劳动经济学第二章

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劳动经济学_02劳动需求

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二、影响劳动需求的因素
2. 技术的变化
我们常常用劳动和资本两种生产要素的生产函数Q = F（L,K）来分析技术对劳动需求的影响。 • 用技术系数来反映生产一单位产品所需要的各种要素投入之间的配合比例关系。技术系数可以划分为固定技术系数和可变技术系数。
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二、影响劳动需求的因素
3. 时间长短
•
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二、影响劳动需求的因素
综上所述，影响劳动需求的因素有很多，如果把影响劳动需求的各种因素作为自变量，把劳动需求作为因变量，则可以用函数关系揭示劳动需求与影响因素之间的关系，这个函数称为劳动（力）需求函数。 D = f（X1，X2，X3，‥‥‥Xn）
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劳动需求的表达方式
•
• • • • •
• 1. 卖方垄断企业使用劳动要素的原则 • 由于卖方垄断企业使用劳动的边际收益为要素的边际收益产品，使用要素的边际成本为要素价格，故卖方垄断企业使用劳动要素的原则可用公式表示为： • MRP = W 或 MR ·MP = W
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一、卖方垄断企业的劳动需求分析 2. 卖方垄断企业的劳动需求曲线
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第三节
•
劳动需求弹性
一、劳动需求弹性的含义
弹性这个概念可以用来表示因变量对自变量的反应的敏感程度。
• 弹性系数 = 因变量的变动比例/自变量的变动比例
• 假定两个经济变量之间的函数关系为 • Y = f （X），则弹性系数的计算公式为： • △Y/Y △Y/△X • e = ——— = ——— • △X/X X/Y
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一、劳动需求弹性的含义
• 劳动需求弹性（labor demand elasticity），全称为劳动力需求的工资弹性，是劳动经济学中一个十分重要的概念。从一般意义上理解，劳动需求的工资弹性是指工资率变化一个单位劳动需求量的变化程度，即当工资率变化一个百分率所引起的劳动需求变化的百分率的比值。

劳动经济学第2章劳动供给分析

二、影响个体劳动供给的相关因素
（一）工作时数与非劳动收入变化
非劳动收入的变化对劳动时数的影响：当其他条件不变，收入上升，对闲暇的需求也上升。
收入效应：在保持工资不变（W）的条件下，收入变动（△Y）所引起的工作时数变动（△H）的比例。如果闲暇是正常品，收入效应的符号为负。
收入效应=△H/△Y<0
工资对家庭所用时间和物品的影响：
高工资的人选择A点生产，使用较少的时间和较多的物品；低工资的人选择B点生产，即使用较为时间密集的技术生产家庭商品；高工资能使人们接受更多的时间和物品，因而高工资的人们会进入一条更高的等产量曲线，但仍使用更为物品密集的生产技术，如在C点生产。
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（三）家庭生产的劳动供给曲线
l 工资率与工作时数的乘积等于工作收入。
l 工资率、工作时数和总收入之间的关系就是所谓的预算约束。它表明在既定的市场工资率条件下，单个消费者所能够提供的收入和工作时数的各种组合。
预算约束线的性质：
1、其斜率为负 2、斜率等于负的工资率 3、当工资率变化时，预算线也将随之发生变化 4、当存在着非劳动收入时，预算线将沿着Y轴平行向上移动
二、劳动力供给的测度
（一）劳动力参与率
概念：
测量的是一个国家从事经济活动的工作年龄人口规模。反映劳动力市场活动水平的一项总指标。劳动力参与率的计算一般是以加入劳动力的人数占劳动年龄人口的百分比进行的。测量的是一个国家从事经济活动的工作年龄人口的规模。
公式：
劳动年龄人口的劳动力参与率 = 劳动力/劳动年龄人口╳100%
替代效应 = △H/△W > 0 注意：工资率的变动既会产生收入效应又会产生替代效应。工资增加时，工作时数实际上是增加还是减少依赖于替代效应与收入效应的相对强度或大小。

劳动经济学第二章劳动需求分析

二、影响劳动需求的因素
• 技术对劳动需求的影响 • 时间长短对劳动需求的影响 • 企业目标对劳动需求的影响 • 社会制度安排对劳动需求的影响
1、技术对劳动需求的影响
• 生产函数：Q = f（L，K），表明了生产中的投入量和产出量之间的关系。用来分析技术对劳动需求的影响。
• 技术系数：生产一单位产品所需要的各种投入之间的配合比例关系。
• 固定技术系数是指生产某一单位产品所需要的各种生产要素彼此之间不能替代。
• 可变技术系数是指生产某一单位产品所需要的各种生产要素的配合比例是可以变动的。
2、时间长短对劳动需求的影响
• 时间长短对劳动需求的影响是通过其对技术即生产函数的影响体现出来的。生产函数在短期和长期可能是不同的，不同的生产函数就会导致对劳动需求的不同。
• 分析最低工资立法对劳动力市场产生的影响
W
DL W1
W0
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最低工资的就业效应
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（a）被覆盖部门
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经济中不完全覆盖最低工资的就业效应
• 二、生产要素的替代性和互补性与需求分析
• 互补性生产要素：当生产要素A的数量增加时，导致生产要素B的边际生产率上升，则称生产要素A 与生产要素B是互补的。
1、最低劳动标准
2、最低生活保障
3、对工会组织和雇主权力在法律上的确认
4、对市场垄断和市场歧视的限制或利用
第二节完全竞争下的企业劳动需求分析

劳动经济学劳动力供给曲线

c. 工资率
W2→W3
平均工作时间 40h→45h
.
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（三）经验推导：市场劳动力供给曲线表现为一条向上倾斜的曲线。
原因：
1、个人偏好的差异。在某一工资率下，有些人可能倾向于减少工作时数，其他人则增加。这说明，所有个人劳动力供给曲线都不是重合的，通常的情况，在每一均衡工资率下，愿意增加的工作时数比愿意减少的工作时数可能更多。
（一）劳动力供给弹性
定义：因工资率变化而引起的劳动力供给的相应变动率。其计算公式是劳动力供给量变动的百分比与工资率变动百分比的比值。
ES＝
L / L W /W
.
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劳动力供给弹性值的分布区间为【0，∞】，根据劳动力供给弹性的不同取值，可将之分为五类：（1）无弹性，即Es＝0。（2）无限弹性，即Es→∞。（3）单位供给弹性，即Es=1。（4）供给富有弹性，即Es＞1。（5）供给缺乏弹性，即Es＜1。
2、较高保留工资的影响。保留工资指个人愿提供工作时
数的最低工资水平。对于保留工资较高的人来讲，工资
率太低时，他们不愿提供市场工作，但他们的行为并不
会改变供给曲线的走向。当工资率较高时，工资率增加，
对他们替代效应远大于收入效应，因而将无限的增加他
们愿意提供的工作时效。 .
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企业、行业所面临的劳动力供给曲线
.
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练习1：
当现有的工时总量不足以完成预期的生产任务时，有三种办法： (1)招聘新雇员或雇佣临时工； (2)增加现有雇员制度工作时间内的工作负担； (3)组织雇员于制度工作时间外加班。分析哪一种办法对企业来说适用？
.
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练习2：
建立一组简单的模型，说明医生的劳动力供给曲线与护士的供给曲线的区别。

劳动经济学第二章

2.2.1完全竞争的基本假设

完全竞争边际生产力递减规律利润最大化目标生产技术水平不变劳动力同质假设
（1）完全竞争

产品市场完全竞争劳动力市场完全竞争
（2）边际生产力递减规律

边际生产力含义边际生产力递减规律几个概念：

边际物质产品边际收益产品边际产品价值平均产品产值
A
MPL APL
A’
B’
APL
C’
MPL
L

总产量是指在一定技术条件下，变动投入L与某一固定量的资本K相结合所生产的最大产量。总产量的变化过程：增加较快----减慢----停止---下降总产量（TP）： TP = Q = f（L，K）平均产量（AP）：APL=TP/L； APK=TP/K 边际产量（MP）： MPL=TP/L； MPK=TP/K MPL=dTP/dL； MPK=dTP/dK

需求量：与一定工资水平相对应的劳动力需求需求曲线：工资与需求量一一对应的轨迹需求曲线一般是向右下方倾斜的

劳动力需求曲线：
W

需求曲线说明了在其它条件不变的情况下，劳动力需求量与工资率之间的反向关系。
O
LD
工资率变化

假定资本、技术不变，第一，较高的工资率意味着较高的成本，从而导致产品价格的提高，产品价格的提高会导致产品需求量的下降。需求量的下降最终会导致劳动就业量的减少，这种劳动就业的下降称为规模效应，即生产规模缩减对就业的影响。第二，工资率上升，企业就愿意用其它生产要素来替代劳动，如使用更多的资本，这种情况称为“替代效应”。

劳动经济学(2)概述

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劳动力需求的主体
企业最重要的劳动力需求主体，直接反映经济活动水平。企业的劳动力需求是劳动力需求研究的主要内容。政府政府的劳动力需求则往往与政府的财政支出相关，是一个政策性很强的变量。从事自我雇佣工作的劳动者自身自我雇佣的劳动力需求就是自身的劳动，其变化往往表现为个人劳动时间的变化，而不是就业人数统计的变化。
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长期劳动需求曲线与短期劳动需求曲线的相互作用
长期劳动需求曲线比短期需求曲线具有更大的弹性，表现为前者较为平坦，而后者更为陡峭。长期劳动需求曲线与许多短期需求曲线相交。
工资率 W1 W0
DS1
DS2 B A
DS3
D
W2
C
E DL
0
L0
劳动数量
图2－8长期劳动需求曲线与短期劳动需求曲线
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边际产品价值曲线的形状
产品价格为常数，根据边际生产率递减规律，劳动的边际产品MP为一条向右下方倾斜的曲线，即随着劳动使用量的增加，劳动的边际产品会逐步下降。因此，边际产品价值曲线也是向右下方倾斜的。当 P大于 1时，边际产品价值曲线在边际产品曲线的上方；当P 小于 1时，边际产品价值曲线在边际产品曲线的下方；当 P等于 1时，边际产品价值曲线与边际产品曲线重合。
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完全竞争市场的劳动需求曲线
将H,I连接起来，得到多个企业调整情况下企业m对劳动的需求曲线dm. 经过市场调整后的单个企业的劳动需求曲线仍然向右下方倾斜，但比边际产品价值曲线要陡峭。
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完全竞争下的长期劳动需求
在长期，企业应对劳动价格上升不仅可以调整其使用的劳动数量，而且可以调整资本存量。
第二章劳动需求分析

劳动经济学(全) 第二章劳动力供给

劳动经济学
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第四节社会劳动力供给
二、市场劳动力供给曲线
如果劳动力市场是个开放的市场，市场劳动力供给曲线就一定是一条从左下方向右上方倾斜的曲线。
劳动经济学
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第四节社会劳动力供给
三、劳动力供给量的变动
W S
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劳动力供给量的变动：
在同一条劳动力供
给曲线上的移动。
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劳动经济学
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第一节劳动力供给概述
一、劳动力
就业者（E）：有工作可以做并且至少获得1个小时工资支付的劳动者，或是从事非支付性的工作至少达到15个小时。
失业者（U）：从某一工作岗位暂时下岗，或是没有工作，但在参照周的前4周里一直在积极地寻找工作。
劳动经济学
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第一节劳动力供给概述

劳动经济学第二章

(MRPL 、w)
d
L
➢ 在竞争性市场中，名义工资率下的短期劳动力需求曲线即为劳动力的边际产品收益曲线。
➢ 名义工资条件下的短期市场劳动力需求曲线不是企业
劳动力需求曲线的简单横向加总，但w与L之间还是反向变化关系。
第三节完全竞争市场中的长期劳动力需求
❖ 在长期，厂商调整产量的决策可以通过改变劳动力
❖ 在长期，工资率上升，带来厂商雇佣量的下降
K
A’
当工资率从w上升到w’时，
替代效应使雇佣量从L减少到
A
L’ ，产出效应使雇佣量从L’
K’
E’
K”
E” E
K
减少到L”，总的价格效应为雇佣量从L减少到L”。
Q1 Q2
L” L’ L
C B’
B
L
➢ 价格效应（替代效应和产出效应）的图形分析说明：竞争性市场中，长期的企业劳动力需求也存在工资率与雇佣量的反向变化关系。当然，长期的市场劳动力需求曲线也是从左上往右下倾斜的。
与资本的投入组合来实现。
❖ 长期,厂商利润最大化的条件：
MRPL= MEL 及 MRPK= MEK
即 MPL* MR= MEL 及 MPK* MR= MEK
竞争性市场
MPL* P = w 及 MPK* P = r
w /MPL = r /MPK = P
所以，为保证利润最大，应当使最后一单位产品的生产过程中所投入的劳动力成本与资本成本相等，并且等于产品的售价；否则，增加成本较低的那种生产要素的投入，减少另一种要素的投入，将会带来利润的增加。
第二节完全竞争（产品、劳动力）市场中的短期劳动力需求
❖ 在短期，厂商调整产量的决策只能通过改变劳动力的雇佣量来实现。

《劳动经济学》(作者Borjas)第二章习题答案

CHAPTER 22-1. How many hours will a person allocate to leisure activities if her indifference curves between consumption and goods are concave to the origin?A worker will either work all available time or will not work at all. As drawn in Figure A, pointB is preferred to points A andC . Thus, the worker chooses not to enter the labor market. As drawn in Figure B, point C is preferred to both points A and B . Thus, the worker chooses not to consume any leisure and work all available time.Figure A Figure B2-2. What is the effect of a rise in the price of market goods on a worker’s reservation wage, probability of entering the labor force, and hours of work?Suppose the price of market goods increases from p to p ′ and the person’s non-labor income is V . If she chooses not to work, she can purchase V/p ′ units of consumption after the price change, whereas she could have consumed V/p units of consumption prior to the price increase. Thus, her endowment point has moved from E to E ′ in Figure A. As long as leisure is a normal good, the indifference curve is steeper as we move up a vertical line, indicating that the slope of the indifference curve is steeper at E than at E ′. Thus, an increase in the price of goods lowers the reservation wage and makes the person more likely to work.Hours of LeisureHours of LeisureGoods GoodsBCA ABCU 1U 1U 0U 0Figure A.To simplify the illustration of the effect on hours of work, assume for simplicity that V = 0. The increase in the price of goods shifts the budget line from FE to GE , moving the worker from P to point R . This shift induces both an income effect and a substitution effect. The price increase in effect lowers the person’s real wage rate, increasing the demand for leisure and leading to fewer hours of work. Thissubstitution effect is illustrated by the move from point P to point Q in Figure B. The price increase also reduces the worker’s wealth, lowering the demand for leisure and leading to more hours of work. This income effect is illustrated by the move from Q to R . As drawn the income effect dominates thesubstitution effect and the price increase lowers the demand for leisure and increases hours of work. It is, of course, possible for the substitution effect to dominate the income effect (not pictured), so that hours of work decreases. Thus, without further restrictions on preferences, an increase in the price of market goods has an ambiguous effect on hours worked.Figure B.GoodsV /p ′V /LeisureHours of Leisure2-3. Sally can work up to 3,120 hours each year (a busy social life and sleep take up the remaining time). She earns a fixed hourly wage of $25. Sally owes a 10 percent payroll tax on the first $40,000 of income. Above $40,000 of income, there is no payroll tax. Sally also faces a progressive income tax rate. There is no income tax on the first $10,000 of income. From $10,000 up to $60,000, the marginal income tax rate is 25 percent. Above $60,000, the marginal income tax rate is 50 percent. Graph Sally’s budget line.Sally’s budget line will have kinks at gross income levels of $10,000, $40,000, and $60,000. As her wage is $25 per hour, these kinks occur after 400 hours, 1,600 hours, and 2,400 hours of work respectively, or, similarly, at 2,720, 1,520, and 720 hours of leisure.•From 0 to 400 hours, Sally’s after-tax wage is $22.50 (90 percent of $25). If she works exactly 400 hours, her after-tax income is $9,000.•From 400 to 1,600 hours, Sally’s after-tax wage is $16.25 (65 percent of $25). If she works exactly 1,600 hours, her after-tax income is $9,000 + $16.25 (1600-400) = $28,500.•From 1,600 to 2,400 hours, Sally’s after-tax wage is $18.75 (75 percent of $25). If she works exactly 2,400 hours, her after-tax income is $28,500 + $18.75 (2400-1600) = $43,500.•From 2,400 to 3,120 hours, Sally’s after-tax wage is $12.50 (50 percent of $25). If she works exactly 3,120 hours, her after-tax income is $43,500 + $12.50 (3120-2400) = $52,500.2-4. Tom earns $15 per hour for up to 40 hours of work each week. He is paid $30 per hour for every hour in excess of 40. Tom faces a 20 percent tax rate and pays $4 per hour in child care expenses for each hour he works. Tom receives $80 in child support payments each week. There are 168 hour in the week. Graph Tom’s weekly budget line.•If Tom does not work, he leisures for 168 hours and consumes $80.•For all hours Tom works up to his first 40, his after-tax and after-child care wage equals (80 percent of $15) – $4 = $8 per hour. Thus, if he works for 40 hours, he will be able to leisure for 128 hours and consume $80 + $8(40) = $400.•For all hours Tom works over 40, his after-tax and after-child care wage equals (80 percent of $30) – $4 = $20. Thus, if he works for 168 hours (128 hours at the overtime wage), he will notleisure at all, but he will consume $80 + $8(40) + $20(128) = $2,960.2-5. What happens to a worker’s desired hours of work if employers pay an overtime premium equal to “time and a half”(that is, 1.5 times the straight-time wage) for any hours worked in excess of 40 hours? What would happen to hours of work if the overtime premium were raised to double the straight-time wage?The availability of overtime pay generates a new (steeper) segment of the budget line originating at the point where the person works 40 hours per week. The figure below illustrates three different possibilities. If the person works 40 hours per week (person B), he or she will be better off by moving to the tangency point labeled X. This person, therefore, will take advantage of the overtime pay and work more hours. If the person is working more than 40 hours per week initially (as is the case for person C), the move from C to X involves both income and substitution effects, and hence we cannot determine which effect dominates. If the person works many fewer than 40 hours per week (person A) he or she will not be affected by the possibility of overtime pay. If the overtime pay were increased to double-pay, it would steepen the line segment originating at 40 hours of work, and perhaps induce some of the persons like A to take advantage of the overtime pay. Person B would continue to work more than 40 hours under a double-time rate, while the double-time rate would have an ambiguous effect on the hours worked of person C.Dollars of Consumption$2,960$400 $80128 168 Hours of LeisureTom’s Weekly Budget Line2-6. A person owns a small farm near a large city and must decide whether to work on that small farm or take a job in the city. Her utility depends on her income per day, Y , and the number of hours allocated to leisure activities, L . Daily income from farm work is:220f f f h h Y −=,where h f is hours of work on the farm; and daily income from the city job is:Y C = 14h C ,where h C is hours of work in the city.To calculate the budget lines associated with each of the opportunities, it is easiest to work through a numerical calculation of what a worker’s earnings would be if he or she allocated 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, etc., to each of the sectors and worked in that sector exclusively. This calculation leads to:Total Earnings Marginal EarningsHours of Work Farm City Farm City1 19 14 19 142 36 28 17 143 51 42 15 14 4 64 56 13 145 75 70 11 146 84 84 9 147 91 98 7 14 8 96 112 5 14Consumption ($)Leisure(a) If she can work on the farm or in the city, but not both, which sector would she choose?The table above suggests the budget line associated with working exclusively in the city is given by CE and on the farm is the parabola FE . As a result, if a worker can only work in either the city or on the farm, a worker with indifference curves like person A is better off working on the farm, while a worker with indifference curves like person B is better off in the city.(b) If she can work both on the farm and in the city, how would she allocate her time?If a worker can allocate her time to both the city and the farm, the worker is then better off allocating the first few hours of work to the farm sector. As the table indicates, the first hour allocated to the farm sector generates $19 worth of income, the second hour generates $17, the third hour generates $15, the fourth hour generates $13, and so on. The worker is thus best off by allocating the first three hours to the farm sector and working any remaining hours she wishes in the city where each additional hour of work generates a constant $14.2-7. Cindy gains utility from consumption C and leisure L . The most leisure she can consume in any given week is 168 hours. Her utility function is U(C,L) = C × L . This functional form implies that Cindy’s marginal rate of substitution is C / L . Cindy receives $630 each week from her great-grandmother – regardless of how much Cindy works. What is Cindy’s reservation wage?The reservation wage is the MRS when not working at all. Thus, w RES = MRS at maximum leisure = C / L = $630 / 168 = $3.75.Leisure2-8. The utility function of a worker is represented by U(C, L) = C ×L, so that the marginal utility of leisure is C and the marginal utility of consumption is L. Suppose this person currently has a weekly income of $600 and chooses to enjoy 70 hours of leisure per week. How many additional dollars of income would it take to entice the worker to work 10 more hours?Initially the person’s utility is U(C,L) = U(600,70) = 600 × 70 = 42,000. She would agree to work 10 more hours (i.e., give up 10 hours of leisure) if the increase in consumption would allow her to achieve at least the same level of utility. Letting Y be her new total income, therefore, Y must solve 60Y = 42,000, which requires Y = $700. Thus, the person’s income would have to rise by $100 to compensate her for the loss of 10 hours of leisure.2-9. You can either take a bus or drive your car to work. A bus pass costs $5 per week, whereas driving your car to work costs $60 weekly (parking, tolls, gas, etc.). You spend half-an-hour less on a one-way trip in your car than on a bus. How would you prefer to travel to work if your wage rate is $10 per hour? Will you change your preferred mode of transportation if your wage rate rises to $20 per hour? Assume you work five days a week and time spent riding on a bus or driving a car does not directly enter your utility.Taking a bus will save you $55 a week, but it will cost you 5 hours of leisure time due to the longer commute. Since the price of leisure is equal to the wage rate, the monetary value of the time lost is $50 when the hourly wage is $10 and $100 when the hourly wage is $20. Therefore, it makes sense for you to take a bus to work if you are paid $10 per hour, but you will switch to driving your car if your wage increases to $20 per hour.2-10. Shelly’s preferences for consumption and leisure can be expressed asU(C,L) = ( C – 200 )× ( L – 80 ).This utility function implies that Shelly’s marginal utility of leisure is C – 200 and her marginal utility of consumption is L – 80. There are 168 hours in the week available to split between work and leisure. Shelly earns $5 per hour after taxes. She also receives $320 worth of welfare benefits each week regardless of how much she works.(a) Graph Shelly’s budget line.If Shelly does not work, she leisures for 168 hours and consumes $320. If she does not leisure at all, she consumes $320 + $5(168) = $1,160.(b) What is Shelly’s marginal rate of substitution when L = 100 and she is on her budget line?If Shelly leisures for 100 hours, she works for 68 hours and consumes $320 + $5(68) = $660. Thus, her MRS when doing this is:23$204608010020066080200==−−=−−==L C MUcMU MRS L .(c) What is Shelly’s reservation wage?The reservation wage is defined as the MRS when working no hours. When working no hours, Shelly leisures for 168 hours and consumes $320. Thus,36.1$8812080168200320≈=−−=RES w .Dollars of Consumption$1,160$320168 Hours of LeisureShelly’s Weekly Budget Line(d) Find Shelly’s optimal amount of consumption and leisure.Her optimal mix of consumption and leisure is found by setting her MRS equal to her wage and solving for hours of leisure given the budget line: C = 320 + 5(168–L )..1365960400580200)168(53205802005=−=−−−−+=−−==L LL L L L C MRSwThus, Shelly will choose to leisure 136 hours, work 32 hours, and consume $320 + $5(32) = $480 each week.2-10. Among single, college-educated women aged 22 – 25, average annual hours worked is 2,160 and the average wage is $22.50. If the average wage increases to $25 per hour, average annual hours worked increases to 2,340. What is the elasticity of labor supply for this group of workers?The elasticity of labor supply is75.09112150.2250.2200.25160,2160,2340,2%%==−−=∆∆=wL S σ.2-11. Mike’s utility for consumption and leisure is U(C,L) = C × L so that his marginal rate ofsubstitution between leisure and consumption is C/L . There are 168 hours in the week and he earns $10 per hour.(a) What is Mike’s optimal amount of consumption and leisure?Mike’s optimal mix of consumption and leisure is found by setting his MRS equal to his wage and solving for hours of leisure given that the budget line is C = 10(168–L ).. 84101680 1010=−== =L LLLCMRS wThus, Mike will choose to leisure 184 hours, work 84 hours, and consume $10(84) = $840 each week. (b) If the government starts a welfare policy that pays B to all non-workers and pays $0 to all workers, at what value of B will Mike opt out of the labor force in order to go on welfare?Given our answer in part (a), we know that if Mike opts to work, his utility will be u work(840,84) =840(84) = 70,560. If he opts out of the labor market, his utility will be u welfare(B,168) = 168B. Mike will not work, therefore, as long as u welfare≥ u work, which requires that B≥ $420.2-12. Explain why a lump sum government transfer can entice some workers to stop working (and entices no one to start working) while the earned income tax credit can entice some people who otherwise would not work to start working (and entices no one to stop working).A lump sum transfer is associated with an income effect but not a substitution effect, because it doesn’t affect the wage rate. Thus, if leisure is a normal good, a lump sum transfer will likely cause workers to work fewer hours (and certainly not cause them to work more hours) while possibly enticing some workers to exit the labor force. On the other hand, the Earned Income Tax Credit raises the effective wage of low-income workers by 20 percent (at least for the poorest workers). Thus, someone who had not been working faces a wage that is 20 percent higher than it otherwise was. This increase may be enough to encourage the person to start working. For example, if a worker’s reservation wage is $6.50 per hour but the only job she can find pays $6.00 per hour, she will not work. Under the earned income tax credit, however, the worker views this same job as paying $7.20 per hour, which exceeds her reservation wage. Furthermore, the EITC cannot encourage a worker to exit the labor force, as the benefits of the EITC are received only by workers.2-13. In 1999, 4,860 TANF recipients were asked how many hours they worked in the previous week. In 2000, 4,392 of these recipients were again subject to the same TANF rules and were again asked their hours of work during the previous week. The remaining 468 individuals were randomly assigned to a “Negative Income Tax” (NIT) experiment which gave out financial incentives for welfare recipients to work and were subject to its rules. Like the other group, they were asked about their hours of work during the previous week. The data from the experiment are contained in the table below.TotalNumber OfRecipients Number ofRecipients Who Worked At Some Time in the SurveyWeek Total Hours Of Work By All Recipients in the Survey Week1999 2000 1999 2000TANF 4,392 1,217 1,568 15,578 20,698NIT 468 131 213 1,6382,535Total 4,860 1,348 1,781 17,21623,233(a) What effect did the NIT experiment have on the employment rate of public assistance recipients? Develop a standard difference-in-differences table to support your answer.EmploymentRate1999 2000 Diff Diff-in-DiffTANF 27.7% 35.7% 8.0%NIT 28.0% 45.5% 17.5% 9.5%The NIT increased the probability of employment by 9.5 percentage points.(b) What effect did the NIT experiment have on the weekly hours worked of public assistance recipients who worked positive hours during the survey week? Develop a standard difference-in-differences table to support your answer.Weekly Hours Worked Per Working Person1999 2000 Diff Diff-in-DiffTANF 12.8 13.2 0.4NIT 12.5 11.9 -0.6 -1.0The NIT decreased weekly hours worked, of those working, by 1 hour.11。

2劳动经济学(人大三版)第二章课后参考答案(王松峰刘娇伟)

劳动经济学第二章课后习题答案一、关键词解释劳动力供给：从性质上说：是指劳动力的供给主体（劳动者个人，在某些情况下可以指家庭）在一定劳动条件下自愿对存在于主体中的劳动力使用权的出让;从量的角度说：是指一个经济体（大至一个国家，小至一个企业，一个雇请了保姆的家庭）在某一段时期中，可以获得的劳动者愿意提供的劳动能力的总和。

劳动力参与率：指劳动范围内的人口参与市场性劳动的比率，是反映就业和劳动人口参与劳动程度的重要指标。

劳动力供给曲线：是指在其他条件不变，市场工资率作为影响劳动力供给的唯一因素的条件下，根据劳动力供给量相对于市场工资率的变动程度绘制而成的曲线劳动力供给弹性：指劳动力供给量变动对工资率变动的反映程度效用理论：效用是指消费者在消费商品或劳务时的满足程度，与此相关的理论就叫效用理论，主要包括基数效用理论和序数效用理论收入约束线：表示个人在时间和劳动能力状况约束下所能消费余暇和获得收入的最大组合线余暇-收入无差异曲线：可以带来一定水平的余暇时间与收入的组合点连接所形成的曲线称为余暇-收入无差异曲线主体均衡：所谓主体均衡，就是在资源约束的条件下余暇和收入的组合能使主体获得最大效用的状态收入效应：收入效应指由商品价格的变动所引起的实际收入水平的变动，进而由由实际收入水平的变动所引起的商品需求量的变动替代效应：因该商品名义价格的变动而导致消费者所购买的商品组合中，该商品与其他商品之间的替代个人劳动力供给曲线：揭示劳动者个人劳动力供给意愿随工资率变动而变动的规律，工资率的上升会导致个人劳动力供给时间的增加，而在此工资率水平之上，工资率的上升反而会导致个人劳动力供给时间的减少。

市场劳动力供给曲线：将一个市场中的个人劳动力供给曲线相加即是市场劳动力供给曲线劳动力的流量：把就业、失业等各种各样的劳动力状况在某个时间点的劳动力的存量向某个方向的流入或流出的量称为劳动力的流量劳动力的流量表：把劳动力人口分为就业、失业、非劳动力三种状态，以观察存量劳动力状况的时间点的变化而形成的劳动力流量，由此而绘制成的表格就是劳动力流量表转移率：从流动量和存储量，到流动的概率，换言之对原本的存量也可以计算流动的变化概率二、问答题1．如何理解劳动力供给的含义？劳动力供给是指在某一特定时间内，在一定工资率水平下，劳动者愿意并且能够提供的劳动力数量深入理解劳动力供给概念，需把握以下三点：个体决策：在市场经济体制下，劳动者是寄寓于其身上的劳动力的法定产权所有者劳动者有充分的自由使用权和处置权，并有凭借直接提供劳务或出租劳动力使用权获得收益的权利主体意愿，劳动力市劳动者的私有财产，劳动者是否愿意提供劳动取决于多种因素，如工资率高低、工作时间长短、个人家庭经济状况等，因此劳动力供给的量和质在很大程度上受到劳动力供给者主观愿望的影响时间要素：包括两层含义：劳动者愿意提供的工作时间、劳动力供给分析的时间2.分析劳动力供给通常有哪些假设（1）劳动力供给主体的目标假设，该假设认为劳动者在作出供给决策时，以追求效用最大化为目标（2）市场环境假设：假定市场是完全竞争状态（3）关于劳动力质量的假设：假定劳动力是同质的3、影响劳动力个人供给的主要因素有哪些?答：一般说来，影响劳动力个人供给的因素包括以下几方面：劳动者受教育时间的长短；工资政策及工资关系；工资水平；个人非劳动收入；居民家庭生产率的变化；社会保障制度；宏观经济状况；其它社会文化、风俗习惯、社会心理等。

劳动经济学第2章劳动供给分析

时）的人员数量；第二项标准涉及那些工作“超量”时数的人员数量，即
每周时数超过“正常”工作周的时数（过度就业）；第三项标准是对人
关于失业的界定
国际劳工大会将失业者界定为在参照期内无工作，但目前能够工作并寻找工作的某一特定年龄以上的所有人员。存在争论的主要因素：年龄界限、寻找工作的准则，以及对临时解雇、对工作前景失去信心或首次寻找工作人员等情况的处理。关于如何处理丧失信心者，即这些人目前虽然没有寻找工作，但过去可能找过工作，并清楚地表示希望“现在”就有一份工作。多数国家不把他们算为失业，但有些国家将其纳入失业范围。涉及求职问题。求职者必须采取了一种或多种“积极的”求职方式，如向雇主提出申请，访问中介机构，被列为失业者。有些国家承认单纯的看广告和找广告为求职方式，另一些国家则认为，是对这些广告做了实际答复。
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（二）偏好和无差异曲线
偏好：代表了消费者对某种商品相对其他商品的心理愿望强度。偏好从性质上说属于主观的东西，受到许多如个人种族、社会经济地位、职业以及个人性格等因素的影响。
无差异曲线：指能够给消费者带来相同满足程度或效用的所有闲暇和收入的组合点的轨迹。
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（三）工资、收入和预算线
l 闲暇的价格：一小时闲暇的机会成本等于工作一小时的工资率。
一、个人效用最大化与劳动供给曲线
（一）劳动和闲暇劳动供给涉及到劳动者对其拥有的既定时间
资源的分配。
劳动者可以看成是消费者，他们在闲暇和劳动二者之间进行的选择，就是在闲暇和劳动收入之间进行选择，以满足自己效用最大化的愿望。
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无差异曲线
特点：
1、具有负的斜率。 2、凸向原点 3、离开原点越远的无差异曲线具有更高的效用 4、任意两条无差异曲线之间不会相交 5、针对不同的消费者来说，无差异曲线具有不同的形状

《劳动经济学》试题—劳动供给

第二章劳动力供给一、名词解释劳动力供给——从本质上说，是指劳动力的供给主体在一定的劳动条件下自愿对存在于主体之中的劳动力使用权的出让；从量的角度说，是指一个经济体在某一段时期中，可以获得的劳动者愿意提供的劳动能力的总和。

主体均衡——在资源约束的条件下余暇与收入的组合能使主体获得最大盗用的状态。

劳动力供给弹性——由工资率变动引起的劳动力供给变动的百分比与工资率变动的百分比的比值。

收入效应——在其他条件不变时，由于非劳动收入的增加，个人可达到的效用水平将提高。

替代效应——相对价格提高的商品必然引起较小的需求，价格提高的商品必然增加其供给。

二、单项选择1.序数效用论对消费者偏好的性质作了（）假设。

两点三点四点五点2.基数效用论将效用分为总效用和（）。

边际效用心理效用消费效用生产效用3.对劳动力供给的基本分析，是建立在（）的经济决策分析基础之上。

生产者个体消费者个体劳动者个体消费者群体4.长期以来，我国实行就业、工资、（）三位一体的社会保障制度。

福利医疗保险社会保险社会救济5 ．（）在继承了基数效用论的部分理论基础之上，为效用理论的实际应用寻找到了可靠的方法。

A ．边际效用论B ．生产效用论C ．消费效用论D ．序数效用论三、判断改错没有就业意愿或就业要求的人口同样属于劳动力的范畴。

×（不属于）所谓经济周期，是指经济运行过程中繁荣与衰退的间歇性交替。

×（周期性交替）基数效用并不假设每个人都是“经济人”。

×（基数效用论假设每个人都是“经济人”）在序数效用论的假设中，要求消费者的偏好有明确的单向性。

（√）无差异曲线是可能相交的。

×（不可能）四、简答题1.试述个人和家庭的劳动力供给的特点。

答：个人：在工资率较低且收入较少时，由工资率提高产生的替代效应大于收入效应，故随着工资率的提高，劳动力供给增加；在工资率维持较高水平且收入也在较高水平时，替代效应小于收入效应，表现为工资率对劳动力供给的负向影响。

劳动经济学第二章劳动力市场与就业体制.ppt

（1）低估劳动力未被充分利用程度
• 其二是失业者定义的难界定
（要求劳动者一定是积极寻找工作）事实上很多失业者寻不到工作后失去信心，不再找工作。在统计上，这类人被列入不在劳动力人口。而实际上，他们只是长期处于失业的状态。属于一种被掩盖了的失业现象。还有人找不到工作宁愿选择参加各种各种职业培训或提前退休，从而成为非劳动力人口，也掩盖了失业，并降低了失业人数的统计数据。（内退和息工人员）目前各国长期失业者丧失信心不再找工作的问题已经成为一大顽症。（啃老族的问题，可以讨论）（美国在调查周内工作15小时，法国20小时，低于此标准属于失业。我国缺乏劳动时间界定失业的明确标准，失业者多是长期没有工作的人）
• (3) 成熟市场经济体制下的就业体制是统一的，即不同企业面临的是同样的体制环境，即使国营企业也不会在工资和就业的决策方面受到特殊管制。
劳动经济学
ECONOMICS of LABOUR
劳动力市场出现“四抢一” 株洲专业技术人才稀缺
• 本报讯高级技术人才一直是我市劳动力市场上稀缺的资源，去年第4季度劳动力市场供求状况分析报告表明，这种状况在去年年底加剧，甚至出现4家单位争抢1个高级专业技术职务人才的局面。
•
去年第4季度，共有2322个企业向劳动力市场发布需求信息，其中逾
案例分析与提示:
• 由于传统一次性教育观念的根深蒂固，终身教育的思想还未被人们正确理解和接受。人们的思想观念与终身教育的理念还相差甚远。因此，很多家长和学生仍把传统的学校教育看做是成材的唯一途径，对职业教育等其他学习途径有着歧视和偏见。职业教育是终身教育的重要组成部分，它在提高劳动者素质和劳动技能方面起着不可估量的作用。在终身教育体系中，传统的学校教育并不是学习、成材的唯一途径。学习主体必须改变重文凭证书、轻素质水平的传统观念，将“学习”视为生存、发展的“第一需要”，将终身教育、终身学习变为扎扎实实的国民行为。

劳动经济学第二章

劳动经济学
主讲人：段宏煜
1
引言
行业或职业或专业的冷热度会直接反映到劳动力需求劳动力需求是什么？劳动力需求受哪些因素影响？劳动力需求与工资率之间什么关系？

2
引言

社会要进步和发展首先要能够生存下去，而生存下去的前提是必须解决人类的物质生活资料问题。由于自然界只能提供有限的物质生活资料来直接满足人类所需，因此人类必须不断地进行物质生产和再生产活动。不管科学技术怎样进步和发达，认定劳动力始终是进行社会生产必不可少的条件。因此社会不断提出对劳动力的需求。
[4]在市场经济条件下，对劳动力的需求量与工资水平有着相互依存的关系原因：劳动者向社会提供劳动的目的是，根据一定分配原则取得以货币收入为表现形式的个人消费品对劳动力需求者而言，上述货币收入构成生产经营的人工成本，它直接影响到生产经营者的利润结论：在其他条件不变时，劳动力需求与市场工资率成反向变动关系 W上升，劳动力需求下降 W下降，劳动力需求上升
劳动需求的涵义
[3]社会对物质资料需求与对劳动力需求既有相似之处，也有本质区别人们对物质资料需求的直接目的可能是为了生产，也可能是为了消费人们对劳动力需求的直接目的为了生产剩余价值生产剩余价值是劳动力商品价值的特殊性当劳动力生产剩余价值能力为零时，需求量不再增加
7
劳动需求的涵义
14
影响劳动需求的宏观因素
※ 补充概念
资本密集型产业：单位产品所需投资多。每个工人占有的固定资金高的工业部门，是需要大量投资的工业，比如，重工业劳动密集型：技术装备程度低，需要大量劳动力从事生产活动的产业部门。比如，农业、轻工业技术密集型：需要用先进的、复杂的、尖端的科技才能进行生产的产业。比如，微电子产业、新材料工业等 ※ 严格讲：技术密集型产业属于资本密集型产业

劳动经济学第二章

劳动经济学_02劳动需求

劳动经济学第2章 劳动供给分析

劳动经济学 第二章 劳动需求分析

劳动经济学劳动力供给曲线

劳动经济学第二章

劳动经济学(2)概述

劳动经济学(全) 第二章 劳动力供给

劳动经济学第二章

《劳动经济学》(作者Borjas)第二章习题答案

2劳动经济学(人大三版)第二章课后参考答案(王松峰 刘娇伟)

劳动经济学第2章 劳动供给分析

《劳动经济学》试题—劳动供给

劳动经济学第二章劳动力市场与就业体制.ppt

劳动经济学第二章

劳动经济学第2章劳动供给分析

劳动经济学第二章劳动需求分析

劳动经济学(全) 第二章劳动力供给

2劳动经济学(人大三版)第二章课后参考答案(王松峰刘娇伟)

劳动经济学第2章劳动供给分析