, reímos, reísteis, rieronsentir: sentí, sentiste, sintió, sentimos, sentisteis, sintieronhuir: huí, huíste, huyó, huímos, huísteis, huyerondormir: dormí, dormiste, durmió, dormimos, dormisteis, durmieron有特殊不规则变化的动词decir: dije, dijiste, dijo, dijimos, dijisteis, dijeronvenir: vine, viniste, vino, vinimos, vinisteis, vinieronestar: estuve, estuviste, estuvo, estuvimos, estuvisteis, estuvieron haber: hube, hubiste, hubo, hubimos, hubisteis, hubieronhacer: hice, hiciste, hizo, hicimos, hicisteis, hicieronoir: oí, oíste, oyó, oímos, oísteis, oyeronpoder: pude, pudiste, pudo, pudimos, pudisteis, pudieronponer: puse, pusiste, puso, pusimos, pusisteis, pusieronquerer: quise, quisiste, quiso, quisimos, quisisteis, quisieron saber: supe, supiste, supo, supimos, supisteis, supierontener: tuve, tuviste, tuvo, tuvimos, tuvisteis, tuvierontraeer: traje, trajiste, trajo, trajimos, trajisteis, trajeronser / ir: fui, fuiste, fue, fuimos, fuisteis, fuerondar: di, diste, dio, dimos, disteis, dieronver: vi, viste, vio, vimos, visteis, vieron（二）简单过去时的用法* 表示过去曾经发生，并且已经结束的动作。
现代外语教学_复习笔记
现代外语教学绪论（一）我国外语教学存在的问题1、外语理论研究薄弱（最大问题也是根本原因之一）（1）缺乏专业研究队伍（2）缺乏系统的研究和对重大宏观问题的研究（3）理论研究和教学实际脱节（4）教师理论意识淡薄2、师资力量不高3、教学资源匮乏4、教学理念落后5、应试倾向明显6、权钱干扰严重（二）外语教学研究的主要内容和范围（三方面的研究）“本体论”——研究事物的本来面目，为基础研究“实践论”——研究具体实施某一计划的步骤、原则和方法“方法论”——研究达到某一目标的最佳途径中国人学外语的规律：前脑的布罗卡区位臵不同；讲中文的人语言功能区位臵要高些，更接近大脑运动功能区。
既然中文语言功能区与运动区紧密相连，那么中文要多看多写多说，靠运动来记，而学英文则注重环境，重多听多说，因为英文的语言功能区更靠近听力区。
（三）外语教学研究的若干重要课题1、本体论研究语言学理论研究、对语言学习的研究、中国人学习英语的其他影响因素2、实践论研究需求分析、课程设计、课堂教学、过程评估3、方法论研究教学方法和教学目标的关系3、教师发展研究外语教学质量的高低取决于师资力量的高低理想的外语教师——09年简答（1）优秀的人品（2）扎实的外语基本功（3）良好的研究能力（4）广博的知识（5）较强的课堂组织能力和沟通能力（6）敬业精神第一章当代外语教学理论研究中的几个重要发展趋势第一节从研究如何教到研究如何学原因：（1）越来越重视和强调“以学习者为中心”的教学理念（2）许多教学方法不能达到预期目的，必须研究学习主体（3）越来越意识到学习者之间的各种差异（4）学习者在语言学习过程中的积极主动作用得到证实对学习主体的研究包括：1、学习者个人差异的研究；2、学习过程的研究1、学习者个人差异研究的内容有：年龄、语言潜能、动机、认知风格、性格——10年填空2、学习过程的研究：CA→EA→IL研究重点（两方面）(1)原有知识（母语知识、对语言的一般知识、世界知识）的作用——正负迁移(2)学习着策略研究（重点：学习者策略的定义、学习者策略的分类、在外语过程中的作用、影响学习者使用的因素）第二节语言使用研究和学习着语言使用能力的培养现代语言学研究的一个最大特点是由注重语言形式的分析到注重语言功能的分析，或者说更加注重使用中的语言的研究，如社会语言学、语言学和话语分析。
现代西班牙语第一册课堂笔记
《现代西班牙语第一册》讲义第一课2008年07月26日星期六00:48 A.M.西班牙语是相对于英语来说更严谨的一种语言，之所以这样说主要体现在如下几个方面：1.所有的名词均分为阴阳性,基本上以o结尾的为阳性，而以a结尾的为阴性，修饰名词的形容词要根据名词来变性。
2.动词需要根据主语的人称来进行相应变化，西班牙语中共有这样六组人称代词：我你他她它您我们你们他们她们它们您们既然代词共有六组，那么相应的动词也同样需要6种变化（西班牙语中称之为动词变位），这在以后的课程中会逐渐讲到3.西语的字母发音相对比较单一，因此，我们可以通过单词字母的组成结构，读出其发音，好了，先讲这么多，下面我们开始看课文．我们首先看题目：¿Quién es él?,看惯了英文，第一眼看上去，会觉得有些奇怪，没错，你说对了，第一个单词前面确实是一个倒过来的问号，这个是我们应该注意的第一点：1.西语的问句中有两个问号，问句前一个倒问号，问句结束后才是一个正问号。
2.不光问句如此，感叹句也是由两个感叹号组成，和问句一样，前面一个倒过来的感叹号，结束时是一个正的感叹号，如：¡Quélástima!3.让大伙看不习惯的还有单词的小尾巴´,这个是西语中的重音符号．相信大家已经背过了单词，那么下面我们来看第一部分：1.Él es Paco,Paco es cubano.这个句子是个典型的主谓结构，不难理解，但这里面有我们需要掌握的东西，那就是这里面已经体现出上面所谈的西语名词的性了。
通过词汇表我们知道cubano这个词是阳性的，那比如我们要说Maria是古巴人怎么说呢，Maria es cubano,这个句子是不对的，因为Maria是女孩名字，那么自然是阴性了，所以cubano这个词要相应的变性，把最后的o变成a，所以正确的句子应该是Maria es cubana.记住了，要变性！2.Él es Pepe,Pepe es chileno.这个句子和上面的句子构成模式完全一样，那如果现在要你说：Ana 是智利人，你会说吗？没错，当主语为Ana时，相应的名词chileno需要变性，把最后的o变成a，那么这句话应该是：Ana es chilena.3.第三句需要我们注意一下，因为它出现了se llama这个结构，词汇表解释为：它，他，她，您叫....，那根据这个我们不难翻译这句话：Ella se llama Ana.她叫安娜。
现代西班牙语第三课笔记
第三课指量数词1．基数词：0 cero 10 diez 20 veinte 30 treinta1 uno 11 once 21 veintiuno 40 cuarenta2 dos 12 doce 22 veintidós50 cincuenta3 tres 13 trece 23 veintitrés60 sesenta4 cuatro 14 catorce 24 veinticuatro 70 setenta5 cinco 15 quince 25 veinticinco 80 ochenta6 seis 16 dieciséis26 veintiséis90 noventa7 siete 17 diecisiete 27 veintisiete8 ocho 18 dieciocho 28 veintiocho9 nueve 19 diecinueve 29 veintinueve100 ciento 200 doscientos 300 trescientos400 cuatrocientos 500 quinientos 600 seiscientos700 setecientos 800 ochocientos 900 novecientos1000 mil 1.000.000 un millón* 基数词除了uno, ciento, doscientos ... novecientos, millón 外，无性数变化。
* uno的阴性形式是una，分别修饰阳性和阴性单数名词。
uno在阳性名词前时，省去词尾o。
如：un profesor 一位男老师, una profesora 一位女老师当数字的个位为“一”时，词尾要根据数词修饰的名词的性来进行相应变化，如：veintiún kilos 二十一公斤， treinta y una toneladas 三十一吨* ciento在名词前，省去词尾的to, 如：cien plumas 一百支钢笔， cien cuadernos 一百个练习本，cien mil euros 十万欧元* doscientos... novecientos有性的变化，如：cuatrocientas alumnas四百名女学生， seiscientos alumnos六百名学生，la página mil doscientas 第一千二百页如果名词之前有mil，也需要变化词尾。
现代西班牙语第二课课堂笔记
现代西班牙语第二课课堂笔记物主形容词物主形容词可以表示所属关系。
* 非重读物主形容词置于名词之前，与其保持数的一致，不加冠词。
mi libro. 我的书（阳性单数）mis amigos 我的朋友们（阳性复数）sus plumas 他（她）的（几支）钢笔（阴性复数）nuestra sala de clase 我们的教室（阴性单数）nuestros amigos 我们的朋友们（阳性复数）* 非重读物主形容词不重读* 用前置词de来表示物主的情况el libro de Pedro 彼得罗的书los amigos de Juan 胡安的朋友el diccionario de usted 您的字典* 对物主提问的句式¿De quién es el libro? Es de Rosa.¿De quién es la pluma? Es de Pedro.非重读物主形容词练习我的课桌mi pupitre 你的椅子tu silla他的书su libro 她的杯子su vaso你的自行车tu bicicleta 我们的大学nuestra universidad 你们的食堂vuestro comedor 他们的工厂su fábrica她们的房间su cuarto 我的父母mis padres你的兄弟姐妹tus hermanos 您的子女sus hijos他的朋友们sus amigos 她的同学们sus compañeros我们的练习本nuestros cuadernos 你们的钢笔vuestras plumas他们的铅笔sus lápices孩子们的学校la escuela de los niños学院的医务室la clínica del instituto老师的办公室la oficina de los profesores（前置词de 和a在和阳性单数定冠词连用时，使用缩合形式del和al）* 与带冠词的名词连用。
英语教学法教程手稿重点笔记
英语教学法教程手稿重点笔记第一篇：英语教学法教程手稿重点笔记第三章、外语教学法的主要流派（八种）1.语法--翻译法A.从19世纪开始用于教学现代语言B.把目标语（外语）看成是一个规则系统，能在文本域句子中了解到，并与母语规则和意义有联系。
C.主要课堂教学活动：对整篇课文大意的译述，吧课文逐句从外语译成母语的活动，对课文中语法规则作演绎式的讲解，以及直接阅读课文以加深对课文的理解等活动。
E.重视词汇与语法的学习，强调阅读与写作能力的培养。
重视语言准确性的培养。
F.选材：外语的文学原著或简写本或改写本G.教师是课堂教学的权威，重视的传授者和课堂教学的组织者。
H.母语是教学语言，外语的意思是靠译成母语来理解。
2.直接法A.在19世纪末创立B.只使用目标语进行教学；意义通过语言、动作、物体等手段结合情景来表达；先教说，再教读与写；用归纳法讲授语法。
C.主要课堂教学活动：全外语教学--模仿、朗读和问答式主要的教学活动形式--作答均以完整的句子说出问句或答句。
E.培养学生使用外语进行交际的能力。
初级阶段重点在口语能力的培养F.选材：日常用语，以情景或某一话题为基础G.教师与学生是搭档关系，学生间可以进行对话并讨论问题H.全外语式教学，不在外语课堂上使用母语3.情景法（口语情景法）A.在20世纪30年代至60年代，英国应用语言学家创立（帕尔默&霍恩比）B.语言观是英国的结构主义，口语是语言的基础，结构式讲话能力的核心，应用情景中通过口头练习来学习语言结构。
（帕尔默&霍恩比）接受语言输入--重复操练记住--在实际练习中使之变成个人技能。
（帕尔默）C.主要课堂教学活动：《新概念英语》提出情景--学习语言--听说领会--反复操练--书面练习--巩固结构E.培养学生听说读写的能力，口语是第一性的，是笔头语的基础，重视语音语法的准确性。
F.教师是语言楷模，课堂活动的设计者与指挥官，学生是模仿者G.英语是教学语言4.听说法A.在第二次世界大战期间由美国语言学家建立B.在语言学理论方面是以结构主义作为其理论的基础，以行为主义的学习理论作为依据语言技能的获得通过刺激--反应--强化的过程。
《现代外语教学》束定芳重点笔记
新版绪论中国的外语教学实践需要自己的教学理论指导：首先，语言教学对象不同。
主要：母语背景和母语文化背景，母语的特殊语言结构特点和母语文化背景对中介语的形成具有重大的影响。
第二，语言教学的环境不同。
母语使用的环境、师资、教学方法的不同对目标语输入的数量和质量产生巨大的影响。
第三，国人学外语的目的与他国学习者不同。
第四，中国“官本位”的文化中，只有建立在调查和实践基础上的外语教学理论才有说服力和生命力，才可能在一定程度上抵消“长官意志”对外语教学决策带来的负面影响，使教学实践运行在正确的轨道上。
我国外语教学存在的问题：1.理论研究落后①缺乏专业的研究队伍②缺乏系统的研究和对重大、宏观问题的研究，如师资培养理论、课程设计理论、教材编写理论③理论研究与教学实际脱节。
论文是为了发表，为了评估④教师理论意识淡薄。
没精力关注；理论太理想化2.师资质量不高3.教学资源匮乏4.教学理念落后5.应试倾向明显6.权钱干扰严重。
“长官”说了算，“形象工程”第一章外语教学理论研究的发展趋势第一节从研究如何教到研究如何学传统外语教学重点：如何教。
更关心教材编写、教学法设计等。
随着第二语言习得的发展，人们发现必须重新认识外语习得的本质及相关因素。
研究重点转移的原因还有：1.教学方法越来越强调“以学习者为中心”，重视学习者本人及主体的个性特点2.教学方法经常不能达到预期的目的。
3.认识到学习者之间存在差异，其性格、动机和学习风格等都影响课堂表现4.母语习得研究证实了学习者学习过程中的积极主动作用外语教学中考虑的重点不再是“该教什么”，而是1.促进习得的条件是什么； 2.如何在课堂上创造这些条件对学习者的研究包括 1.学习者个体差异的研究； 2.学习过程的研究学习者个体差异：年龄，性别，语言潜能，动机，认知风格，性格等关键期假说：儿童大脑有一个逐渐成熟，功能逐渐固定化的过程。
主要体现在语音的精确度上。
可能的解释：大脑中专司语音的部分较早地完成固定化得过程，而学习其他语言成分的机制则与认知能力有关，因而也受到性格，动机和态度等情感因素的制约。
现代西班牙语第五课课堂笔记
第五课动词的补语动词可以有直接、间接和景况三种补语。
1．直接补语表示动作的直接对象。
Limpiamos la sala. 我们打扫大厅。
如果直接补语是代表人的名词，则在其前加前置词a。
¿Conoces a ese muchacho? 你认识那个小伙子吗？直接补语可以用来回答由¿qué? 和¿a quién?提出的问题。
2．间接补语表示动作的间接对象。
名词作间接补语要加前置词a。
Elisa escribe a sus padres. 爱丽莎给她的父母写信。
间接补语可以用来回答由¿a quién?提出的问题3．景况补语表示行为发生的时间、地点、方式、条件、原因和目的等。
通常用来回答由¿dónde? ¿cómo? ¿por qué?等疑问词提出的问题。
充当景况补语的主要词类是副词和前置词词组。
Hoy tenemos clases. 今天我们有课。
Susana está en casa. 苏珊娜在家里。
La niña canta bien. 那个小女孩唱歌唱得很好。
及物动词和不及物动词带直接补语的动词是及物动词（verbo transitivo），不带直接补语的动词是不及物动词（verbo intransitivo）。
Copio el texto. 我抄写课文。
Vivo en Beijing. 我住在北京。
非重读人称代词1．非重读人称代词的语法意义为了避免词语的重复，西班牙语中各种代词的使用很广泛。
当名词是动词的直接补语或间接补语时，在一定的上下文中，可以被非重读人称代词替换。
¿Cuándo vas a repasar la lección? 你打算什么时候复习功课？Voy a repasar la(la lección) esta tarde. 我要今天下午复习。
现代西班牙语第十三课课堂笔记
第十三课动词的非人称形式有三种：原形动词，副动词，过去分词。
没有时、数和人称的变化。
一、原形动词（一）形式*简单形式三种词尾：-ar, -er, -irtrabajar, comer, escribir* 复合形式由haber加上变位动词的过去分词构成haber trabajado, haber comido, haber escrito* 复合原形动词的用法和简单原形动词一样，但复合原形动词表示在主要动词（不论什么时态）的动作之前完成的动作。
Temo haberle molestado.Deberías habérmelo dicho antes.Tras haber leído las instrucciones, supe cómo usar la maquinilla.而简单原形动词则表示与主要动词的动作同时发生的未完成动作。
Estoy contenta de conversar con ustedes.Estoy contenta de haber conversado con ustedes.（二）特性相当于阳性动名词，有一些已成为普通名词，如pesar, haber, deber等，作为名词，它们可以有复数形式，可以带冠词、指示形容词、物主形容词等，如el dormir, un suponer, mi parecer, un hermoso amanecer。
原形动词兼有名词和动词的特性：Le ha agotado el incesante trabajar.Le ha agotado trabajar incesantemente.（三）原形动词作为名词可以承担名词在句子中承担的各项职能。
1．主语Estudiar es tu obligación.En aquellos años, ingresar en la universidad constituía su mayor deseo.常用作第三人称动词的主语，第三人称动词如：convenir, importar, gustar, ser bueno, ser malo等Te conviene venir.Me gusta cantar.Es bueno tomar precauciones.Me pareció necesario consultar a los técnicos a ntes de llevar a cabo el proyecto.2．表语Eso es trabajar.Querer es poder.Lo que tenemos que hacer es escuchar.3．直接补语Pienso salir.Si lograban comerciar más fácilmente con Asia, ganarían mucho dinero. Intentaremos terminar la construcción lo antes posibl e.以上例句中，主要动词的主语和原形动词的主语是一致的。
现代语言学教程 整理笔记.
现代语言学教程整理笔记第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）. 2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
外语教学法复习笔记
外语教学法复习笔记第一章总论The Nature of FLTM外语教学法的性质FLTM is a science which studies the processes and pattern of foreign language teaching ,aiming at revealing the nature and laws of foreign language teaching .that is to say ,it examines the practices and procedures in foreign language teaching; studies approaches ,methods and techniques; and also studies principles and belief that underlie them. In short ,FLTM is an inter-disciplinary science and it makes uses of theories of different subiects.学科性质It includes a lot of disciplines such as linguistics, psychology, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Therefore, we say that FLTM is an inter- disciplinary science and it makes use of many subjects.语言研究的历史we are quite certain that ,according to the records available ,language study is at least more than 2500 years old.The goal of foreign language teaching—is to help the learner master the target language in the shortest possible time. What do we mean by mastering the target language? —We mean that the learner is able to have successful communications with others in the target language.Theories of Linguistics语言学理论⑴Traditional linguistics: 传统语言学the traditional linguistics we mean the traditional study of language in ancient Greece. it has a tradition of more than 2000years. In the fifth century B.C. the ancient Greeks began to make a serious study of language in the realm of philosophy.古希腊的两个著名论战：one was between the naturalists and the conventionalists on the relations between form and meaning.The naturalists argued that the forms of words reflected directly the nature of objects while the conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words.The other was between the analogists and anomalists on the regularizes of language.—the analogists thought that language in general was regular and there were rules for people to follow while the anomalists thought that language was basically irregular and that was why there were so many exception and irregularities in the Greek language.Natural of traditional linguistics传统语言学的特征：Trditional linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to understand the classic words of ancient times and to teach students. They gave priority to the written form and used words as their starting point. They often took a prescriptive approach when they discussed rules of language.⑵American structuralism 美国结构主义It started at the beginning of the 20th century in America. It became popular and influential in the 1930s and 40s through the world. The two forerunners of structuralism— Franz Boas and Edward Sapir. Franz Boas found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structures of those languages. Sapir found that although Indians’ languages had no writte n forms, they were very systematic and were very efficient in communications within their communities. The father of American structuralism —Leonard Bloomfield. He accepted the theories and principles of behaviourism. He characterized language and language acquisition in terms of behaviourist terminology. He thought language was a habit of verbal behaviour which consisted of a series of stimuli and responses. He argued that to acquire a language was to form a habit of verbal behaviour and learning a second language was learning a new habit. He thought that speech was primary and writing was secondary.⑶Transformational generative linguistics 转换生成论The transformational generative linguistics was first put forward by Noam Chomsky in 1957. He wrote a book Syntactic Structures to spread his theory. His main points---Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device(LAD). This LAD is made up of general principles called universal grammar. Once the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. The child will use and test the principles again and again until his hypothesis agree with the actual grammar of the language. Chomsky has also made the distinction between the linguistic competence and linguistic performance. ⑷linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge that at native speaker of that language processes. Linguistic performance refers to the actual utterance produced by the native speakers. Chomsky believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker so as to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences. In order to gain the goal, Chomsky argues that we should use a deductive, hypothesis-testing approach should be used.⑷Functional Linguistics 功能语言学It develops from the London School of linguistics and the precursor of it was Bronislaw Malinowski. Malinowski’s conclusion is that “the meaning of any single word is to a very hign degree dependent on its context.” And an utterances has no meaning at all if it is out of the context of situation. It was Malinowski who created the phrase “context of situation”. J.R.Firth, a linguist, approached the context of situation from a different point of view. He accepted Malinowski’s view and he thought the meaning of linguistic items depends on the context of situation. Firth’s main approach to the notion of function in context was by means of concept system. He believes any linguistic item has got two sets of context: the context of the other possible choices in a system and the context where the system itself occurs. People refer to his theory as system-structure theory. Halliday developed Firth’s theory of systemic linguistics and made progress in the study of context. He thought linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The substance is the material of language which can be phonic or grahic. The form is the organization of the substance into meaningful events. The context is the relation of the form to non-linguistic features of the situations in which the language operates, and the relation of form to linguistic features otherthan those of the item under attention. He also said that language has formal meaning and contextual meaning.theformalmeaning of a linguistic item is its operation in the network of formal relations. The contextual meaning of an item refers to its relation to extra features, i.e. the context. Halliday thought a particular situation type consists of three dimensions: the ongoing social activity, the role relationship involved, and the sysbolic or rhetorical channel. He called these t hree dimensions “field”, “tenor”,and “mode”. He believes that there is a systematic relationship between the context and the text.Theories of Psychology心理学理论The first laboratory of experimental psychology was set up at the University of Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. It announced the official birth of psychology. It was opened by Willhelm Wundt.第一个心理实验室建立⑴Gestalt psychology 格式塔心理学It was founded by a group of German psychologists in the 1920s. Their research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the study of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perception experience. They found that people perceived objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component pars. They used the word Gestalt, which means “ organizedshape ” or “whole form” in English, to name their school of psychology They argued that an object was not the sum of the individual parts. For example, an article is not the sum of individual words that make up the article. So people’s mind should be under stood in terms of a whole.⑵Psychoanalysis心里分析It is theory of the mind put forward by Sigmund Freud. Freud found that many of his patients’ mental problems were caused by some disturbing events in their childhood. But the patients could not remember these disturbing events. The part of the mind which is out of the reach of consciousness was called by Freud the subconscious mind, Which was the most important concept in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind and he was the first to study unconscious mind. Freud believed the contents of the unconscious mind consist of buried memories and instinctive wishes and will influence the activities of the conscious mind. The basic approach of Freud was to analyse the irrational behaviour of the patients, including their dreams and slips of the tongue.⑶Behaviourism 行为主义In 1913, the American psychologist John B. Watson published an article “ Psychology as the Behaviourist Views it ”. The article was regarded as a formal introduc tion to behaviourism. Watson did a lot of experiments with nonhuman animals and animal’s behaviours without any consideration of the animal’s mind. The goal of psychology set out in his articles was to understand the environmental conditions that would cause an animal to behave in a particular way. According to Watson, there was no fundamental difference between human behaviour and that of other animals. Watson’s ideas were accepted by many psychologists. The dominant position of behaviourism was maintained until the mid-1960s.The leader of behaviourism was Skinner.He developed a new kind of apparatus for studying learning in animals and a new way of describing the learning process. Watson’s theory is called classic behaviourism while Skinner’s theory is called neo-behaviourism. The early behaviourists focused the attention on the topic of learning and they tried to characterize learning in terms of stimuli and response. Stimuli are observable events in the world that affect behaviour and responses are observable behavioural acts. Skinner argued that learning process could be divided into two kinds: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning a stimulus that did not elicit a response comes to elicit a response. By operant conditioning the occurrence of a response will bedetermined by the consequences of the response. For example, we look up a word in a dictionary because we can find out the meaning of the word in it.⑷Cognitive psychology认知理论The term cognition means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. The most important factor that has made cognitive psychology the dominant approach is the development of the computer technology. The brain works in a similar way to process information. The brain receives information through senses, processes it and sends it out as behaviour actions.The American linguist Noam Chomsky greatly influenced cognitive psychology. In his book Syntax Structure (1957) Chomsky argued that language should be viewed as a system of mental rules which are wired into the brain as a result of evolution. Cognitive psychologists maintain that all the relationship among stimuli, responses and consequences are learned and are integrated into the animal’s knowledge.There are two principal types of cognitive structures—schemas and concepts. Schemas refer to sets of rules that define particular categories of behaviour. Concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relation with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two process —assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the process by which new item are added to a concept or schema. Accommodation refers to the process by which the existing concept or schema is changed on the basis of new information.Theories of Second Language Acquisition二语获得论⑴The habit formation theory It comes from the behaviourist psychology and was very popular in the 1950s and 60s. According to behaviourists, learning a second language means the formation of a set of linguistics habits. Imitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit-formation. According to the habit-formation theory, the old habit—mother tongue of the learner will either facilitate or get in the way of the second language learning. Negative transfer means the learner transfers the ways of expression in the mother tongue to the target language. They will cause errors.⑵The hypothesis of linguistic universals 语言共性说It believed that there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all the natural languages in the world. The hypothesis of linguistic universals is born of the study of linguistic universals. Core grammar and peripheral grammar: Chomsky divides the grammar of a natural language into core grammar and peripheral grammar. According to him, human beings are born with a language acquisition device which consists of a set of general principles. The core grammar of a natural language agrees with the inborn set of general principles while the peripheral grammar can not be governed by the language acquisition device. The core grammar agrees with the inborn general principles and is much easier to learn.⑶The acculturation theory 文化认同说The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture. It involves social and psychological adaptations. The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition. Factors which determine the degree of acculturation success: The social and psychological distance play a decisive role in acculturation success. Negative psychological factors that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries.⑷The discourse theory 话语交际说It was put forward by Hatch in the late 1970s. It was developed from Halliday’s theory of first language acquisition. The theory believes there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of second language acquisition — only through communication discourses.⑸The monitor theory 监控理论It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have to ways of developing their competence — acquisition and learning. The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency. Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language. ②The monitor hypothesis Different functions—According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for thefluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages. Three conditions —In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language. ③The natural order hypothesis Same order — The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language. Speed —In Krashen’s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition. It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition. ④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition— According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input. They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input. ⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose —It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group. The three affective factors which determines the speed of success —motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Influence of the three factors —learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure. That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.⑹The cognitive hypothesis 认知假说①Cognitive psychologists regard learning as a cognitive process because they think it involves internal presentations which offer regulation and guidance for performance. ②Notions —In the cognitive theory, automaticity and restructuring are the most important notions because learners have to select appropriate vocabulary, grammatical rules and conventions governing language use. ③Modes —Cognitive psychologists think the process of language communication is a kind of information processing. When processing information, people use two ways which are called automatic and controlled modes. Teaching and practice will help the learner to acquire the automatic processing capacity. ④Different stages —The cognitive theory holds that language learning at the beginning stage involves more of the process of automaticity while at the advanced stage it involves more of the process of restructuring.A Brief History of Foreign Language Teaching(外语教学的简要历史)⑴The Reform Movement(1882-1906)Grammar-Translation Method —It was the first method used at the end of the 18th century. The principal aim was to help learners to acquire a readingknowledge of the target language. This method did not pay attention to the importance of speech. The primary of speech — In 1882, Victor published a pamphlet entitled Language Teaching Must Start A Fresh Which started the reform movement. The principles of the movement were the primacy of speech and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom.⑵Modern language teaching and research (1906-1940) During this period, the teaching of English as a second /foreign language because a profession. There appeared a number of world-famous scholars and books. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral Method in his teaching.⑶Structural language teaching (1940-1970) In this period, structural language teaching was used as the main method and its theoretical basis was American structuralism and behaviourism. During the Second World War, American structuralists created a new method, called Audiolingugual Method, In the 1950s, a new method called Transformational Generative Linguistics was born. It criticized the Audilingual Method.⑷Communicative language teaching (1970- ) At the end of 1950s, Chomsky’s transformational generative linguistics started a revolution. And then the end of 1960s, cognitive psychology came into being. They caused the appearance of a new teaching method. ①Communicative language teaching This is probably the main trend dominating the language teaching profession today. ②New theories of second language acquisition Influenced by Chomsky’s hypothesis of language acquisition device(LAD) and the cognitive psychology, many new theories of second language acquisition were introduced in the 1970s. ③New methods of language teaching Communicative language teaching is the main trend in this period. But there are some other methods which are also tried. ④New approach to language syllabus While some applied linguists were trying to find the best way to teach languages, some other applied linguists began to design the notional syllabus. ⑤Exploration of the human relations People have realized that relations between teachers and students, and relations among the students themselves are very important in language teaching. They try to find the better relations among them.1-What are the function and result of the two controversies in ancient Greece? 古希腊两个著名论争的功能和结果？One controversy was between the naturalists and the conventionalists. The naturalists argued that the form of words reflected the nature of objects. The conventionalists thought that language was conventional and there was no logic connection between form and meaning of words. The othercontroversy was between the analogiata and the anomalists on the regularities of language. The analogists claimed language was regular and there were rules for people to follow. The anomalists maintained there were no rules . Their debate roused people’s interest in language and led them to the detailed study of Greek. The direct result was the appearance of a book of Greek grammar.2 What are the main features of traditional linguistics?传统语言学的主要特征Traditional Linguistics was practical in nature. People made a study of language in order to read classic works. Traditional linguists believed that the written form of language was superior to spoken form. They tried to set up principles and standards for people to use language correctly.3-What are the contributions made by Franz Boas, Edward Sapir and Leonard Bloomfield to the development of American structuralism? 这些人对美国结构主义发展的贡献Franz Boas and Edward Sapir were forerunners of American structuralism. Boas studied the American Indians’ languages and found that the traditional grammatical model could not be used to analyse the structure of those languages. He had to describe those language as they were used. This started American structuralism. Leonard Bloomfield accepted the theories and principles of Franz Boas. He argued that linguists should describe instead of prescribing what people say and should take an inductive approach in analyzing data. In 1933, he published the book Language.It soon became the bible of American structuralism.4-What is the influence of behaviourism over American structuralism? 行为主义对美国结构主义的影响In 1933, the American psychologist John Watson published an article entitled Psychology as Behaviourist Views It . This was the formal introduction behaviourism. Watson believed we had no direct way to observe the animal’s mind. We could only observe the animal’s behaviour and the external environmental conditions. Behaviourists studied the relation between stimuli and responses. They divided learning process into two kinds. One kind is now called classic conditioning. The other is called operant conditioning. Behaviourism helped the development of structuralism.5-- What is Chomsky’s explanation of the first language acquisition process? 乔姆斯基对母语获得的解释Chomsky assumes that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is made up of a set of general principles called universal grammar. When the child is born, the particular language environment will trigger the LAD. Children’s language acquisition processcompletes when the universal grammar is successfully transformed into the grammar of a particular language.6-What is the difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performance? 语言能力和语言应用的不同Linguistic competence refers to the internalized knowledge of the language that a native speaker of that language possesses. Linguistic performance refers to the actural utterance produced by the native speakers.7-How does transformational generative linguistics differ in research methods?在研究方法上转换生成语言学有什么不同？Transformational generative linguistics opposes the structuralist method of taking linguistic performance as the goal. It also attacks the inductive approach. It believes that linguistics should study the linguistic competence, not the performance, of the native speaker and try to set up a system of rules that will generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences.8--What is the main feature of functional linguistics?功能语言学的特征Functional linguistics, founded by Malinowski and developed by Firth, believ es “the meaning of any single word is to a high degree dependent on its context” It introduced the phrase “context of situation”. The theory is based on the notion of function in context. Its point of view is that linguistic events should be accounted for at three primary levels: substance, form and context. The theory also divides a particular situation type into three dimensions.9--What is the basic theory of Gestalt psychology? 格式塔心理学的主要理论Gestalt psychology appeared in the 1920s. Its research was focused on the area of perception, aiming at the exploration of the relationship between parts and whole in people’s perceptional experience. It claimed that people received objects and scenes as organized wholes before they noticed their component parts. The word Gestalt means “organized shape” or “whole form ” in English.10--What is the basic theory of psychoanalysis? 心里分析的主要理论The basic theory of psychoanalysis is put forward by Freud. The theory divided the mind into conscious and unconscious mind. The conscious mind is only a very small part of the whole mind while the rest remains unconscious. Psychoanalysis aims to analyse the irrational behavour of patients.11--What are the principles of behaviourism? 行为主义的原则The principles of behaviourism are as follow: Psychologists should study what could be observed publicly and objectively instead ofconsidering animal’s mental events because these things could not be seen. Behaviourism believes that the study should be focused on learning and the relation between stimuli and responses.12--What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? 经典性和操作性条件反射的区别Classical conditioning means the stimulus that does not elicit a response comes to elicit a response after it is paired several times with a stimulus that already elicited a response. Operant conditioning means the occurrence of a response will be determined by the consequence of the response.13-- What are the three factors that have helped to set up the cognitive psychology? 认知心理学发展的三个前提条件The three factors are the development of computer technology, Jean Piaget’s research work on the reasoning abilities of children, and the work of the American linguist Chomsky.14--How does the cognitive psychology explain the acquisition of knowledge? 认知心理学如何解释知识获得The term cognitive means knowledge and cognitive psychology can be defined as the study of people’s ability to acquire, organize, remember and use knowledge to guide their behaviour. As for the acquisition of knowledge, cognitive psychology believes that there are two principal types of cognitive structures which are called schemas and concepts. The schemas refer to sets of rules that define categories of behaviour and concepts are rules that describe properties of events and their relations with one another. Children acquire schemas and concepts by interacting with their environment with the help of two processes — assimilation and accommodation.15--How does the habit-formation theory explain the second language acquisition process?习惯养成论如何解释二语获得过程Habit-formation theory was put forward by a group of behaviorists. According to their theory, learning a second language means the formation of a new set of linguistic habits. Imitation and practice play n important role in the process of habit-formation. Imitation will help learners identify the association between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the association and help learners to form the new linguistic habit.16--how does the hypothesis of linguistic universals explain the second language acquisition process? 语言共性说The hypothesis says there exist certain linguistic properties which are true to all natural languages into core grammar and peripheral grammar. Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD). The second language learners usually acquire the core grammarof the target language and then the peripheral grammar. The core grammar of the learner’s mother tongue will help the learners to learn the target language.17--How does the acculturation theory explain the second language acquisition? 文化传递说Acculturation means individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge and behavior in order to do well in another culture. It believes that second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition.18--How does the discourse theory explain the second language acquisition process? 话语情境说The discourse theory argues that there is little difference between the first language acquisition process and the process of the second language acquisition –only through communication discourse can the learner acquire the second language.19---What are the five hypothesis of the monitor theory? They are the acquisition –learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis.20--How does the cognitive theory explain the second language acquisition process? The cognitive theory claims that second language learning should be regarded as the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill. The process of second language acquisition is a process in which the internal representations are being restructured constantly. The acquisition involves two process- automaticity and restructuring. Language learning at the beginning stage involves none of the process of restructuring.21-What are the principles and consequences of the Reform Movement? The principles of the Reform Movement were the primacy of speech, the centrality of the connected text as the kernel of the language teaching process, and the absolute priority of an oral method in the classroom. The consequences were great. Many people took part in the reform and movement. A lot of book were published. An applied linguistic approach to language teaching began to take shape.22--What’s the contribution made by Daniel Jones and Harold Palmer to the development of Daniel Jones teaching? Daniel Jones was the first one that helped to make a profession the teaching of English as a second /foreign language. And he did a lot of research on the profession of foreign language teaching. He wrote a number of books from his research. Harold Palmer tried out the Oral。
现代西班牙语第二册笔记完整修改版
现代西班⽛语第⼆册笔记完整修改版《现代西班⽛语》（第⼆册）学习笔记《现代西班⽛语》（第⼆册）学习笔记（第⼀课）⼀、词汇1、seguir＋现在分词：继续做某事（⽐较：ir＋现在分词：慢慢、渐渐做某事）2、⼈感到热：tener calor；天⽓热：hace（hizo、hacía）calor3、有风：hace（hizo、hacía）viento；起风：se levanta un viento4、doler的主语是⾝体的某⼀部位，因此总是使⽤第三⼈称5、tener la nariz tapada：⿐⼦塞住了（注意：nariz是阴性名词，tapado是现在分词做形容词）6、tener apetito de：有……的胃⼝；perder apetito：失去胃⼝7、tocar la frente a sb.：摸某⼈的额头8、paso的⽤法：（1）让⼀步：dar/ceder un paso（2）paso a/por paso：⼀步⼀步（3）离……⼀步之遥：estar/quedar a un paso de……9、aconsejar＋动词原形（已学过的类似动词还有：permitir、prohibir、saber、dejar[表“让某⼈做某事”的意思时]、hacer[表“使某⼈做某事”的意思时]等）10、acabar de＋动词原形：刚刚做完某事（acabar通常⽤过去未完成时）11、（1）attender una llamada：接电话（2）attender a sb.：关注某⼈、接待某⼈12、coger frio：着凉；tener resfriado：感冒⼆、不规则动词1、doler：poder型，o-->ue2、atender：poder型，e-->ie3、despedir：与pedir的变化完全⼀样（包括过去时）三、语法（⼀）简单句的结构1、判断句（课本上说的“名词谓语句”，其实就是“A是B”的句式）（1）系动词：ser（表本质性质，因此后⾯可跟名词）、estar（表现状，因此后⾯不可跟名词）（⼆者都可以跟形容词或形容词性短语）（2）其实可起系动词作⽤的动词：paracer（相当于英语⾥的look/seem like）、quedar（相当于英语⾥的remain）等2、动词谓语句：即普通动词作谓语的句⼦，判断句以外的其它句⼦都是（以下只列出西语特有的，与英语⼀样的⼀般不再列出）（1）主语：常常可以省略，只要不引起误会，尤其是第⼀、⼆⼈称的单复数（2）谓语：不及物动词可带间接宾语（3）直接宾语：通常是物，若是⼈时前⾯要加a；若是代词形式，置于动词之前（分写）（4）间接宾语：通常是⼈，名词时前⾯要加a或para（5）状语：副词或副词性短语充当四、课⽂、讲解中出现的词汇1、segun veo：据我所见2、medicina tradicional china：中药五、与英、德类似的词汇aconsejar（英：counsel）estómago（英：stomach）frente（英：front）fresco（英：fresh）grave（英：grave）indigestión（英：indigestion；德：Indisgestion）indispuesto（英：indisposed）lengua（英：language）nariz（英：nose；德：Nase）paso（英：pass）tableta（英：tablet；德：Tablette）termómetro（英：thermometer；德：Thermometer）baloncesto（英：basketball；德：Basketball）inyección（英：injection）apetito（英：appetite；德：Appetit）ligero（英：light；德：leicht）medicina（英：medicine；德：Medikament）faltar（德：fehlen）atender（英：attend）pulso（英：pulse；德：Puls）operación（英：operation；德：Operation）perfecto（英：perfect；德：perfekt）tradicional（英：traditional；德：traditional）remedio（英：remedy）curar（英：cure）《现代西班⽛语》（第⼆册）学习笔记（第⼆课）⼀、词汇1、（1）Noche Vieja：除⼣夜（2）el viejo：⽼爸；la vieja：⽼妈2、tener/hay una celebracion＝celebrar3、atraido por：被……吸引的4、acudir a + 地点：赶去某地（与ir、venir类似）5、cesar de＋动词原形＝dejar de＋动词原形（注意：“dejar＋动词原形”是指“让做……”）6、una pareja de＝a pair of7、disfrutar con sth.＝享受……；disfrutar de sth.＝拥有……8、de colores：多彩的9、oportunidad：tener ～（有机会）、perder ～（失去机会）、conseguir ～（获得机会）、coger ～（抓住机会）10、verdadero＝auténtico＝cierto＝típico11、un pieza de＝a piece of12、poesía：诗（总称）；poema：（⼀⾸）诗13、aplaudir a sb.：给某⼈⿎掌14、注意：drama虽然是a结尾，但它是阳性名词⼆、不规则动词：reconocer：与conocer⼀样，即只有现在时第⼀⼈称单数变化不规则为reconozco三、⾃复被动句1、西语中的被动句通常以⾃复被动句的形式出现2、⾃复被动句的构成：（1）动词必须是及物动词，都使⽤第三⼈称形式，性数与主语保持⼀致（2）主语和宾语为同⼀主体，通常是物（因此是⾃复）（3）需加代词se，可前置（分写）或后置（连写）3、与结构相近句型的区别（1）⽆⼈称句：主语是单数时与⾃复被动句⼀样；主语是复数时，⽆⼈称句没有se（2）相互句：相互句的动词⼀定是复数形式的，可观察是否有相互动词的存在，或翻译成中⽂看是译成“相互”还是译译成“被”语意较为通顺来作判断四、课⽂、讲解中出现的词汇1、Vaya película que se perdieron ustedes——这⾥的vaya（ir的虚拟式）是语⽓词，表⽰很好或很糟糕的感情⾊彩2、El campesino sabía divertir a la gente contando chistes——这⾥的contando是contar的副动词（即英语的ing形式），与后⾯的名词chistes（笑话）构成⼀个动宾结构（本课的课⽂中出现了⼤量这样的副动词构成的动宾结构）3、fijarse en sb.：盯着某⼈4、etc＝etcétera（与英语的意思⼀样）5、De modo que al mismo tiempo que nos divertimos, hicimos un breve recorrido cultural por las paíse de habla espa?ola （1）de modo que：解作“这样的话”（以这样的⽅式）（2）al mismo tiempo que……：“在做……的同时”，que后⾯带起⼀个时间重句（3）hacer un recorrido por＝dar un vuelta por：⾛⼀圈，⾛⼀趟6、Eso debióde llevar la fiesta a la mayor animación（1）deber de：⼤概（2）llevar……a la mayor animación：把……推向⾼潮7、medio poeta：半个诗⼈8、tanto A como B：不仅A⽽且B，A以及B五、与英、德类似的词汇actuación（英：action；德：Aktion）adornado（英：adorned）animación（英：animation；德：Animation）atraído（英：attracted）auténtico（英：authentic）celebrar（英：celebrate）celebración（英：celebration）cesar（英：cease）demostración（英：demonstration；德：Demonstration）fijar（英：fix）folklore、folklórico（英：folklore、folkloric）guitarra（英：guitar；德：Gitarre）melodía（英：melody；德：Melodie）notar（英：note；德：notieren）pareja（英：pair；德：Paar）pasión（英：passion；德：Passion）peruano（英：Peruvian）reconocer（英：recognize）ritmo（英：rhythm；德：Rhythmus）luminosidad（英：luminosity）música（英：music；德：Musik）mexicano、México（英：Mexican、Mexico）actor（英：actor）aplaudir（英：applaud）barba（英：beard）comedia（英：comedy；德：Kom?die）danza（英：dance；德：Tanze）interpretado（英：interpreted）máscara（英：mask）oportunidad（英：opportunity；德：Opportunit?t）pieza（英：piece）poeta、poesía（英：poet、poetry；德：Poet、Poesie）recitar（英：recite）teatral（英：theatrical）titular（英：title）tragedia（英：tragidy；德：Tragik）tango（英：tango；德：Tango）cultural（英：cultural；德：kulturell）drama（英：drama；德：Drama）《现代西班⽛语》（第⼆册）学习笔记（第三课）⼀、词汇1、hábito＝costumbre2、se considerar＋形容词：被认为……3、dar consejo＝aconsejar（consejo是可数名词）4、de confianza：值得信任的；tener confianza en sb.＝对某⼈信任5、（1）salario de＋时间名词＝salario a＋带定冠词的时间名词：⼀段时间⾥的⼯资（如⽉薪、年薪等）（2）salario alto：⾼⼯资（3）ganar salario：挣⼯资6、tener novio：有恋⼈（⽐较：estar casado：已婚）7、que edad tener：⼏岁8、telefonear＝llamar por teléfono/móvil（后者较常⽤，或直接就⽤llamar）9、limitarse a＋动词原形：仅限于做……10、agradecer＝dar gracia11、hacer ruido：制造噪⾳12、es peligroso＋动词原型＝it's dangerous to do sth13、encender el televisor：打开电视机14、programa虽然是a结尾，但它是阳性名词⼆、不规则动词1、suponer：与poner的变位⼀样2、regar、fregar：poder型，词⼲重读时e-->ie；注意虚拟式及过去时第⼀⼈称单数中g要正⾳为gu(e)3、encender：也是poder型，词⼲重读时第⼆个e-->ie4、agradecer：与conocer的变位⼀样三、语法（⼀）否定命令式1、句式：no＋代词（如果有的话）＋虚拟式动词2、注意事项（1）肯定命令式时，如果有代词，必须置于动词之后连写，否定命令式与之不同（2）命令式⽆论肯定、否定都没有对第⼀⼈称单数、第三⼈称单复数的形式，但尊称的usted(es)要使⽤第三⼈称单复数的形式（3）虚拟式：详情看《西班⽛语不规则动词的分类（2）：现在时虚拟式（附命令式）》的帖⼦，并要注意需正⾳的情况（⼆）o的变体u：后⾯跟发⾳为[o]的o、ho开头的单词时，采⽤变体u*与i后⾯跟发⾳为的i、y、hi、hy开头的单词时采⽤变体e的情况类似（三）副动词1、动词变位（1）规则：ar-->ando；er、ir-->iendo*需正⾳的情况：ir与双重元⾳结尾的动词，包括aer（如traer）、eer（如leer）、eir（如reir）、oir（如oir本⾝）、uir（如huir）等，iendo需正⾳为yendo（2）不规则：不规则⼏乎都出现在sentir、decir（含dormir）、pedir类动词（即在过去时中词⼲⾥的e-->i、o-->u），适⽤这类不规则变化*特殊：venir、poder不属于decir、pedir类动词，但这⾥也适⽤e-->i、o-->u的规则2、语法作⽤：（1）类似于英语中的现在分词（ing）的⽤法，但不能⽤在句⾸*在传统西班⽛语⾥现在分词的变化是变为-ante和-iente，但是现代西班⽛语中⼏乎不⽤现在分词，现在分词很多都变成了名词，⽐如practicante。
《现代外语教学》重点笔记
新版绪论中国的外语教学实践需要自己的教学理论指导：首先，语言教学对象不同。
主要：母语背景和母语文化背景，母语的特殊语言结构特点和母语文化背景对中介语的形成具有重大的影响。
第二，语言教学的环境不同。
母语使用的环境、师资、教学方法的不同对目标语输入的数量和质量产生巨大的影响。
第三，国人学外语的目的与他国学习者不同。
第四，中国“官本位”的文化中，只有建立在调查和实践基础上的外语教学理论才有说服力和生命力，才可能在一定程度上抵消“长官意志”对外语教学决策带来的负面影响，使教学实践运行在正确的轨道上。
我国外语教学存在的问题：1.理论研究落后①缺乏专业的研究队伍②缺乏系统的研究和对重大、宏观问题的研究，如师资培养理论、课程设计理论、教材编写理论③理论研究与教学实际脱节。
论文是为了发表，为了评估④教师理论意识淡薄。
没精力关注；理论太理想化2.师资质量不高3.教学资源匮乏4.教学理念落后5.应试倾向明显6.权钱干扰严重。
“长官”说了算，“形象工程”第一章外语教学理论研究的发展趋势第一节从研究如何教到研究如何学传统外语教学重点：如何教。
更关心教材编写、教学法设计等。
随着第二语言习得的发展，人们发现必须重新认识外语习得的本质及相关因素。
研究重点转移的原因还有：1.教学方法越来越强调“以学习者为中心”，重视学习者本人及主体的个性特点2.教学方法经常不能达到预期的目的。
3.认识到学习者之间存在差异，其性格、动机和学习风格等都影响课堂表现4.母语习得研究证实了学习者学习过程中的积极主动作用外语教学中考虑的重点不再是“该教什么”，而是1.促进习得的条件是什么；2.如何在课堂上创造这些条件对学习者的研究包括1.学习者个体差异的研究；2.学习过程的研究学习者个体差异：年龄，性别，语言潜能，动机，认知风格，性格等关键期假说：儿童大脑有一个逐渐成熟，功能逐渐固定化的过程。
主要体现在语音的精确度上。
可能的解释：大脑中专司语音的部分较早地完成固定化得过程，而学习其他语言成分的机制则与认知能力有关，因而也受到性格，动机和态度等情感因素的制约。
英语自考现代语言学笔记
、语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, de%26#115;criptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic studyPhonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communicationPhonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is pre%26#115;criptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is de%26#115;criptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The de%26#115;cription of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de%26#115;cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。
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现代外语教学
一．教学理论和实践的关系
我们所说的理论指导实践，实际上不一定是直接的，并不是要求老师将别人的理论直接拿到课堂上去应用，而是说，教师应该有相当的理论意识，应该始终关注外语教学理论的发展，应该不断吸取相关理论的合理成分，在相关理论的启发下，或在借鉴他人理论的合理成分的基础上，结合所教的学生的特点，结合学校的教学条件，探索符合本人、本校和所教学生实际的教学方法。
二．理想的外语教师符合的要求
1.优秀的人品
2.扎实的外语基本功
3.良好的研究能力
4.广播的知识
5.较强的课堂组织能力以及沟通能力
6.敬业精神
三．对学习主体研究的内容（外语教学理论研究的重点发生转移）
1.学习者个人差异的研究：生理因素、认知因素、情感因素。
2.学习过程的研究。
对原有知识的研究；对学习策略的研究。
四．自主学习者
自主学习既是一种学习态度，又是一种独立的学习能力。
（Dickinson）态度就是一种对自己的学习做出决策的责任；能力就是对学习过程的决策和反思。
自主性包括这样两个特征：一是，学习者应该对自己的学习复杂；二是，学习者有权利决定那些传统上由老师决定的事项。
五．宏观策略框架——kumaravadivelu
使学习机会最大化
促进协商交流
使教师意图和学生理解之间的差距最小化
激活直觉启发式教学培养语言敏感度
把语言知识放在语篇中传授
综合各项语言技能
提高学习者自主性
增强文化意识
与社会问题接轨。
六．
第一层：本体论层次
第二层：实践论层次第三层：方法论层次。