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托福TPO30阅读Passage2原文文本+题目+答案解析

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The Pace of Evolutionary Change A heated debate has enlivened recent studiesof evolution.Darwin's original thesis,and theviewpoint supported by evolutionary gradualists,isthat species change continuously but slowly and insmall increments.Such changes are all but invisible over the short time scale of modernobservations,and,it is argued,they are usually obscured by innumerable gaps in theimperfect fossil record.Gradualism,with its stress on the slow pace of change,is a comfortingposition,repeated over and over again in generations of textbooks.By the early twentiethcentury,the question about the rate of evolution had been answered in favor of gradualism tomost biologists'satisfaction. 最近的一个关于进化的研究引发了激烈的争论。

达尔文的原始论点和进化渐进主义者支持的观点是物种会持续地改变，但非常缓慢，增量也很小。

托福TPO30阅读word版下载一

托福TPO30阅读word版下载一托福TPO30阅读word版下载一Role of Play in DevelopmentPlay is easier to define with examples than with concepts. In any case, in animals it consists ofleaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, and other movements, either along, with objects, orwith other animals. Depending on the species, play may be primarily for social interaction, exercise,or exploration. One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that it involves the samebehaviors that take place in other circumstance--dominance, predation, competition, and real fighting.Thus, whether play occurs or not depends on the intention of the animals, and the intentions are notalways clear from behaviors alone.Play appears to be a developmental characteristic of animals with fairly sophisticated nervoussystems, mainly birds and mammals. Play has been studied most extensively in primates andcanids (dogs). Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the research literature, and thereasons may not be the same for every species that plays. Determining the functions of play isdifficult because the functions may be long-term, with beneficial effects not showing up until theanimal's adulthood.Play is not without considerable costs to the individual animal. Play is usually very active,involving movement in space and, at times, noisemaking. Therefore, it results in the loss of fuel orenergy that might better be used for growth or for building up fat stores in a young animal. Anotherpotential cost of this activity is greater exposure to predators since play is attention-getting behavior.Great activities also increase the risk of injury in slipping or falling.The benefits of play must outweigh costs, or play would not have evolved, according to Darwin's theory. Some of the potential benefits relate directly to the healthy development of the brain andnervous system. In one research study, two groups of young rats were raised under differentconditions. One group developed in an "enriched" environment, which allowed the rats to interactwith other rats, play with toys, and receive maze training. The other group lived in an "impoverished"environment in individual cages in a dimly lit room with little stimulation. At the end of theexperiments, the results showed that the actual weight of the brains of the impoverished rats wasless than that of those raised in the enriched environment (though they were fed the same diets).Other studies have shown that greater stimulation not only affects the size of the brain but alsoincrease the number of connections between the nerve cells. Thus, active play may providenecessary stimulation to the growth of synaptic connections in the brain, especially the cerebellum,which is responsible for motor functioning and movements.更多精彩攻略访问1Play also stimulates the development of the muscle tissues themselves and may provide theopportunities to practice those movements needed for survival. Prey species, like young deer orgoats, for example, typically play by performing sudden flight movements and turns, whereaspredator species, such as cats, practice stalking, pouncing, and biting. Play allows a young animal to explore its environment and practice skill in comparative safetysince the surrounding adults generally do not expect the young to deal with threats or predators.Play can also provide practice in social behaviors needed for courtship and mating. Learningappropriate social behaviors is especially important for species that live in groups, like youngmonkeys that needed to learn to control selfishness and aggression and to understand the give-and-take involved in social groups. They need to learn how to be dominant and submissive becauseeach monkey might have to play either role in the future. Most of these things are learned in the longdevelopmental periods that primates have, during which they engage in countless play experienceswith their peers.There is a danger, of course, that play may be misinterpreted or not recognized as play byothers, potentially leading to aggression. This is especially true when play consists of practicingnormal aggressive or predator behaviors. Thus, many species have evolved clear signals todelineate playfulness. Dogs, for example, will wag their tails, get down their front legs, and stick theirbehinds in the air to indicate "what follows is just for play."Paragraph 1: Play is easier to define with examples than with concepts. In any case, in animalsit consists of leaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, and other movements, either along, withobjects, or with other animals. Depending on the species, play may be primarily for socialinteraction, exercise, or exploration. One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is thatit involves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance--dominance, predation,competition, and real fighting. Thus, whether play occurs or notdepends on the intention of theanimals, and the intentions are not always clear from behaviors alone.以上就是小编为大家整理的“托福TPO30阅读word版下载一”部分内容，更多资料请点击托福资料下载频道!更多精彩攻略访问2。

tpo30听力文本

TPO 30Section1Conversation1NarratorListen to a conversation between a student and an employee at the student activity center.StudentThis is the administrative office, right?EmployeeUh-huh. How can I help you?StudentWell, I am stopping by to reserve a place for my school club that meet and work, pretty much on a regular basis. Ideally, our preference would be to have our own office.EmployeeHmm…well, we are out of private offices. But we do have some semi-private options still available.StudentWhat do you mean?EmployeeWell, it’s a setup where you’ll have a larger workspace shared by two other clubs. In other words, each club would have its own work area within that one room.StudentOh. Are there any divider, walls or anything?EmployeeOh, yes. There will be a couple of dividers, so there’s some privacy.StudentUm. We’ll work with that then. I wouldn’t want to be without an office.EmployeeOK. Here are the two forms you have to fill out. Why don’t you do it now while I set that up through out computer system.OK.EmployeeSo what’s your club’s name? And the last name of the club president.StudentOh, it’s the photography club. And it’s Williams. That’s me. John Williams.EmployeeHmm…that’s not pulling up anything on my screen. Um…let me try something else. Uh, how about your faculty advisor’s name?StudentSarah Baker. She is in the Arts Department.EmployeeHmm…No. Strange. You know your club is just not showing up in my online records. Is this an established club?StudentNo. Actually it’s a brand-new one.EmployeeHmm…have you completed the registration process?StudentYeah, last week. That was my very first step.EmployeeRight. Well, for my purposes, a club definitely has to be registered before I can proceed further. At the moment, however, it appears that there’s no record of your club’s registration.StudentReally? I thought everything was finalized last week.EmployeeWell, it is surprising. Usually there’s a 24-hour turnaround in our computer database. So then do you have the registration approval letter from the review committee? That would give me the verification I need.StudentYeah. I do. I mean, well, I don’t have it with me. But … I… I, uh, can get it from my dorm room, bring it back with me and submit it with those forms you need from me.Great! That’ll work. And just so you are aware, there’re lots of benefits to being registered.StudentOh, yeah. I think the university will give us permission to set up a website, right? I want to get students sharing their ideas on the website, you know, establish a photography blog.EmployeeYes. You’ll be able to do that. And…um…actually there’s more. You’ll be allowed the use of audiovisual equipment at no cost. You’ll receive a club mailbox and a club email address. You’ll be allowed to post your flyers and posters around the campus for publicity. And you could be eligible for funding for club events.StudentWell, we are definitely interested in hiring a professional speaker at one of our campus events at some point in the semester. And speakers almost always charge a fee. So I’ll definitely follow up on that.Lecture1NarratorListen to part of a lecture in a psychology class.ProfessorWe’ve been talking about animal cognition—the study of animal intelligence. Now, much of the research in this area is motivated by the search for animal analogues, or parallels to human cognitive processes. And one of the processes we’ve been investigating is metacognition.What is metacognition? Well, it’s being aware of what one knows or feels, uh, um… having an awareness of one’s state of mind. And making decisions about behavior based on what one knows. Researchers have long been interested in whether animals possess this capability, but…but couldn’t test it because animals aren’t able to report their feelings.But recently one group of researchers found a way to solve this problem. They did studies with…with monkeys and dolphins that provide evidence that these animals have the ability to feel uncertainty, to feel unsure about something and…and…well, to know that they are uncertain.So how could these researchers figure out if an animal feels uncertainty. Well, it began with a study one of them did on a dolphin, who had been trained to recognize a particular high-pitched tone. The dolphin was taught to press one of two paddles depending on whether it heard the high tone or one that was lower. Food was a reward for a correct response. But if the wrong paddle was pressed, the dolphin had to wait several seconds before it could try again. The task varied in difficulty according to the pitch of the second tone. The closer it came in pitch to the first one, the hard it became for the dolphin to correctly identify it as low. And the researcher noted that the dolphin is quite eager to press the paddle when it was sure of the answer, but exhibited hesitation during difficult trials.Next the researcher introduced a third option, a third paddle that would initiate a new trial, giving the dolphin the choice of passing on difficult trials. Once the dolphin figured out the result of pressing this new paddle, it did choose it frequently when the trial was difficult. The researcher took that as an indication that the animal wanted to pass because it didn’t know the answer and knew it didn’t know.But there was a problem. Other researchers protested that the…the opt-out response was simply a learned or conditioned response. You remember intro to psychology, right? In other words, by pressing the pass paddle, the dolphin avoided having to wait and hasten the possibility of a full reward by moving directly to the next trial. So the experiment didn’t necessarily indicate that the dolphin had knowledge of its own uncertainty, just that it wanted to avoid negative consequences.So more recently, our researcher and his colleagues devised a new study, this time using monkeys. In this experiment, the monkeys had to identify certain patterns displayed on a computer screen. These patterns were analogous to the tones used in the dolphin study. One type of pattern was of a specific density and was to be classified as dense, while the second type of pattern could vary in density, but was always less dense than the first one. And the monkeys’task was to identify this second type as sparse. So the denser the second type of pattern was, the more difficult the task became.And as in a previous study, the monkeys were given a third choice that would allow them to pass on to a new trial. But unlike in the dolphin experiment, the monkeys had to complete four trials before they got any feedback. They didn’t know if they responded correctly or incorrectly after each trial because there was no reward or punishment. At the end of four trials, feedback was given. The monkeys received a full reward for each correct response. And a time-out during which a buzzer was sounded for each incorrect response. But the monkeys had no way to tell which reward or punishment was associated with which response. And they didn’t get either reward or punishment for choosing the pass option, the…um…the uncertainty response. But nevertheless they still chose this option in the appropriate circumstances when the trial was particularly difficult. And this is evidence that it wasn’t a conditioned response, because that response didn’t guarantee a faster reward.So what does all this tell us about animal consciousness or animals’ awareness of themselves and their state of mind? Can we really know what’s going on in the minds of animals? No. Of course not. But exploring the metacognitive capacity of animals could become an important criterion in highlighting the similarities and differences between human and animal minds.HumanBy Michael S. Gazzanigabooks.google./books?id=nD4u-YdmX88C&pg=PA317&lpg=PA317&dq=metacognition+dolphi n+press+paddles&source=bl&ots=co2_Da3oLo&sig=FSfz5EeoUh0j-sPyqmOfbCiSNys&hl=en& sa=X&ei=D_bjUcn9E6T7ygHE4oGQCw&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=metacognition%2 0dolphin%20press%20paddles&f=falseLecture2-PaleontologyNarratorListen to part of a lecture in a paleontology class.ProfessorAs we’ve discussed, birds are apparently descendants of dinosaurs and shared many commonalities with some dinosaur species, like…um…feathers and maybe even flight and of course egg laid. OK.So, many paleontologists, myself included, have wondered about other similarities between dinosaurs and birds. Since adult dinosaur fossils have sometimes been discovered near or on top of nests, we’ve been looking at the dinosaur parenting behavior.StudentParenting behavior, well, that sounds so gentle and caring. But dinosaurs were ferocious reptiles and reptiles don’t take care of their young, do they?ProfessorWell, some reptiles incubate their eggs, crocodiles do. And as for popular attitudes towards dinosaurs…well, take the Oviraptor for instance.In the 1920s, a paleontologist discovered the fossil remains of a small dinosaur near a nest containing eggs. He assumed the dinosaur was stealing the eggs, so he named it Oviraptor that means egg thief in Latin, which fueled the generally negative public image of such dinosaurs.But by the 1990s, other experts had convincingly made the case that instead of robbing the nest; the Oviraptor was probably taking care of the eggs. You see, dinosaurs’ closest living relatives –birds and crocodiles –display nesting behavior. And dinosaur fossils have been found in postures that we now believe to indicate brooding behavior, that is, sitting on the eggs until they hatch.So we are curious about the type of care dinosaurs gave to their young. And we’d like to figure out which dinosaur parent, the male or the female gave the care.StudentShouldn’t the behavior of crocodiles and birds give us some clues then?ProfessorWell, with crocodiles, it is the female who guards the nest, and with birds, it depends on the species, it can be the male or the female that takes care the eggs, or both. In over 90 percent ofall bird species, both parents take care of the eggs and the young birds.StudentBut sometimes it’s just the male?ProfessorWell, exclusive care by the male parent is much less common, but it does occur. Now, for animals other than birds, the care of young by both parents is pretty unusual in the animal kingdom. Males contribute to parental care in fewer than five percent of all mammalian species. It’s even less frequent among reptiles. And exclusive care by the male is very rare. So researchers have wondered about the evolution of male parenting behavior in birds for quite some time. And now there’s research showing that for some of the birds’ dinosaur relatives, it’s likely that the male parent was also in charge of taking care of the eggs.StudentHow did they figure that out?ProfessorWell, first they looked at clutch volume, that’s the number of eggs in the nest of crocodiles, birds and three types of dinosaurs, including Oviraptors that are thought to be closely related to the dinosaur ancestors of birds.So when researchers examined fossilized remains of nests, they found that the dinosaurs had larger clutch volumes, more eggs in the nests that is, than most of the crocodiles and birds that were studied. But, and this is important, their clutch volumes matched those of birds that have only male parental care. You see, bird species in which only the males take care of the nest tend to have the largest clutches of eggs.StudentSo what’s the connection between bird and dinosaur behavior?ProfessorWell, researchers now believe, because of this study, that the male parenting behavior of these birds might have its origins in the behavior of dinosaurs.StudentBased only on evidence of clutch volume size, the number of eggs?ProfessorNo, there’s more. They also examined the fossilized bones of those three types of dinosaurs that were found on or near nests to determine their sex. You see, adult female birds during egg production produce a layer of spongy bone tissue inside certain long bones. And so did female dinosaurs of the kinds that were investigated. This spongy tissue serves as a source of calcium for eggshell formation. But when the dinosaur fossils were examined, there were no spongy bone deposits.StudentMeaning that those dinosaurs on the nests were probably adult males who wouldn’t have needed calcium for making eggshells.ProfessorExactly. And then there’s this: birds like the kiwi, the ostrich and the emu; they share certain physical characteristics with these dinosaurs. And interestingly, they also show a consistent pattern of nest care by the male./wiki/Origin_of_birdsAre Bird really Dinosaurs?/diapsids/avians.html.wbu./chipperwoods/photos/dinos.htm.dino-web./birds.html9e.devbio./article.php?ch=16&id=161.%22.enchantedlearning./subjects/dinosaurs/Dinobirds.html.sciencedaily./releases/2013/04/4.htmnews.nationalgeographic./news/2008/04/080424-trex-mastodon.htmlanswers../question/index?qid=910AAkxv2nSection2Conversation2NarratorListen to a conversation between a student and his art history professor.ProfessorHow was the museum?StudentGreat. I hadn’t been there for a few years.ProfessorDid you enjoy the Van Gogh painting?StudentThat’s the thing. Looks like I have to change my topic.ProfessorHmm… we are getting close to the deadline. You were writing about the theme of night in the paintings of Vincent Van Gogh.It’s a wonderful topic.StudentI know. People don’t usually think of Van Gogh as an artist of nocturnal themes. They think of brightness, sunshine, all that yellow and orange.ProfessorYou are right of course about the intense light associated with his daytime paintings. But his night paintings don’t exactly lack brightness.StudentThat’s the paradox that I really like, the paradox of painting a nighttime scene using so much color and light. So I was planning to focus mostly on his painting Starry Night.ProfessorBut?StudentWhen I went to the museum to look at the actual painting, like you told me to. It wasn’t there.ProfessorReally? Isn’t it part of the permanent collection?StudentYes. But it’s on loan right now to a museum in Europe.ProfessorAh, I see. Well, I am strict about having students write about paintings they can observe firsthand.StudentWell, I found another painting I could study instead.ProfessorOK.StudentI read that there are two paintings called Starry Night. The first one was done by the French realist painter Millet. It may have been the inspiration for Van Gogh’s painting. Millet’s painting is located near my family’s house in Connecticut. And I am going there this weekend and could study it then. I made sure it’s not out on loan.ProfessorThat definitely would work then. Van Gogh copied many of Millet’s compositions. We know that he really admired Millet’s work. And a lot of us think Van Gogh saw this particular painting by Millet in Paris in the late 1700s.StudentYeah. Although Millet was a realist painter, and Van Gogh a post-impressionist, the two paintings still share lots of features, not just the name. The most striking shared feature has got to be the amazing light effects. I am excited to go see it. But one other thing …ProfessorUh-huh.StudentI was thinking about getting a head start on my next assignment while I am at the gallery in Connecticut, the assignment on miniatures. They have a lot of miniature portraits of children as part of their permanent collection.ProfessorAmerican miniatures?StudentYeah. So I figured I could also get started on that essay, study a few while I am there. I’d focus on the meaning of the objects that some of the children are holding, some are holding flowers,one child has a rattle, another a toy violin…ProfessorThat would be fine. Uh, those objects…we call them attributes. The attributes chosen to be included in a particular miniature was often meant to communicate parents’ hopes and dreams for their child. So I think you’ll learn a lot about how people viewed children at the time the miniature paintings were done.Lecture3-AstronomyNarratorListen to part of a lecture in an astronomy class.ProfessorThere’s been a lot of talk recently about life on Mars, at the level of microorganisms anyway, mainly because of a few important discoveries and inventions.For example, one major discovery was that at one point water was present on Mars. How do we know? Well, in 2004, an exploration robot discovered jarosite there.Jarosite is a yellowish brown mineral with a crystalline structure that’s also found on Earth. It contains iron, potassium and hydroxide. The interesting thing is that on Earth at least it needs highly acidic water to form. So we’ve got water or had it at one point. And since most planetary scientists believe that water is essential to life, the presence of jarosite means that one prerequisite for life was once present on Mars.But there’s another thing about jarosite. One step in its formation on Earth involves microorganisms; they actually speed up the formation of jarosite dramatically. Now, theoretically it is possible for jarosite to form without the help of biological life forms. But we don’t really know for sure if this happens ‘cause… well, because every corner of Earth has some form of biological life.But jarosite on Earth incorporates all kinds of microorganisms into its crystalline structure. So it’s possible that if the jarosite on Mars was also formed with the help of microorganisms, we might be able to detect remnants of them in the samples we find. And we have instruments now that will enable us to try to do this. For example, there’s a new instrument called the microfabricated organic analyzer, or M.O.A.The organic analyzer is an amazing tool. It will be able to collect soil samples and analyze them right there on Mars, pure, untouched samples. It will let us eliminate the risk we would take of contaminating the samples if they were brought back to Earth. And what they’ll look for specifically in the soil is amino acids.Amino acids, as you may know, are the building blocks of proteins. In fact, there are twenty standard amino acids involved in making proteins and lots more that aren’t.And here’s the important thing. Amino acids are what we call handed. They can exist in two forms, which are mirror images of each other like hands. Right and left hands have the same number of fingers in the same order plus one thumb. But right and left hands are not the same; they are mirror images. Well, like hands, amino acids can be right or left-handed. And thetwenty that make up the proteins on Earth are all left-handed.Now, one reason the M.O.A., the organic analyzer is so impressive is that it tests not just for the presence of amino acids but also for the handedness of amino acids. If amino acids are found, it would be especially interesting if they show a prevalence of one type of handedness, either left, like amino acids on Earth, or right.See, other physical processes in space, processes that don’t involve living organisms, can create amino acids. But the ones synthesized through abiotic processes, which is to say not involving microorganisms, occur in equal numbers of right- and left-handed.So, a prevalence of left-handed amino acids would indicate they were biological in origin, which would be amazing! A prevalence of right-handed ones…well, that would be really amazing!! Because the organisms that created them would be unlike anything we have on Earth, which produce only left-handed ones.Lecture4-Music HistoryNarratorListen to part of a lecture in a music history class. The professor has been discussing music of the twentieth century.ProfessorAnd what instrument comes to mind when you think of rock ‘n’ roll?StudentThe electric Guitar?ProfessorExactly. I think it’s fair to say that the sound of the electric guitar typifies the rock ‘n’ roll genre, which became popular in the 1950s. But really the instrument we know today was the result of a continuing development that started for our practical purposes in the 1920s.But long before that even, people were experimenting with ways to modify traditional acoustic guitars. The first guitars were wooden. This is the Spanish guitar and the strings were made from animal products. Then came steel strings. And that led to the lap guitar, which is also called the steel guitar because the player slides a steel rod up and down the neck. And those are all acoustic guitars. OK?But then eventually we have electric guitars. Over the years, many inventors and musicians contributed to the design of these instruments. And each design was intended to alter the sound in some way, at first at least with the electric guitar, to make it louder.So let’s get back to when the steel guitar was first introduced in the United States. It was right after the Spanish-American war in the late 1890s. US sailors who were stationed in Hawaii—then a US territory—were very enamored with the music they heard there. Uh, Hawaiian music was based on the steel guitar I just described. Some sailors learned how to play the steel guitar and brought it home to the States. Before long, Hawaiian steel guitar music was all the rage1 in the mainland US. It actually had a strong influence on the development of several musical genres, rock ‘n’ roll most notably, but also jazz and blues.Anyway, by the 1920s, with the advent of the public dance movement, people were gathering in large groups to listen to steel guitar music. But they had trouble hearing it, especially in large public settings. As I mentioned, the instrument was played horizontally, on the lap. Since the strings faced upward, the sound was projected toward the ceiling rather than outward toward1a widespread temporary enthusiasm or fashion: computer games are all the rage .the audience. Something had to be done, because the music venues and the audience kept getting larger and larger. So what would you do?StudentFind a way to amplify the sound?ProfessorYes. And to do that, inventors started attaching electronic devices, electrical coils to the acoustic guitars. And the electronics worked! But attaching electronics didn’t just affect how loudly you could play. It also changed the quality of the sound. These early electric guitars were hollow and these early amplifiers caused vibrations in the bodies of the instruments. So as the sound got louder, it became more distorted, fuzzy-sounding. And what musicians at the time wanted was a pure, clean sound.StudentSo where does Les Paul fit in? Wasn’t he the first to electrify acoustic guitars?ProfessorUh…no. Electrified guitars already existed by the time Les Paul came into the picture around 1940. What Paul did was experiment with ways of removing the distortions and he succeeded. He designed a guitar with a solid body that relied solely on electronics. Paul’s solid body eliminated the vibrations, and thus the distortions.StudentExcuse me. But when I think of electric guitar music, I think of Jimi Hendrix.ProfessorJimi Hendrix, one of my favorites.StudentBut Hendrix’s style really was all about distortion, that’s what’s so great about his music, all those special effects. I think a lot of rock ‘n’ roll fans prefer that to a pure sound.ProfessorYeah. You are getting ahead of me here. But good, because the point I was going to make is that the sound of rock ‘n’ roll changed over the years. And the designs and technology of electric guitars made those changes possible.So whereas Les Paul’s goal was to remove the distortion, later musicians wanted to produce it. And by the time Jimi Hendrix came around. Well, essentially, Hendrix reinvented the electric guitar, in the sense that he created amazing effects and vibrations that changed the sound of rock ‘n’roll completely. So eventually, people tried to improve on Les Paul’s model, well, to modify it I should say.。

tpo30阅读及答案

tpo30阅读及答案tpo30阅读试题1.Why does the author provide the information that "in northern Europe the sun maybe hidden by clouds for weeks at a time, while temperatures vary not only seasonallybut from day to night"?A.To emphasize the variety of environments in which people used sun and water clocks to telltime.B.To illustrate the disadvantage of sun and water clocks.C.To provide an example of an area where water clocks have an advantage over sun clocks.D.To counter the claim that sun and water clocks were used all over Europe.2.According to paragraph 2, all of the following are examples of the importance oftimekeeping to medieval European society EXCEPTA.the need of different towns to coordinate timekeeping with each other.B.the setting of specific times for the opening and closing of markets.C.the setting of specific time for the start and finish of the working day.D.the regulation of the performance of daily church rituals.3.According to paragraph 2, why did the medieval church need an alarm arrangement?A.The alarm warned the monks of discord or strife in the town.B.The church was responsible for regulating working hours and market hours.C.The alarm was needed in case fires were not put out each night.D.One of the churchs daily rituals occurred during the night.4.The word "authoritative" in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning toA.actual.B.important.C.official.D.effective.5.The author uses the phrase "the timekeeper of last resort" to refer toA.water clocks.B.the sun.C.mechanical clocks.D.the church.6.The word "rudimentary" in the passage(paragraph 3)is closest in meaning toA.rare.B.small.C.impractical.D.basic.7.According to paragraph 4, how did the Catholic Church react to the introduction ofmechanical clocks?A.Its used mechanical clocks through the period of urban collapse.B.It used clocks to better understand natural phenomena, like equinoxes.C.It tried to preserve its own method of keeping time, which was different from mechanical-clock time.D.It used mechanical clocks to challenge secular, town authorities.8.The word "installed" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning toA.required.B.expected by the majority of people.C.standardized.D.put in place.9.It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that medieval clockmakersA.were able to continually make improvements in the accuracy of mechanical clocks.B.were sometimes not well respected by other engineers.C.sometimes made claims about the accuracy of mechanical clocks that were not true.D.rarely shared their expertise with other engineers.10.Paragraph 5 answers which of the following questions about mechanical clocks.A.How did early mechanical clocks work?B.Why did the design of mechanical clocks affect engineering in general?C.How were mechanical clocks made?D.What influenced the design of the first mechanical clock?11.The word "pioneers" in the passage isclosest in meaning toA.leaders.B.opponents.C.employers.D.guardians.12.According to paragraph 6, how did the mechanical clock affect labor?A.It encouraged workers to do more time-filling busywork.B.It enabled workers to be more task oriented.C.It pushed workers to work more hours every day.D.It led to a focus on productivity.。

托福阅读TPO30（试题+答案+...

托福阅读TPO30(试题+答案+译文)第2篇:ThePaceofEvolutionaryChange为了帮助大家备考托福。

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托福阅读原文【1】A heated debate has enlivened recent studies of evolution. Darwin's original thesis, and the viewpoint supported by evolutionary gradualists, is that species change continuously but slowly and in small increments. Such changes are all but invisible over the short time scale of modern observations, and, it is argued, they are usually obscured by innumerable gaps in the imperfect fossil record. Gradualism, with its stress on the slow pace of change, is a comforting position, repeated over and over again in generations of textbooks. By the early twentieth century, the question about the rate of evolution had been answered in favor of gradualism to most biologists' satisfaction.【2】Sometimes a closed question must be reopened as new evidence or new arguments based on old evidence come to light. In 1972 paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge challenged conventional wisdom with an opposing viewpoint, the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis, which posits that species give rise to new species in relatively sudden bursts, without a lengthy transition period. These episodes of rapid evolution are separated by relatively long static spans during which a species may hardly change at all.【3】The punctuated equilibrium hypothesis attempts to explain a curious feature of the fossil record—one that has been familiar to paleontologist for more than a century but has usuallybeen ignored. Many species appear to remain unchanged in the fossil record for millions of years—a situation that seems to be at odds with Darwin's model of continuous change. Intermediated fossil forms, predicted by gradualism, are typically lacking. In most localities a given species of clam or coral persists essentially unchanged throughout a thick formation of rock, only to be replaced suddenly by a new and different species.【4】The evolution of North American horse, which was once presented as a classic textbook example of gradual evolution, is now providing equally compelling evidence for punctuated equilibrium. A convincing 50-million-year sequence of modern horse ancestors—each slightly larger, with more complex teeth, a longer face, and a more prominent central toe—seemed to provide strong support for Darwin's contention that species evolve gradually. But close examination of those fossil deposits now reveals a somewhat different story. Horses evolved in discrete steps, each of which persisted almost unchanged for millions of years and was eventually replaced by a distinctive newer model. The four-toed Eohippus preceded the three-toed Miohippus, for example, but North American fossil evidence suggests a jerky, uneven transition between the two. If evolution had been a continuous, gradual process, one might expect that almost every fossil specimen would be slightly different from every year.【5】If it seems difficult to conceive how major changes could occur rapidly, consider this: an alteration of a single gene in files is enough to turn a normal fly with a single pair of wings into one that has two pairs of wings.【6】The question about the rate of evolution must now be turned around: does evolution ever proceed gradually, or does italways occur in short bursts? Detailed field studies of thick rock formations containing fossils provide the best potential tests of the competing theories.【7】Occasionally, a sequence of fossil-rich layers of rock permits a comprehensive look at one type of organism over a long period of time. For example, Peter Sheldon's studies of trilobites, a now extinct marine animal with a segmented body, offer a detailed glimpse into three million years of evolution in one marine environment. In that study, each of eight different trilobite species was observed to undergo a gradual change in the number of segments—typically an increase of one or two segments over the whole time interval. No significant discontinuous were observed, leading Sheldon to conclude that environmental conditions were quite stable during the period he examined.【8】Similar exhaustive studies are required for many different kinds of organisms from many different periods. Most researchers expect to find that both modes of transition from one species to another are at work in evolution. Slow, continuous change may be the norm during periods of environmental stability, while rapid evolution of new species occurs during periods of environment stress. But a lot more studies like Sheldon's are needed before we can say for sure.托福阅读试题1.The word "innumerable" in the passage is closest in the meaning toA.countless.B.occasional.rge.D.repeated.2.According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true EXCEPTA.Darwin saw evolutionary change as happening slowly and gradually.B.Gaps in the fossil record were used to explain why it is difficult to see continuous small changes in the evolution of species.C.Darwin's evolutionary thesis was rejected because small changes could not be observed in the evolutionary record.D.By the early twentieth century, most biologists believed that gradualism explained evolutionary change.3.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 2 ? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.The punctuated equilibrium hypothesis challenged gradualism, which holds that species evolve in relatively sudden bursts of brief duration.B.The punctuated equilibrium hypothesis developed by Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge was challenged in 1972.C.In 1972 Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge challenged gradualism by positing that change from one species to another cannot occur without a lengthy transition period.D.The punctuate equilibrium hypothesis, in opposition to gradualism, holds that transitions from one species to another occur in comparatively sudden burst.4.According to paragraph 1 and paragraph 2, the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis and the gradualism hypothesis differed aboutA.Whether the fossil record is complete.B.Whether all species undergo change.C.Whether evolution proceeds an a constant rate.D.How many new species occur over long periods of time.5.According to paragraph 3, the lack of intermediate fossils in the fossil record of some speciesA.has been extensively studied by paleontologist for over a century.B.contradicts the idea that most species have remained unchanged for millions of years.C.challenges the view that evolutionary change is gradual.D.is most common in the fossil records of clam and coral species.6.The word "compelling" in the passage paragraph 4 is closest in the meaning toA.surprising.B.persuasive.C.controversial.D.detailed.7.Paragraph 4 mentions that North American horses have changed in all the following ways EXCEPT inA.the number of toes they have.B.the length of their face.C.their overall size.D.the number of years they live.8.The word "alteration" in the passage paragraph 5 is closest in meaning toA.imperfection.B.replacement.C.change.D.duplication.9.According to paragraph 7, Peter Sheldon's studies demonstrated which ofthe following about trilobites?A.They underwent gradual change over a long time period.B.They experienced a number of discontinuous transitions during their history.C.They remained unchanged during a long period of environmental stability.D.They evolved in ways that cannot be counted for by either of the two competing theories.10.The word "occasionally" in the passage paragraph 7 is closest in meaning toA.undoubtedly.B.basically.C.once in a while.D.to some extent.11.The main purpose of paragraph 7 is toA.Describe one test of the competing theories.B.Provide an example of punctuated equilibrium.C.Describe how segmented animals evidence both competing theories.D.Explain why trilobites became extinct.12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.Where could the sentence best fit? They believe that environmental conditions may play a crucial role in determining which of the two modes will be in operation over a given period.■【A】Similar exhaustive studies are required for many different kinds of o rganisms from many different periods. ■【B】Most researchers expect to find that both modes of transition from one species to another are at work in evolution.■【C】Slow,continuous change may be the norm during periods of environmental stability, while rapid evolution of new species occurs during periods of environment stress. ■【D】But a lot more studies like Sheldon's are needed before we can say for sure.13.Directions: selected from the seven phrases below the phrases that correctly characterize punctuated equilibrium and the phrases that correctly characterize gradualism. Two of the phrases will not be used. This question is worth 3 points.A.States that new species emerge from existing species during relatively brief period of time.B.Was first formulated by Charles Darwin.C.Explain why North American horses have become smaller over time.D.States that new species evolve slowly and continuously from existing species.E.Explain the lack of intermediate fossil forms in the fossil record of many species.petition is usually strongest when the density of the competing populations is the same.G.States that a species will not change unless its environment changes.1 )GradualismA B C D E F G2 )punctuated equilibriumA B C D E F G托福阅读答案1.innumerable是不可计数的，A是无数的，B是偶然的，C是大的，D是重复的。

托福TPO1-30听力原文文本全集18 版整理

智课网TOEFL备考资料托福TPO1-30听力原文文本全集18 版整理摘要：托福TPO听力1-30听力原文文本全集1.8 版整理!大家都知道托福听力TPO试题都来源于历年考试机经，对于该试题内容的权威性和仿真性自不用说，为方便大家更深入的研究小编特给出了托福TPO听力1-30听力原文文本全集1.8 版资料，同学们可以好好练习一下。

托福 TPO听力1-30听力原文文本全集1.8 版整理!大家都知道托福听力 TPO试题都来源于历年考试机经，对于该试题内容的权威性和仿真性自不用说，为方便大家更深入的研究小编特给出了托福TPO听力1-30听力原文文本全集1.8 版资料，同学们可以好好练习一下。

1.Why does the student go to see the librarian? #To sign up for a seminar on using electronic sources for research #To report that a journal is missing from the reference area #To find out the procedure for checking out journal articles #To ask about how to look for resources for a class paper #2.What does the librarian say about the availability of journals and articles in the library? #They are not easy to find if a professor put them on reserve #Most of them are accessible in an electronic format #Most of them can be checked out for three weeks #Printed versions from the past three years are located in the reference section #3.What does the librarian suggest the student should do to save time? #Choose an easier research topic#Concentrate on five journals#Read the summaries of the articles first#Install a new program on her home computer#4.What can be inferred about why the woman decides to use the computer in the library?#She thinks she might need additional help from the man#She does not have a computer at home#She has to hand in her assignment by the end of the day#She will be meeting a friend in the library later on#5.Why does the woman say this #She had forgotten about the information#She is surprised she was not aware of the information#She is annoyed that the information was published only recently#She is concerned that the librarian gave her incorrect information针对大家托福听力提分困难的复习处境，小马有开发出模拟托福听力考场环境的托福听力APP,小马托福听力APP中涵盖了TPO1-34听力真题全部内容的，答案解析应有尽有。

托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文30—3 The Invention of the Mechanical Clock

托福考试复习TPO 30—3 The Invention of the Mechanical Clock原文：【1】In Europe, before the introduction of the mechanical clock, people told time by sun (using, for example, shadow sticks or sun dials) and water clocks. Sun clocks worked, of course, only on clear days; water clocks misbehaved when the temperature fell toward freezing, to say nothing of long-run drift as the result of sedimentation and clogging. Both these devices worked well in sunny climates; but in northern Europe the sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time, while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night.【2】Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space. They set a time to go to sleep. All this was compatible with older devices so long as there was only one authoritative timekeeper; but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals, discrepancy brought discord and strife. Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurement and found it in the mechanical clock.【3】We do not know who invented this machine, or where. It seems to have appeared in Italy and England (perhaps simultaneous invention) between 1275 and 1300. Once known, it spread rapidly, driving out water clocks but not solar dials, which were needed to check the new machines against the timekeeper of last resort.These early versions were rudimentary, inaccurate, and prone to breakdown. 【4】Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Although church ritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout the centuries of urban collapse that followed the fall of Rome, church time was nature’s time. Day and night were divided into the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal; and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons. But the mechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning. The Catholic Church resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about a century. From the start, however, the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard, and the public clocks installed in town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipal authority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils of war; tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacred relics.【5】The clock was the greatest achievement of medieval mechanical ingenuity. Its general accuracy could be checked against easily observed phenomena, like the rising and setting of the sun. The result was relentless pressure to improve technique and design. At every stage, clockmakers led the way to accuracy and precision; they became masters of miniaturization, detectors and correctors of error, searchers for new and better. They were thus the pioneers of mechanical engineering and served as examples and teachers to other branches of engineering.【6】The clock brought order and control, both collective and personal. Its publicdisplay and private possession laid the basis for temporal autonomy: people could now coordinate comings and goings without dictation from above. The clock provided the punctuation marks for group activity, while enabling individuals to order their own work (and that of others) so as to enhance productivity. Indeed, the very notion of productivity is a by-product of the clock: once one can relate performance to uniform time units, work is never the same. One moves from the task-oriented time consciousness of the peasant (working on job after another, as time and light permit) and the time-filling busyness of the domestic servant (who always had something to do) to an effort to maximize product per unit of time.题目：1.Why does the author provide the information that "in northern Europe the sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time, while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night"?A.T o emphasize the variety of environments in which people used sun and water clocks to tell time.B.To illustrate the disadvantage of sun and water clocks.C.To provide an example of an area where water clocks have an advantage over sun clocks.D.T o counter the claim that sun and water clocks were used all over Europe.2.According to paragraph 2, all of the following are examples of the importance oftimekeeping to medieval European society EXCEPTA.the need of different towns to coordinate timekeeping with each other.B.the setting of specific times for the opening and closing of markets.C.the setting of specific time for the start and finish of the working day.D.the regulation of the performance of daily church rituals.3.According to paragraph 2, why did the medieval church need an alarm arrangement?A.The alarm warned the monks of discord or strife in the town.B.The church was responsible for regulating working hours and market hours.C.The alarm was needed in case fires were not put out each night.D.One of the church's daily rituals occurred during the night.4.The word "authoritative" in the passage（paragraph 2）is closest in meaning toA.actual.B.important.C.official.D.effective.5.The author uses the phrase "the timekeeper of last resort" to refer toA.water clocks.B.the sun.C.mechanical clocks.D.the church.6.The word "rudimentary" in the passage（paragraph 3）is closest in meaning toA.rare.B.small.C.impractical.D.basic.7.According to paragraph 4, how did the Catholic Church react to the introduction of mechanical clocks?A.Its used mechanical clocks through the period of urban collapse.B.It used clocks to better understand natural phenomena, like equinoxes.C.It tried to preserve its own method of keeping time, which was different from mechanical-clock time.D.It used mechanical clocks to challenge secular, town authorities.8.The word "installed" in the passage（paragraph 4）is closest in meaning toA.required.B.expected by the majority of people.C.standardized.D.put in place.9.It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that medieval clockmakersA.were able to continually make improvements in the accuracy of mechanical clocks.B.were sometimes not well respected by other engineers.C.sometimes made claims about the accuracy of mechanical clocks that were not true.D.rarely shared their expertise with other engineers.10.Paragraph 5 answers which of the following questions about mechanical clocks.A.How did early mechanical clocks work?B.Why did the design of mechanical clocks affect engineering in general?C.How were mechanical clocks made?D.What influenced the design of the first mechanical clock?11.The word "pioneers" in the passage isclosest in meaning toA.leaders.B.opponents.C.employers.D.guardians.12.According to paragraph 6, how did the mechanical clock affect labor?A.It encouraged workers to do more time-filling busywork.B.It enabled workers to be more task oriented.C.It pushed workers to work more hours every day.D.It led to a focus on productivity.13. Look at the four squares[■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? The division of time no longer reflected the organization of religious ritual.Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Although church ritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout the centuries of urban collapse that followed the fall of Rome,church time was nature's time.■【A】Day and night were divided into the same number of parts, so that exceptat the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal;and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons.■【B】But the mechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning.■【C】The Catholic Church resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about acentury.■【D】From the start, however, the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard, and the public clocks installed in town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipal authority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils of war;tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacred relics.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.The introduction of the mechanical clock caused important changes to the society of medieval Europe.A.The increasing complexity of social and economic activity in medieval Europe led to the need for a more dependable means of keeping time than sun and water clocks provided.B.Because they were unreliable even in sunny climates, sun clocks and water clocks were rarely used in Europe, even before the invention of the mechanical clock.C.Before the mechanical clock, every city wanted a large number of timekeepersbecause more timekeepers allowed for better organization of collective activities.D.Soon after the invention of mechanical clocks, sun and water clocks became obsolete because mechanical clocks were far more accurate.E.Predators help maintain biological diversity by limiting populations of a dominant competitor species, thereby preventing that species from excluding others.F.The removal of sea stars reduces the diversity of the community in which they are predators, and is therefore a bad idea.答案：1.从第一段的第二句开始，原文列举了这两种device各种的缺点，最后一句前半句说它们work，后面but表转折，证明要说有些情况它们不能用。

托福TPO30阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析

为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO30阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。

Role of Play in Development Play is easier to define with examples than withconcepts.In any case,in animals it consists ofleaping,running,climbing,throwing,wrestling,andother movements,either along,with objects,or withother animals.Depending on the species,play may be primarily for social interaction,exercise,or exploration.One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that itinvolves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance—dominance,predation,competition,and real fighting.Thus,whether play occurs or not depends on the intention ofthe animals,and the intentions are not always clear from behaviors alone. 用例证来定义玩耍要比用概念简单得多。

在任何情况下，动物间的玩耍都包括跳跃，奔跑，攀登，投掷，格斗和另外的一些动作，而玩耍的对象可能有其它物品或者动物。

根据物种的不同，玩耍的目的主要包括社交，锻炼，或探索。

定义“玩耍”的难点之一是，玩耍过程中常常包含一些与其它情况下相似的行为，例如统治，捕食，竞争和搏斗。

托福TPO30阅读Passage3原文文本+题目+答案解析

为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO30阅读Passage3原文文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。

当然，太阳钟只能用于晴天使用，而水钟表在水温下降到冰点时会出错，长期漂浮的东西因为下沉或堵塞而无法工作。

这两种仪器在晴天都运行的很好，但北欧，太阳可能会藏在云后长达一周，同时，温度不仅会随季节中变化，也因昼夜而不同。

Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time.The Catholic Church had its sevendaily prayers,one of which was at night,requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monksbefore dawn.And then the new cities and towns,squeezed by their walls,had to know andorder time in order to organize collective activity and ration space.They set a time to go tosleep.All this was compatible with older devices so long as there was only one authoritativetimekeeper;but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals,discrepancy broughtdiscord and strife.Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurementand found it in the mechanical clock. 中世纪欧洲使得可靠的时间变得更重要。

托福阅读真题第30套

Attempts at Determining Earth’s Age Since the dawn of civilization,people have been curious about the age of Earth.In addition,we have not been satisfied in being able to sate merely the relative geologic age of a rock or fossil.Human curiosity demands that we know actual age in years.Geologists working during the nineteenth century understood rock bodies, they would have to concentrate on natural processes that continue at a constant rate and that also leave some sort of tangible record in the rocks.Evolution is one such process,and geologist Charles Lyell(1797-1875)recognized this.BY comparing the amount of evolution exhibited by marine mollusks then,Lyell estimated that80million years had elapsed since the beginning of the Tertiary Period.He came astonishingly close to the mark,since it was actually about 65million years.However,for older sequence of evolutionary development,estimates based on parts in the fossil record.Rates of evolution for many orders of plants and animals were not well understood.In another attempt,geologists reasoned that if rates of deposition could be determined for sedimentary rocks,they might be able to estimate the time required for deposition of a given thickness of strata,or rock layers.Similar reasoning suggested that one could estimate total elapsed geologic time by dividing the average thickness of sediment transported annually to the oceans into the total thickness of sedimentary rock that had ever been deposited in the past.Unfortunately,such estimates did not adequately account for past difference in rates of sedimentation or losses to the total section of strata during episodes of erosion.Also,some very ancient sediments were no longer recognizable,having been converted to igneous and metamorphic rocks in the course of mountain building.Estimates of Earth’s total age based on sedimentation rates ranged from as little as million to over a billion year.Yet another scheme for approximating Earth’s age had been proposed in 1715by Sir Edmund Halley(1656-1742),whose name we associate with the famous comet.Halley surmised that the ocean formed soon after the origin of the planet and therefore would be only slightly younger that the age of the solid Earth.He reasoned that the original ocean was not salty and that subsequently salt derived from the weathering of rocks was brought to the sea by streams.Thus,if one knew the total amount of salt dissolved in the ocean and theamount added each year，it might be possible to calculate the ocean’s age in 1899,Irish geologist John Joly(1857-1933)attempted the calculation.From information provide by gauges placed at the mouths of streams.Joly was able to estimate the annual increment of salt to the oceans.Then,knowing the salinity of ocean water and the approximate volume of water,he calculated the amount of salt already held in solution in the oceans.An estimate of the age of the ocean was obtained by diving the total salt in the ocean by the rate of salt added each year.Beginning with essentially non-saline oceans,it would have taken about 90million years of the oceans to reach their present salinity,according to Joly. The figure,however,was off the currently accepted mark of4.54billion by a factor of50,largely because there was no way to account accurately by recycled salt and salt incorporated into clay mineral deposited on the sea floors.Even though in error,Joly’s calculations clearly supported those geologists who insisted on an age for Earth far in excess of a few million years.The belief in Earth’s immense antiquity was also supported by Darwin,Huxley,and other evolutionary biologists,who saw the need for time in the hundreds of millions of years to accomplish the organic evolution apparent in the fossil record.Paragraph2Geologists working during the nineteenth century understood rock bodies, they would have to concentrate on natural processes that continue at a constant rate and that also leave some sort of tangible record in the rocks.Evolution is one such process,and geologist Charles Lyell(1797-1875)recognized this.BY comparing the amount of evolution exhibited by marine mollusks then,Lyell estimated that80million years had elapsed since the beginning of the Tertiary Period.He came astonishingly close to the mark,since it was actually about65 million years.However,for older sequence of evolutionary development, estimates based on parts in the fossil record.Rates of evolution for many orders of plants and animals were not well understood.1.The word“tangible”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.physicalB.relatedC.significantD.helpful2.It can be inferred form paragraph2that Charles Lyell based his study of the marine mollusk fossils on which of the following assumptions?A.The Tertiary Period was separated into division of time that were equal inlength.B.Mollusks lived under rocks in the sea during the Tertiary period.C.Evolution of mollusks proceeded at a uniform rate over timeD.Mollusks have evolved less rapidly with the passing of time3.The word“sequence”in the passage is closet in meaning toA.observationsB.sensesC.seriesD.categories4.According to paragraph2,Lyell’s strategy for estimation geologic dates was not very accurate for periods before the Tertiary Period party becauseA.Marine mollusks did not evolve until the Tertiary PeriodB.fossil records of the very distant past are incompleteC.there was not much agreement about how to identify or categorize earliererasD.the duration of previous geologic periods was difficult to determineParagraph3In another attempt,geologists reasoned that if rates of deposition could be determined for sedimentary rocks,they might be able to estimate the time required for deposition of a given thickness of strata,or rock layers.Similar reasoning suggested that one could estimate total elapsed geologic time by dividing the average thickness of sediment transported annually to the oceans into the total thickness of sedimentary rock that had ever been deposited in the past.Unfortunately,such estimates did not adequately account for past difference in rates of sedimentation or losses to the total section of strata during episodes of erosion.Also,some very ancient sediments were no longer recognizable,having been converted to igneous and metamorphic rocks in the course of mountain building.Estimates of Earth’s total age based on sedimentation rates ranged from as little as million to over a billion year.5.The phrase“another attempt”in the passage refers toA.trying to understand the fossil recordB.trying to determine the evolutionary rate of marine mollusksC.trying to understand natural processesD.trying to determine Earth’s actual age6.The world“converted”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.addedB.changedC.restoredD.reduced7.According to paragraph3,all of the following were problems with the calculation of Earth’s age using the study of sedimentary rocks EXCEPTA.the inconsistency of sedimentation rates over timeB.the effect of geologic process on sedimentary rockC.the expansion of some sedimentary rocks due to Earth’s internal heatD.the loss of an unknown number of sedimentary layers due to erosionParagraph4Yet another scheme for approximating Earth’s age had been proposed in 1715by Sir Edmund Halley(1656-1742),whose name we associate with the famous comet.Halley surmised that the ocean formed soon after the origin of the planet and therefore would be only slightly younger that the age of the solid Earth.He reasoned that the original ocean was not salty and that subsequently salt derived from the weathering of rocks was brought to the sea by streams.Thus,if one knew the total amount of salt dissolved in the ocean and the amount added each year,it might be possible to calculate the ocean’s age in1899,Irish geologist John Joly(1857-1933)attempted the calculation. From information provide by gauges placed at the mouths of streams.Joly was able to estimate the annual increment of salt to the oceans.Then,knowing the salinity of ocean water and the approximate volume of water,he calculated the amount of salt already held in solution in the oceans.An estimate of the age of the ocean was obtained by diving the total salt in the ocean by the rate of salt added each year.Beginning with essentially non-saline oceans,it would have taken about90million years of the oceans to reach their present salinity,according to Joly.The figure,however,was off the currently accepted mark of 4.54billion by a factor of50,largely because there was no way to account accurately by recycled salt and salt incorporated into clay mineral deposited on the sea floors.Even though in error,Joly’s calculations clearly supported those geologists who insisted on an age for Earth far in excess of a few million years. The belief in Earth’s immense antiquity was also supported by Darwin, Huxley,and other evolutionary biologists,who saw the need for time in the hundreds of millions of years to accomplish the organic evolution apparent in the fossil record.8.The world“approximating”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.thinking aboutB.researchingC.estimatingD.demonstrating9.The word“subsequently”in the passage is closest in meaning toterB.furthermoreC.evidentlyD.accidentally10.According to paragraph4,John Joly’s calculations were founded on all thefollowing EXCEPTA.knowing how salty the ocean water isB.estimating how much salt enters the ocean each yearC.accounting for the amount of salt that is recycledD.figuring the volume of water contained in the ocean11.According to paragraph4,in which of the following ways could Joly’sestimate of Earth’s age be considered significant?A.It proved that Halley’s idea about the age of the ocean was fairly accurate.B.It indicated that Earth was much older than some scientists had claimed.C.It was favored by the majority of scientists at the end of the nineteenthcenturyD.It was the basis for much modern research into the salinity of the ocean12.The author mentions“Darwin,Huxley,and other evolutionarybiologists”in order toA.Provide evidence that Joly’s calculations inspired scientists working onother lines of scientific inquiryB.Support the claim that all of the leading scientists of the time believed thatEarth was just over90million years oldC.Argue that Joly’s calculations would have been more exact if he hadcollaborated with experts in other fieldsD.Provide examples of scientists who believed the age of Earth to be greaterthan just a few million on year,like Joly,in order to account for their findingsParagraph2Geologists working during the nineteenth century understood rock bodies, they would have to concentrate on natural processes that continue at a constant rate and that also leave some sort of tangible record in the rocks.Evolution is one such process,and geologist Charles Lyell(1797-1875)recognized this.■By comparing the amount of evolution exhibited by marine mollusks then,Lyell estimated that80million years had elapsed since the beginning of the Tertiary Period.He came astonishingly close to the mark,since it was actually about65 million years.■However,for older sequence of evolutionary development, estimates based on parts in the fossil record.■Rates of evolution for many orders of plants and animals were not well understood.■13.Look at the four squares[■]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.More fundamentally,Lyell’s evolutionary approach is intrinsically limited because Earth existed long before life and evolution began.Where would the sentence best fit?14.Directions：An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are notpresented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth2points.Since the dawn of civilization,people have been curious about Earth’s ageAnswer choicesA.It was not until the nineteenth century that attempts were made todetermine the relative geologic age of rocks and fossils.B.Charles Lyell made a good estimate of the Tertiary Period from the fossilrecord,but his method could not be extended to earlier geological periods.C.Attempts were made to calculate Earth’s age from the thickness of survivingsedimentary rock and from the current level of the oceans’salinity.D.In the nineteenth century,scientists made a number of important,butunsuccessful,attempts to calculate Earth’s age from the record of various natural processes.E.Darwin and Huxley supported the accuracy of John Joly’s Calculation ofEarth’s age because it agree with their view of how long evolution had been in progress.F.Earth’s true age,4.54billion years,was determined by combining data fromthe geological and fossil records.Attempts at Determining Earth’s Age1.A2.C3.C4.B5.D6.B7.C8.C9.A10.C11.B12.D13. D14.BCDThe Early History of Motion PicturesMotion pictures and television are possible because of two quirks of the human perceptual system:the phi phenomenon and persistence of vision.The phi phenomenon refers to what happens when a person sees one light sources go out while another one close to the original is illuminated.To our eyes,it looks like the light moves from one place to another.In persistence of vision, our eyes continue to see an image for a spit second after the image has disappeared from view.First observed by the ancient Greeks,persistence of vision became more widely known in1824when Peter Roget(who also developed the thesaurus)demonstrated that human begins retain an image of an object for about one-tenth of a second after the object is taken from view. Following Roget’s pronouncement，a host of toys that depended on this principle sprang up in Europe.Bearing fanciful manes(the Thaumatrope,the Praxinoscope),these devices made a series of hand-drawn pictures appear to move.Before long,several people realized that a series of still photographs on celluloid film could be used instead of hand drawing.In1878a colorful Englishman later turned American.Edward Muybridge,attempted to settle a $25.000bet over whether the four feet of a galloping horse ever simultaneously left the ground.He arranged a series of24cameras alongside a racetrack to photograph a galloping horse.Rapidly viewing the series of pictures produced an effect much like that of a motion picture.Muybirdge’s technique not only settled the bet(the feet did leave the ground simultaneously at certain instances) but also photography.Instead of24cameras talking one pictures in rapid order, it was Thomas Edison and his assistant,William Dickson,who finally developed what might have been the first practical motion-picture camera and viewing device,Edison was apparently trying to provide a visual counterpart to his recently invented phonograph.When his early efforts did not work out,he turned the project over his ing flexible film,Dickson solved the vexing problem of how to move the film rapidly through the camera by perforating its edge with tiny holes and pulling it along by means of sprockets, projections on a wheel that fit into the holes of the film in1889Dickson had perfected a machine called the Kinetoscope and even starred in a brief film demonstrating how itworked.These early efforts in the Edison lab were not directed at projecting movies to large crowds.Still influenced by the success of his phonograph,Edison thought a similar device could make a money by showing brief films to one person at a time for a penny a look.Edison built a special studio to produce films for his new invention,and by1894,Kinetoscope parlors were spring up in major cities.The long-range commercial potential of his invention was lost on Edison.He reasoned that the real money would be made by selling his peep-show machine.If a large number of people were shown the film at the same time,fewer machines would be needed.Developments in Europe proved Edison wrong as inventors there devised large-screen projection devices.Faced with competition,Edison perfected the Vitascope and unveiled it in New York City in1896.Early monies were simple snippets of action—acrobats tumbling,horse running,jugglers juggling,and so on.Eventually,the novelty wore off and films became less of an attraction.Public interest was soon rekindled when early filmmakers discovered that movies could be used to tell story.In France,Alice Guy-Blache produced The Cabbage Fair-y,a one-minute film about a fairy who produces children in a Cabbage patch,and exhibited it at the Paris International Exhibition in1896.Guy-Blache went on to found her own studio in America.Better known is the work of a fellow French filmmaker and magician,Georges Melies.In1902Melies produced a science-fiction film that was the great-great-grandfather of Star Wars and Star T^ek;it was called A Trip to the Moon.ParagraphiMotion pictures and television are possible because of two quirks of the human perceptual system:the phi phenomenon and persistence of vision.The phi phenomenon refers to what happens when a person sees one light sources go out while another one close to the original is illuminated.To our eyes,it looks like the light moves from one place to another.In persistence of vision, our eyes continue to see an image for a spit second after the image has disappeared from view.First observed by the ancient Greeks,persistence of vision became more widely known in1824when Peter Roget(who also developed the thesaurus)demonstrated that human begins retain an image ofan object for about one-tenth of a second after the object is taken from view. Following Rogefs pronouncement,a host of toys that depended on this principle sprang up in Europe.Bearing fanciful manes(the Thaumatrope,the Praxinoscope),these devices made a series of hand-drawn pictures appear to move.1.According to paragraph1,what is the phi phenomenon?A.The appearance of movement that occurs when one light is turned off whileanother lights up nearbyB.The tendency to see two lights placed close together as coming from a singlelight sourceC.The fact that the human eye sees a light source for a split second after it hasdisappearedD.The impression that there are several light sources when there is actuallyonly one2.According to paragraph1,which of the following statements does NOT correctly describe persistence of vision?A.It was originally noticed by the ancient GreeksB.It refers to an image of an object seen by the human eye for one-tenth of asecond after the object has disappearedC.It is a scientific principle that was already widely accepted before PeterRoget demonstrated its validityD.It provided the basis for a number of European toys,including theThaumatrope and the Praxinoscope3.The word“pronouncement”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.statementB.adviceC.theoryD.ExperimentParagraph2Before long,several people realized that a series of still photographs on celluloid film could be used instead of hand drawing.In1878a colorful Englishman later turned American.Edward Muybridge,attempted to settle a$25.000bet over whether the four feet of a galloping horse ever simultaneously left the ground.He arranged a series of24cameras alongside a racetrack to photograph a galloping horse.Rapidly viewing the series of pictures produced an effect much like that of a motion picture. Muybirdge’s technique not only settled the bet(the feet did leave the ground simultaneously at certain instances)but also photography.Instead of24 cameras talking one pictures in rapid order,it was Thomas Edison and his assistant,William Dickson,who finally developed what might have been the first practical motion-picture camera and viewing device,Edison was apparently trying to provide a visual counterpart to his recently invented phonograph.When his early efforts did not work out,he turned the project over his ing flexible film,Dickson solved the vexing problem of how to move the film rapidly through the camera by perforating its edge with tiny holes and pulling it along by means of sprockets,projections on a wheel that fit into the holes of the film in1889Dickson had perfected a machine called the Kinetoscope and even starred in a brief film demonstrating how it worked.4.In paragraph2,why does the author mention the bet that Edward Muybridge tried to settle about whether“the four feet of a galloping horse ever simultaneously left the ground”？A.To introduce and explain a fundamental principle of motion-picturephotographyB.To demonstrate that still photographs produced a visual effect thatsurpassed that of hand-drawn picturesC.To emphasize that photographers had to be willing to take risks in order toportray their subjectsD.To suggest the difficulty of trying to capture animal movement inmotion-picture photography5.The word“counterpart”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.additionB.inventionponentD.equivalent6.The word“fl exible”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.connectedB.smoothC.bendableD.Delicate7.According to paragraph2,how did Muybridge contribute to the development of motion-picture technology?A.He invented the first motion-picture camera.B.He demonstrated the technique of taking a series of photographs andviewing them in rapid successionC.He asked Edison and Dickson to create a motion-picture camera that wasboth practical and economicalD.He combined hand drawings and still photographs to create movie-likeeffects8.Paragraph2suggests that Thomas Edison’s early efforts to develop a motion-picture camera failed because he could not figure out how toA.display the camera’s pictures to an audienceB.move the film quickly through the cameraC.line the edge of the film with holes that were small enoughD.prevent the film form tearingParagraph3These early efforts in the Edison lab were not directed at projecting movies to large crowds.Still influenced by the success of his phonograph,Edison thought a similar device could make a money by showing brief films to one person at a time for a penny a look.Edison built a special studio to produce films for his new invention,and by1894,Kinetoscope parlors were spring up in major cities.The long-range commercial potential of his invention was lost on Edison.He reasoned that the real money would be made by selling his peep-show machine.If a large number of people were shown the film at the same time,fewer machines would be needed.Developments in Europe proved Edison wrong as inventors there devised large-screen projection devices.Faced with competition,Edison perfected the Vitascope and unveiled it in New York City in1896.9.According to paragraph3,what were Kinetoscope parlors?A.Places where people could pay a penny to view a short film by looking into amachineB.Places where people could gather in crowds to watch short films projectedonto large screensC.Special studios where Edison produced films that would be shown by hisnewly invented machineD.Places where Edison sold his phonographs,peep-show machines,and otherpopular inventions10.Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph3about the scope?A.It was widely used in Europe before being adopted in the United StatesB.It never made as much money as the equivalent European projection deviceC.It was a larger version of the original KinetoscopeD.It was designed to show motion pictures to large groups of people Paragraph4Early monies were simple snippets of action—acrobats tumbling,horse running,jugglers juggling,and so on.Eventually,the novelty wore off and films became less of an attraction.Public interest was soon rekindled when early filmmakers discovered that movies could be used to tell story.In France,Alice Guy-Blache produced The Cabbage Fairy,a one-minute film about a fairy who produces children in a Cabbage patch,and exhibited it at the Paris International Exhibition in1896.Guy-Blache went on to found her own studio in America.Better known is the work of a fellow French filmmaker and magician,Georges Melies.In1902Melies produced a science-fiction film that was the great-great-grandfather of Star Wars and Star Trek;it was called A Trip to the Moon.11.The word“rekindled”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.reportedB.renewedC.reinforcedD.Rewarded12.In paragraph4,the author describes the film The Cabbage Fairy in order toA.argue for the importance of continuous action to keep audiences interestedB.suggest that early films were more popular than live performances wereC.provide an example of one of the first films to tell a storyD.emphasize how relatively short most early movies werePragraph4Early monies were simple snippets of action—acrobats tumbling,horse running,jugglers juggling,and so on.Eventually,the novelty wore off and films became less of an attraction.Public interest was soon rekindled when early filmmakers discovered that movies could be used to tell story.■In France, Alice Guy-Blache produced The Cabbage Fairy,a one-minute film about a fairy who produces children in a Cabbage patch,and exhibited it at the Paris International Exhibition in1896.■Guy-Blache went on to found her own studio in America.■Better known is the work of a fellow French filmmaker and magician,Georges Melies.■In1902Melies produced a science-fiction film that was the great-great-grandfather of Star Wars and Star Trek;it was called A Trip to the Moon.13.Look at the four squares[■]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Although she directed hundreds of short films and produced hundreds more over the course of her career,she has largely been forgotten.Where would the sentence best fit?14.Directions:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided plete the summary by selected THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage.Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth2points. The phi phenomenon and persistence of vision are two characteristics of the human perceptual system that make motion pictures and television possible.Answer ChoicesA.When the persistence of vision became widely known,it inspired thedevelopment of toys that made hand-drawn pictures appear to move B.The invention of the motion-picture camera led to the discovery that ahorse’s feet do not leave the ground while the horse is galloping.C.The primary competitors in early motion-picture technology were Edison’sKinetoscope and the European-designed and manufactured large-screen projection devicesD.The motion-picture camera develop from the experiments in sequentialphotography that were originally done by Edward Muybridgeter developments in film included a focus on large-screens projectionrather than individual viewing machines and narrative films rather than simple action sequences.F.French filmmakers Alice Guy-Blache and Georges started the first twomajor movie studios in America and in France,respectively.The Early History of Motion Pictures1.A2.C3.A4.B5.D6.C7.B8.B9.A10.D11.B12.C13.C14.CDE。

托福阅读TPO30-3 The Invention of the Mechanical Clock

The Invention of the Mechanical Clock In Europe, before the introduction of the mechanical clock, people told time by sun (using, for example, shadow sticks or sun dials) and water clocks. Sun clocks worked, of course, only on clear days; water clocks misbehaved when the temperature fell toward freezing, to say nothing of long-run drift as the result of sedimentation and clogging. Both these devices worked well in sunny climates; but in northern Europe the sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time, while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night.Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space. They set a time to go to sleep. All this was compatible with older devices so long as there was only one authoritative timekeeper; but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals, discrepancy brought discord and strife. Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurement and found it in the mechanical clock.We do not know who invented this machine, or where. It seems to have appeared in Italy and England (perhaps simultaneous invention) between 1275 and 1300. Once known, it spread rapidly, driving out water clocks but not solar dials, which were needed to check the new machines against the timekeeper of last resort. These early versions were rudimentary, inaccurate, and prone to breakdown.Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Although church ritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout the centuries of urban collapse that followed the fall of Rome, church time was nature’ s time. Day and night were divided into the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal; and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons. But the mechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning. The Catholic Church resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about a century. From the start, however, the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard,and the public clocks installed in town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipal authority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils of war; tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacred relics.The clock was the greatest achievement of medieval mechanical ingenuity. Its general accuracy could be checked against easily observed phenomena, like the rising and setting of the sun. The result was relentless pressure to improve technique and design. At every stage, clockmakers led the way to accuracy and precision; they became masters of miniaturization, detectors and correctors of error, searchers for new and better. They were thus the pioneers of mechanical engineering and served as examples and teachers to other branches of engineering.The clock brought order and control, both collective and personal. Its public display and private possession laid the basis for temporal autonomy: people could now coordinate comings and goings without dictation from above. The clock provided the punctuation marks for group activity, while enabling individuals to order their own work (and that of others) so as to enhance productivity. Indeed, the very notion of productivity is a by-product of the clock: once on can relate performance to uniform time units, work is never the same. One moves from the task-oriented time consciousness of the peasant (working on job after another, as time and light permit) and the time-filling busyness of the domestic servant (who always had something to do) to an effort to maximize product per unit of time.Paragraph 1: In Europe, before the introduction of the mechanical clock, people told time by sun (using, for example, shadow sticks or sun dials) and water clocks. Sun clocks worked, of course, only on clear days; water clocks misbehaved when the temperature fell toward freezing, to say nothing of long-run drift as the result of sedimentation and clogging. Both these devices worked well in sunny climates; but in northern Europe the sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time, while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night.1.Why does the author provide the information that ”in northern Europe the sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time, while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night”?O To emphasize the variety of environments in which people used sun and water clocks to tell timeO To illustrate the disadvantage of sun and water clocksO To provide an example of an area where water clocks have an advantage over sun clocksO To counter the claim that sun and water clocks were used all over EuropeParagraph 2: Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space. They set a time to go to sleep. All this was compatible witholder devices so long as there was only timekeeper; but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals, discrepancy brought discord and strife. Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurement and found it in the mechanical clock.2. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are examples of the importance of timekeeping to medieval European society EXCEPTO the need of different towns to coordinate timekeeping with each otherO the setting of specific times for the opening and closing of marketsO the setting of specific time for the start and finish of the working dayO the regulation of the performance of daily church rituals3. According to paragraph 2, why did the medieval church need an alarm arrangement?O The alarm warned the monks of discord or strife in the town.O The church was responsible for regulating working hours and market hours.O The alarm was needed in case fires were not put out each night.O One of the church’s daily rituals occurred during the night.O actualO importantO officialO effectiveParagraph 3: We do not know who invented this machine, or where. It seems to have appeared in Italy and England (perhaps simultaneous invention) between 1275 and 1300. Once known, it spread rapidly, driving out water clocks but not solar dials, whichwere needed to check the new machines TheseO water clocksO the sunO mechanical clocksO the churchO rareO smallO impracticalO basicParagraph 4: Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Although church ritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout the centuries of urban collapse that followed the fall of Rome, church time was nature’ s tim e. Day and night were divided into the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal; and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons. But the mechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning. The Catholic Church resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about a century. From the start, however, the towns and cities took equal hoursas their standard, and the public clocks in town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipal authority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils of war; tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacred relics.7. According to paragraph 4, how did the Catholic Church react to the introduction of mechanical clocks?O Its used mechanical clocks through the period of urban collapseO It used clocks to better understand natural phenomena, like equinoxesO It tried to preserve its own method of keeping time, which was different from mechanical-clock time.O It used mechanical clocks to challenge secular, town authorities.O requiredO expected by the majority of peopleO standardizedO put in placeParagraph 5: The clock was the greatest achievement of medieval mechanical ingenuity. Its general accuracy could be checked against easily observed phenomena, like the rising and setting of the sun. The result was relentless pressure to improve technique and design. At every stage, clockmakers led the way to accuracy and precision; they became masters of miniaturization, detectors and correctors of error,searchers for new and better. They were of mechanical engineering and served as examples and teachers to other branches of engineering.9. It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that medieval clockmakersO were able to continually make improvements in the accuracy of mechanical clocksO were sometimes not well respected by other engineersO sometimes made claims about the accuracy of mechanical clocks that were not trueO rarely shared their expertise with other engineers10. Paragraph 5 answers which of the following questions about mechanical clocks.O How did early mechanical clocks work?O Why did the design of mechanical clocks affect engineering in general?O How were mechanical clocks made?O What influenced the design of the first mechanical clock?ning toO leadersO opponentsO employersO guardiansParagraph 6: The clock brought order and control, both collective and personal. Its public display and private possession laid the basis for temporal autonomy: people could now coordinate comings and goings without dictation from above. The clock provided the punctuation marks for group activity, while enabling individuals to order their own work (and that of others) so as to enhance productivity. Indeed, the very notion of productivity is a by-product of the clock: once on can relate performance to uniform time units, work is never the same. One moves from the task-oriented time consciousness of the peasant (working on job after another, as time and light permit) and the time-filling busyness of the domestic servant (who always had something to do) to an effort to maximize product per unit of time.12. According to paragraph 6, how did the mechanical clock affect labor?O It encouraged workers to do more time-filling busywork.O It enabled workers to be more task oriented.O It pushed workers to work more hours every day.O It led to a focus on productivity.Paragraph 4: Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Although church ritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout thecenturies of urban collapse that followed the fall of Rome, church time was nature’ s tim e.■Day and night were divided into the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal; and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons.■But the mechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning.■The Catholic Church resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about a century.■From the start, however, the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard, and the public clocks installed in town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipal authority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils of war; tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacred relics.13. Look at the four squares[■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.The division of time no longer reflected the organization of religious ritual.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.The introduction of the mechanical clock caused important changes to the society of medieval Europe.●●●Answer ChoicesO The increasing complexity of social and economic activity in medieval Europe led to the need for a more dependable means of keeping time than sun and water clocks provided.O Because they were unreliable even in sunny climates, sun clocks and water clocks were rarely used in Europe, even before the invention of the mechanical clock.O Before the mechanical clock, every city wanted a large number of timekeepers because more timekeepers allowed for better organization of collective activities.O Soon after the invention of mechanical clocks, sun and water clocks became obsolete because mechanical clocks were far more accurate.O Predators help maintain biological diversity by limiting populations of a dominant competitor species, thereby preventing that species from excluding others.O The removal of sea stars reduces the diversity of the community in which they are predators, and is therefore a bad idea.参考答案1.○22.○13.○44.○35.○26.○47.○38.○49.○110.○211.○112.○413.○314. The increasing complexity of social Predators help maintain biologicalThe removal of sea stars reduces。

tpo30阅读第3篇答案

tpo30阅读第3篇答案tpo30阅读第3篇试题1.According to paragraph 1, why is play difficult to define?A.Play must be defined with concepts, not examples.B.Play behavior often looks like nonplay behavior.C.Play often occurs in the presence of animals that are not playing.D.Play occurs independently of an animals intentions.2.According to paragraph 2, which of the following presents a particular challenge toresearchers who study play behavior in animalsA.The delay between activities and the benefits the animal derives from them.B.The difficulty in determining which animal species play and which do not.C.The fact that for most animals, there is no clear transition from youth to full adulthood.D.The lack of research on the play behavior of animals other than canids and primates.3.The word "considerable" in the passage paragraph 3 is closest in the meaning toA.Initial.B.Practical.C.Eventually.D.Significant.4.According to paragraph 3, each of the following is a cost to animals that engage inplay EXCEPTA.exposure to predators.B.a buildup of fat stores.C.a loss of fuel that could be used for growth.D.risk of injury from slipping or falling.5.Why does the author include the comment "though they were fed the same diets"?A.To show why rats living in impoverished environments need less food than those living inenriched environments.B.To eliminate the possibility that differences in diet were responsibly for observed differencesin brain weight.C.To emphasize the point that rats were fed only the amount of food needed to keep themalive.D.To suggest that rats fed the same diet have smaller brains than those fed a varied food.6.Paragraph 4 supports which of the following statements about an animals brain.A.The heavier the brain, the richer the environment in which the animal was raised.B.The younger the animal, the harder it is to develop new connections between nerve cells.C.The larger the animal, the harder it is to develop new connections between nerve cells.D.The larger the animals cerebellum, the larger will be the animals nerve cells.7.According to paragraph 5, why might play behavior of prey species be different fromthose of predator species?A.Unlike predator species, prey species use play to prevent inappropriate social behaviors,such as biting.B.Some prey species are physically incapable of certain types of predator movements.C.The survival of each species type is linked to particular sets of muscular movements.D.Predator species have more opportunities to practice play behaviors than prey species.8.The word "comparative" in the passage paragraph 6 is closest in meaning toA.relative.B.temporary.C.sufficient.plete.9.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information inthehighlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 6 ? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Only monkeys that have learned to control their selfish and aggressive behaviors can beinvolved in social groups.B.Selfish and aggressive animals like monkeys live in groups in order to practice appropriatesocial behaviors.C.Monkeys and other social animals need to learn behaviors appropriate for their socialgroups.D.Some monkeys are naturally too selfish and aggressive to understand the give-and-take ofsocial groups, so they learn such important behaviors while young.10.What can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the role of adults in play activities ofthe young?A.Adults help their young learn to become dominant within the social group.B.Young animals learn how to play from the adults within their social group.C.Adults allow the young to engage in play behaviors within a protected, sage environment.。

托福阅读tpo30R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识

托福阅读tpo30R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文 (1)译文 (4)题目 (7)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)原文The Invention of the Mechanical Clock①In Europe,before the introduction of the mechanical clock,people told time by sun(using,for example,shadow sticks or sun dials)and water clocks.Sun clocks worked,of course,only on clear days;water clocks misbehaved when the temperature fell toward freezing,to say nothing of long-run drift as the result of sedimentation and clogging. Both these devices worked well in sunny climates;but in northern Europe the sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time,while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night.②Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time.The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers,one of which was at night,requiringan alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn.And then the new cities and towns,squeezed by their walls,had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space.They set a time to go to sleep,to open the market,to close the market,to leave work,and finally a time to put out fires and to go to sleep.All this was compatible with older devices so long as there was only one authoritative timekeeper;but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals, discrepancy brought discord and strife.Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurement and found it in the mechanical clock.③We do not know who invented this machine,or where.It seems to have appeared in Italy and England(perhaps simultaneous invention) between1275and1300.Once known,it spread rapidly,driving out water clocks but not solar dials,which were needed to check the new machines against the timekeeper of last resort.These early versions were rudimentary,inaccurate,and prone to breakdown.④Ironically,the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority.Although church ritual had sustained an interest intimekeeping throughout the centuries of urban collapse that followed the fall of Rome,church time was nature’s time.Day and night were divided into the same number of parts,so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal;and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons.But the mechanical clock kept equal hours,and this implied a new time reckoning.The Catholic Church resisted,not coming over to the new hours for about a century.From the start,however,the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard, and the public clocks installed in town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new,secular municipal authority.Every town wanted one;conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils of war; tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacred relics.⑤The clock was the greatest achievement of medieval mechanical ingenuity.Its general accuracy could be checked against easily observed phenomena,like the rising and setting of the sun.The result was relentless pressure to improve technique and design.At every stage, clockmakers led the way to accuracy and precision;they became masters of miniaturization,detectors and correctors of error,searchers for new and better.They were thus the pioneers of mechanical engineering andserved as examples and teachers to other branches of engineering.⑥The clock brought order and control,both collective and personal.Its public display and private possession laid the basis for temporal autonomy:people could now coordinate comings and goings without dictation from above.The clock provided the punctuation marks for group activity,while enabling individuals to order their own work(and that of others)so as to enhance productivity.Indeed,the very notion of productivity is a by-product of the clock:once one can relate performance to uniform time units,work is never the same.One moves from the task-oriented time consciousness of the peasant(working on job after another,as time and light permit)and the time-filling busyness of the domestic servant(who always had something to do)to an effort to maximize product per unit of time.译文机械钟的发明①在欧洲，人们在引进机械钟之前通过太阳（例如使用影子棒或日晷）和水钟来报时。

托福TPO30综合写作阅读原文+听力原文+满分范文

为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO30综合写作阅读原文+听力原文+满分范文，希望对大家备考有所帮助。

托福TPO30综合写作阅读原文文本： A little over 2,200 years ago, the Roman navy attacked the Greek port city of Syracuse. According to some ancient historians, the Greeks defended themselves with an ingenious weapon called a "burning mirror": a polished copper surface curved to focus the Sun's rays onto Roman ships, causing them to catch fire. However, we have several reasons to suspect that the story of the burning mirror is just a myth and the Greeks of Syracuse never rally built such a device. First, the ancient Greeks were not technologically advanced enough to make such a device. A mirror that would focus sunlight with sufficient intensity to set ships on fire would have to be several meters wide. Moreover, the mirror would have to have a very precise parabolic curvature(a curvature derived from a geometric shape known as the parabola). The technology for manufacturing a large sheet of copper with such specifications did not exist in the ancient world. Second, the burning mirror would have taken a long time to set the ships on fire. In an experiment conducted to determine whether a burning mirror was feasible, a device concentrating the Sun's rays on a wooden object 30 meters away took ten minutes to set the object on fire: and during that time, the object had to be unmoving. It is unlikely that Roman ships stayed perfectly still for that much time, Such a weapon would therefore have been very impractical and ineffective. Third, a burning mirror does not seem like an improvement on a weapon that the Greeks already had: flaming arrows. Shooting at an enemy's ships with flaming arrows was a common way of setting the ships on fire. The burning mirror and flaming arrows would have been effective at about the same distance. So the Greeks had no reason to build a weapon like a burning mirror. 托福TPO30综合写作听力原文文本： Professor:The claims that the burning mirror would have been impractical and technologically impossible are unconvincing.First, the Greeks did not need to form a single sheet of copper to make a large, burning mirror. An experiment has shown that dozens of small individually flat pieces of polished copper could be arranged into a parabolic shape and form a large, burning mirror. The Greek mathematicians know the properties of the parabola and so could have directed the assembly of small mirror pieces into the parabolic shape.Second, about how long it would take to set a ship on fire with a burning mirror. The experiment the reading selection mentions assumes that the burning mirror was used to set the wood of the boat on fire, that's what takes ten minutes. But Roman boats were not made just of wood. There were other materials involved as well. For example, to seal the spaces between wooden boards and make them waterproof, the ancient boat-builders used a sticky substance called pitch. Pitch catches fire very quickly. An experiment showed that pitch could be set on fire by a burning mirror in seconds. And once the pitch was burning, the fire wouldspread to the wood even if the ship was moving. So a burning mirror could have worked quickly enough to be an effective weapon.Third, why bother with a burning mirror instead of flaming arrows? Well, Roman soldiers were familiar with flaming arrows and would have been watching for them and were ready to put out the fires they might cause. But you cannot see the burning rays from a mirror; you just see the mirror. But then suddenly and magically a fire starts at some unobserved place on the ship that would have been much more surprising and therefore much more effective than a flame arrow. 托福TPO30综合写作满分范文： In the reading material, the author raises three strong arguments to cast doubt on the existence of “burning mirror” in ancient Greek port city. However the lecturer states that the burning mirror might have once appeared in history by reputing the writer’s arguments one by one. First, the author argues that it was technologically impossible to build such a tremendous mirror by a single sheet of copper in ancient Greece. Yet the speaker shows by experiment that dozens of small polished copper may do the same job efficiently and Greek mathematicians were excellent enough to accomplish it perfectly. Besides, in view of the author, it might take a long time for the burning mirror to set a wooden ship on fire and the enemy wouldn’t be stupid to stay still for ten minutes. The lecturer, however, points out those ancient warships were not built by wood only. A special material called pitch was used to fill the spaces between and pitch catches fire quickly. Thus it was possible for a burning mirror to burn the pitch first then the ship. In this way can a burning mirror be an effective weapon. Lastly, the author argues that the burning mirror is less effective and flexible than flaming arrows. Thus ancient Greek won’t bother to devote much effort to build such a useless weapon. Nonetheless, the lecturer argues that since flaming arrows are usual weapons used so much, Roman soldiers were familiar with them and knew how to protect the ship from burning by flaming arrows. But on the other hand, it was extremely hard to predict where the burning mirror would fire the ship. Thus it is more effective to use a burning mirror than flaming arrows. 以上是给大家整理的托福TPO30综合写作阅读原文+听力原文+满分范文，希望对你有所帮助!。

2023年托福阅读辅导-老托福阅读真题及答案passage30整理

2023年托福阅读辅导:老托福阅读真题及答案passage30整理为了关心大家备考托福阅读，练习更多阅读题目。

提高阅读水平，下面我给大家带来托福阅读辅导:老托福阅读真题及答案PASSAGE30，盼望对大家有所关心!老托福阅读文本passage30Butterflies are among the most extensively studied insects — it is estimated that 90 percent of the worlds species have scientific names. As a consequence, they are perhaps the best group of insects for examining patterns of terrestrial biotic diversity and distribution. Butterflies also have a favorable image with the general public. Hence, they are an excellent group for communicating information on science and conservation issues such as diversity.Perhaps the aspect of butterfly diversity that has received the most attention over the past century is the striking difference in species richness between tropical and temperate regions. For example, in 1875 one biologist pointed out the diversity of butterflies in the Amazon when he mentioned that about 700 species were found within an hours walk, whereas the total number found on the British islands did not exceed 66, and the whole of Europe supported only 321. This early comparison of tropical and temperate butterfly richness has been well confirmed.A general theory of diversity would have to predict not only this difference between temperate and tropical zones, but also patterns within each region, and how these patterns vary among different animal and plant groups. However, for butterflies, variation of species richnesswithin temperate or tropical regions, rather man between them, is poorly understood. Indeed, comparisons of numbers of species among the Amazon basin, tropical Asia, and Africa are still mostly personal communication citations, even for vertebrates. In other words, unlike comparison between temperate and tropical areas, these patterns are still in the documentation phase.In documenting geographical variation in butterfly diversity, some arbitrary, practical decisions are made. Diversity, number of species, and species richness are used synonymously; little is known about the evenness of butterfly distribution. The New World butterflies make up the preponderance of examples because they are the most familiar species. It is hoped that by focusing on them, the errors generated by imperfect and incomplete taxonomy will be minimized.老托福阅读题目passage301. Which aspect of butterflies does the passage mainly discuss?(A) Their physical characteristics(B) Their names(C) Their adaptation to different habitats(D) Their variety2. The word consequence in line 2 is closest in meaning to(A) result(B) explanation(C) analysis(D) requirement3. Butterflies are a good example for communicating information about conservation issues because they(A) are simple in structure(B) are viewed positively by people(C) have been given scientific names(D) are found mainly in temperate climates4. The word striking in line 8 is closest in meaning to(A) physical(B) confusing(C) noticeable(D) successful5. The word exceed in line 11 is closest in meaning to(A) locate(B) allow(C) go beyond(D) come close to6. All of the following are mentioned as being important parts of a general theory of diversity EXCEPT(A) differences between temperate and tropical zones(B) patterns of distribution of species in each region(C) migration among temperate and tropical zones(D) variation of patterns of distribution of species among different animals and plants7. The author mentions tropical Asia in lines 19 as an example of a location where(A) butterfly behavior varies with climate(B) a general theory of butterfly diversity has not yet been firmly established(C) butterflies are affected by human populations(D) documenting plant species is more difficult than documenting butterfly species8. Which of the following is NOT well understood by biologists?(A) European butterfly habitats(B) Differences in species richness between temperate and tropical regions(C) Differences in species richness within a temperate or a tropical region(D) Comparisons of behavior patterns of butterflies and certain animal groups9. The word generated in line 26 is closest in meaning to(A) requested(B) caused(C) assisted(D) estimated老托福（阅读答案）passage30DABCC CBCB4个Tip攻克托福阅读词汇题托福中的词汇题是不是让同学们的都很手足无措，可能新手考生还不太明白什么是阅读中的词汇题，即选择4个选项中和原文某一词汇意义表达相同的选项，题目基本都为The word X in the passage is closest in meaning to ......为什么许多考生会对词汇题束手无措?一方面是由于考生的词汇量达不到，OG中词汇题的解释里有一句话，there is no list of words that must be tested. 这句话就告知考生死了那条心去背所谓的大纲词汇，由于没有大纲，而考试中要考查到的单词可能是来自牛津字典或朗文字典中的任何一个单词，范围大的离谱;而另一方面则是由于有的考生没有学会从上下文或者从语法结构去猜想词义。

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托福TPO30阅读word版下载一摘要：托福TPO阅读word版下载资料对于托福阅读训练来说非常重要，能够真实的体验考场答题氛围，里边有详细的中英文对照翻译，通过对托福TPO阅读文章的深入研究，相信会对同学们的阅读提分有很大帮助，各位烤鸭们赶紧下载下来感受一下吧点击下载托福阅读模拟题托福TPO30阅读word版下载一Role of Play in DevelopmentPlay is easier to define with examples than with concepts. In any case, in animals it consists of leaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, and other movements, either along, with objects, or with other animals. Depending on the species, play may be primarily for social interaction, exercise, or exploration. One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that it involves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance--dominance, predation, competition, and real fighting. Thus, whether play occurs or not depends on the intention of the animals, and the intentions are not always clear from behaviors alone.Play appears to be a developmental characteristic of animals with fairly sophisticated nervous systems, mainly birds and mammals. Play has been studied most extensively in primates and canids (dogs). Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the research literature, and the reasons may not be the same for every species that plays. Determining the functions of play is difficult because the functions may be long-term, with beneficial effects not showing up until the animal's adulthood.Play is not without considerable costs to the individual animal. Play is usually very active, involving movement in space and, at times, noisemaking. Therefore, it results in the loss of fuel or energy that might better be used for growth or for building up fat stores in a young animal. Another potential cost of this activityis greater exposure to predators since play is attention-getting behavior. Great activities also increase the risk of injury in slipping or falling.The benefits of play must outweigh costs, or play would not have evolved, according to Darwin' s theory. Some of the potential benefits relate directly to the healthy development of the brain and nervous system. In one research study, two groups of young rats were raised under different conditions. One group developed in an "enriched" environment, which allowed the rats to interact with other rats, play with toys, and receive maze training. The other group lived in an "impoverished" environment in individual cages in a dimly lit room with little stimulation. At the end of the experiments, the results showed that the actual weight of the brains of the impoverished rats was less than that of those raised in the enriched environment (though they were fed the same diets). Other studies have shown that greater stimulation not only affects the size of the brain but also increase the number of connections between the nerve cells. Thus, active play may provide necessary stimulation to the growth of synaptic connections in the brain, especially the cerebellum, which is responsible for motor functioning and movements.Play also stimulates the development of the muscle tissues themselves and may provide the opportunities to practice those movements needed for survival. Prey species, like young deer or goats, for example, typically play by performing sudden flight movements and turns, whereas predator species, such as cats, practice stalking, pouncing, and biting.Play allows a young animal to explore its environment and practice skill in comparative safety since the surrounding adults generally do not expect the young to deal with threats or predators. Play can also provide practice in social behaviors needed for courtship and mating. Learning appropriate social behaviors is especially important for species that live in groups, like young monkeys that needed to learn to control selfishness and aggression and to understand the give-and-take involved in social groups. They need to learn how to be dominant and submissive because each monkey might have to play either role in the future. Most of these things are learned in the long developmental periods that primates have, during which they engage in countless play experiences with their peers.There is a danger, of course, that play may be misinterpreted or not recognized as play by others, potentially leading to aggression. This is especially true whenplay consists of practicing normal aggressive or predator behaviors. Thus, many species have evolved clear signals to delineate playfulness. Dogs, for example, will wag their tails, get down their front legs, and stick their behinds in the air to indicate "what follows is just for play."Paragraph 1: Play is easier to define with examples than with concepts. In any case, in animals it consists of leaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, and other movements, either along, with objects, or with other animals. Depending on the species, play may be primarily for social interaction, exercise, or exploration. One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that it involves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance--dominance, predation, competition, and real fighting. Thus, whether play occurs or not depends on the intention of the animals, and the intentions are not always clear from behaviors alone.以上就是小编为大家整理的“托福TPO30阅读word版下载一”部分内容，更多资料请点击托福资料下载频道!。