语言学课后答案7
语言学教程各章节练习及答案
Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct andstandard”behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they shouldday and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language： Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facialexpression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways: Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [ ]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resemblinga smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to thetask of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive ina particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English. Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝ ]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation. 3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated bythe bold type:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wantedto do this to day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationshipbetween expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical conceptor a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more wordsin a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of somecategoriesSyntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element presentand the others absent.Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relationsbetween its different constituentsSurface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of aconstruction people actually produce and receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmaticand paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for.The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first.In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the treediagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units,words and sentences in particular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entitya word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym) semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g. [+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really thesame, one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words aresynonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they maynot be considered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed. The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalkis a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed toa constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of asentence with determinate sense and reference.Illocutuonary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guidingprinciple the Cooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows:"make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of thetalk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’sknowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one ofthe four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin”is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?”he answered “Yes”but does not actuallydo it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door”is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.” What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。
语言学纲要课后练习题及答案
语⾔学纲要课后练习题及答案课后习题以及答案导论⼀：填空。
1、语⾔学的三⼤发源地是（）、（）和（）。
2、语⾔学是（）世纪成为独⽴的学科的，其标志是（）。
3、现代语⾔学的标志性著作是瑞⼠语⾔学家（）的（）。
4、语⾔交际过程可分为（）---（）-----（）----( )-----( )五个阶段。
5、印度最早的经典所使⽤的语⾔是( ).6、（）、（）、（）是中国“⼩学”的主要研究内容。
⼆：判断正误。
1、语⽂学主要是研究古代的⼝语和书⾯语。
2、语⾔有⾃⾝结构的独⽴性，与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。
3、理论语⾔学是研究语⾔⼀般规律的，不受具体语⾔研究影响。
4、语⾔形式和内容的关系是语⾔研究的根本问题。
三：思考题。
1、语⾔与⼈类社会⽣活有哪些密切联系？2、语⽂学研究有哪些特征？3、语⾔学学科内部都有哪些研究分类？如何看待它们之间的答案⼀、填空1、古希腊、古印度、古代中国2、19、历史⽐较语⾔学的出现3、索绪尔、《普通语⾔学教程》4、编码、发送、传递、接收、解码5、梵语6、⾳韵学、⽂字学、训诂学⼆、判断正误1、×。
语⽂学主要是研究古代的书⾯语，因为语⽂学研究所关注的，⾸先是反映在古代书⾯⽂献中的古代思想观念、政治制度等的，其直接⽬的⼤多是解读古典⽂献，⽽不是⾃觉地探索语⾔⾃⾝的规律，对当时的⼝语研究不是很关注。
2、×。
语⾔有⾃⾝结构的独⽴性，也与系统之外的社会环境密切联系。
语⾔学除了关注语⾔本体的结构性质和发展规律，同时也要探究语⾔系统与⼈、与社会之间错综复杂的关系。
⽽且语⾔⼀直在随着社会的发展⽽变化，会受到社会环境的影响。
3、×。
⼀般把研究某种具体语⾔的语⾔学称为汉语语⾔学或英语语⾔学等等，把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语⾔学。
理论语⾔学⼀般注重考察⼈类语⾔的共同规律和普遍特征，⽽不是学习研究某⼀门具体语⾔。
它所研究的是从具体的语⾔现象中总结、归纳出普遍的系统的理论和规律，并⽤这个理论指导各个具体语⾔的学习研究。
语言学概论 语言学课后习题答案
语言学概论语言学课后习题答案P7 3. Discuss the relation of arbitrariness and rules?Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not randomin their use. Although the link between form and meaningis arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way onceit has become established in the linguistic community. P12explain the primacy of human language over animal communication.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor inhuman language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.P18 1. Identify the functions of the following sentences.a)I like your house very much. b)I now declare the meeting closed. c)Nice to meet you d)I met Mary in the library this morning.a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. InformativefunctionP24 list five Chinese onomatopoetic words 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪are the functions of onomatopoetic words?Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basisof language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.P28 is the real object of linguistics?The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages inthe world. We need to look into the common features ofall languages, the range of variations among languages,the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language,the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.P58 1. What is a phoneme? And what is an allophone? Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme isa block thatcannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.P62 1. What does the word 'distinctive' mean inthe term 'distinctive features'?Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, \P65 1. What does complementary distribution mean? When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to bein complementary distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s).P69 2. What is the importance of stress in English?Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yielda regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm arecommonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English. P75 3. How can you identify the meaning of a word? Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called \\or\connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning.We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning.As for its various associated meanings, however, wehave to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situationand the context of culture.P82 1. Divide the following words into morphemesby placing a \each morpheme and the next.1) unbearable 2) watchful 3) personification 4) unexceptionally 5) uneducated 6) inspiring 7)soft-hearted 8) horsemanship1. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + except+tion + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate+-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing 7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship3. How many allomorphs does the plural form s have? The plural s has 3 phonologically-conditioned allomorphs... and 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in \\(2) -(r)en: as in \and (5) zero, as in \P93 2. What is the difference between lexeme and word?A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest form of a language that can occur by itself.A lexeme may be or may not be identical with a word. For example, the definite article \the lexeme \P100 1. Is immediate constituent analysis effective to explain discontinuousconstituents?No. Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence. One approach to explain sentences with discontinuousconstituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related. One phrase markeris derived from another. By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively. Transformational rules are responsiblefor the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2. Diagram the constituent structure of each of the following.(a) a very old wooden house down the lane (b) His old friend arrived yesterday.P103 2. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a tree diagramof constituent structure for each of the following sentences: (a) A smart boy fooled the class.(b) The pavilion on the hill collapsed in the wind.(c) Everybody knew that the president would win the election.P110 1. Draw the tree diagrams for the following sentences:(1) She found a book on Madison Street. (2) Jack advised Henry to see the dentist. (3) Jack promised Henry to see the doctor.P115 Exercises:What is the relationship between surface structure and deep structure?Surface structure can be derived from deep structure. A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker. This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure. In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents. The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed throughtransformational rules. In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed. The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structureP120 1. The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntacticmovement. Show the deep structures for each of following sentences. (a) The boss of the bus company was severely criticized by the public. (b) The woman threw the rake away in the yard. (c) Will the new school master hire her?(a) The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are the subject NP (here the public), the object NP (here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V (criticize) and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted. The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b) In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure, The woman threw away the rake in the yard. is also the deepstructure. It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V (verb) consists of a Vprt (verbsthat can combine with verbal particles) and a Prt (verbal particles). In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c) The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarative sentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence (in this case, will) immediately before the first NP of that sentence (here, the new school master). So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2. Please display the transformational rules involved in the following sentences.(a) What can the computer program do for us?A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similar to that of the declarative counterpart. So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive froma deep structure in the form of The computer program can do \this sentence, the object is fronted. First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer program - known as 'I' (inflexion) movement, and in the second step, a 'wh' transformation - known as 'wh' movement - that moves the noun phrase what- \content\to the front of the sentence, see the following diagram.(b) The window was broken by Jack.This sentence is traditionally called the \sentence, and its variant is \This pair is broadly speaking the same in meaning. The formulations of the passive rules must capture the fact that the active sentence and the passive sentence have their NP's (here the window and Jack) in reverse order, and that botha be + en auxiliary and the preposition by occur in the passive sentences and not in the active ones. AUX refers to past tense in this sentence.(c) They gave the door a gentle push.A corresponding sentence to the sentence is They gave a gentle push to the door. Both of which have the same basic meaning, and differ in the order of NP's inthe VP. In the corresponding sentence we find NP1 + to + NP2, in the above given sentence. Yet, in the sentence They gave the door a gentle push., we have reversed NP's. Transformational rules capture these facts by viewing the sentence, They gave the door a gentle push. as derived from the sentence, They gave a gentle push to the door., by deleting to and reverses the order of (, permutes) the two NP's. A phrase marker is changed into a new one.P133 Exercise 2:2. What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning? Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.P140 Exercise 1&3：1、Please explain why there are not true synonyms. True synonyms are rare. The so-called \their origin,in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.3、What category of antonym does each of the following pair of words belong to?a. black, whiteb. buy, sellc. big, smalld. parent, childe. upstairs, downstairsf. polite, rudea)black, white: complementary antonyms; b)buy, sell: relational antonyms;c）big, small: gradable antonyms;d)parent,child:relational antonyms; f)polite,rude: complementary antonyms.P142 Exercise 2:2. What is the semantic relation between the wordsin the following pairs. 1) hand, foot 2) rose, narcissus 3) tree, willow 4) bottle, cork 1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or \part of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy; they are both thesubordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree is the hypernym (or \In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. \is part of a bottle.P146 Exercise 3:3. What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy?When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.P150 Exercise 1&2：1. Try to identify the presuppositions that lie behind each of the following utterances:a) John has stopped smoking. b) She regretted having told him the secret. c) The boy opened the door himself. d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid.a) John has stopped smoking. → John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret. →She had told him the secret. c) The boy opened the door himself. → The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. → The paper was dipped into the liquid 2. What does each of the following utterances entail?a) He lost his bike yesterday. b) They went to the Great Wall.c) Mary's computer is terrific. d) We met two of our friends at the party.a) He lost his bike yesterday. → His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. → They are not here at present. c) Mary's computer is terrific. →Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party. → Two of our friends were at the party.P154 Exercise 2:2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic features are essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify. Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, forthey seem to have no semantic features.P156 Exercise 1:1. Please identify the types of predicate in eachof the verbs in the following sentences.a) He gave me the book. b) It was snowing hard.c) The computer is working properly. d) Someone invented the story. a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs three arguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the) book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs no argument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does not play the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs one argument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs two arguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.P159 Exercise 2:2. Please comment on the role of tautology in the following:看看人家，冰箱是冰箱，彩电是彩电。
语言学课后答案7
1.Anthropological Study of Linguistics: aims to look at the relationships between language and culture in a speech community. For this reason, it can alternatively be called anthropological linguistics. More specifically, practitioners of the field want to know more about a given community by examining the correlation between the tradition of the community, beliefs, and social behavior of community members and their language use in different contexts of communication. Communication: is an information process taking place between at least two parties or persons.Communicative Competence:is a sociolinguistic rule put forward by Dell Hymes in contrast with the “competence” vs. “performance” dichotomy in theoretic linguistics.Context of Situation: is a framework put forward by Firth. This theory has the following elements (Firth, 1950: 43-44 [Palmer, 1981: 53-54]).A. The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities: (i) The verbal action of the participants.(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.B. The relevant objects.C. The effects of the verbal action.Nida's Classification of Culture:According to Nida (1964), there are five types of sub-culture we should be fully aware of when engaged in translation: 1) ecological culture; 2) linguistic culture; 3) religious culture; 4) material culture; and 5) social culture. Ethnography of Communication: is an authoritative research framework of our time in a linguistic study of social and cultural factors (Hymes, 1962).FLB: an important concept recently put forward by theoretic linguistics, stands for the faculty of language in the broad sense. It forms a contrast with FLN—the faculty of language in the narrow sense. FLN:an important concept recently put forward by theoretic linguistics, stands for the faculty of language in the narrow sense. It forms a contrast with FLB—the faculty of language in the broad sense. Gender Difference:is a term used to refer to the variety of differences observed between men and women's linguistic behavior. This study covers almost all the levels of linguistic studies, ranging from pronunciation variants to communicative patterns.Linguistic Determinism: is a theory which believes that our language will influence or decide our way of looking at the world. In a loosesense, linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity, and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be regarded as synonyms.Linguistic Relativity:is a view which “was first expounded by the German ethnologist, Wilhelm von Humboldt” (Cryst al, 1985: 262). In a loose sense, this term has the same meaning with linguistic determinism and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.Linguistic Sexism: is a term used to refer to sex-biased phenomena in language use. More specifically, it aims to reveal and deal with linguistic issues related to male chauvinism.Six-Person System: is a typological pattern developed to study personal pronouns from the perspective of linguistic universality (Ingram, 1978). The following table summarizes this system explicitly. This typological system provides us with a comparative model to study the pronominal usage across languages.Six-Person Systemsingular pluralI wethou youhe theySpeech Community:refers to a group of people who “share not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well.” (Hymes, 1972: 52)SPEAKING: is a mnemonic way of summarizing certain components of speech which make possible the description and analysis of communicative behavior: S=Situation（场景）, P=Participants（参与者）, E=Ends（目的）, A=Act sequence（相关形式与内容）, K=Key（语气）, I=Instrumentalities（语式）, N=Norms（准则）, and G=Genres（体裁）. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. In a loose sense, this term can be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.Sociolinguistics of Language:examines issues related to the subject from a more linguistic perspective and, hence, is complementary with the Sociolinguistics of Society in terms of its coverage and concerns. Alternatively, we may also define the Sociolinguistics of Language as a study of sociolinguistic issues at a micro level of discussion. Sociolinguistics of Society: examines issues related to the subject from a more societal perspective and, hence, is complementary with theSociolinguistics of Language in terms of its coverage and concerns. Alternatively, we may also define the Sociolinguistics of Society as a study of sociolinguistic issues at a macro level of discussion. Tripartite Model for Successful Communication: is a working framework which is based on Roger's concept of real communication (1961) and is composed of the following principles: 1) try to look at things from other persons' point of view, 2) try to sense their feeling to a given issue, and 3) try to understand their way of knowing the world.Variationist Linguistics:is a theoretic framework advanced by William Labov to study how language variation and change take place in different social contexts or geographic districts under the influence of social factors such as economics, education, class, gender, style, and so on. The method it uses is basically quantitative, but qualitative instruments have recently been introduced in this branch of linguistic research for a better description and explanation of the data collected. Women Register:is a hypothesis which assumes that the following features are prevailing in women's linguistic behavior:1) Women use more “fancy” color terms such as “mauve” and “beige”.2) Women use less powerful curse words.3) Women use more intensifiers such as “terrible” and “awful”.4) Women use more tag questions.5) Women use more statement questions like “Dinner will be ready at seven o'clock?” (with a rising intonation at the end)6) Women's linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men's.2.A couple of contrastive points can be given to show important contributions of sociolinguistics to linguistics. First, we observe that traditional linguistics emphasizes a formal analysis of language, whereas sociolinguistics calls for a multi-faceted study of language as well so that a more balanced research framework can be achieved. Second, we notice that traditional linguistics focuses much on the study of structure, whereas sociolinguistics emphasizes the study of function as well so that a holistic study of linguistic issues will be possible. Third, traditional linguistics attempts to look at internalized elements of language, whereas sociolinguistics pays attention to externalized factors in language use as well so that a better understanding of the relationships between language, society, and the speaker can be achieved.3.A consensus has been reached that language not only reflects culture but also is part of culture. The close relationships between language and culture have widely been acknowledged. When it comes to languageteaching and learning, the influence of cultural knowledge on the linguistic performance of language learners has been identified and highlighted. It has repeatedly been found that learners who lack sufficient knowledge about the target culture can hardly become active and appropriate language users in their target language. For these reasons, the information concerning cultural differences has rightly been introduced in language classrooms of different kinds for enhancing learners' cultural consciousness and improving their performance in cross-cultural contexts of communication.4.A healthier understanding of the relationships between functionalism and formalism is to regard them as two sides of a coin rather than two contrasting theories or concepts. Meanwhile, we must also admit that each of them has something rather unique in terms of the selection of theoretical frameworks, perspectives, research concerns, and methods. For instance, when we want to study grammatical issues from a typological perspective, a formal description of the differences in language structure proves to be a more economic and feasible approach. On the other hand, if we attempt to examine issues related to language use, a functional perspective will be a better choice. In either case, there is no absolute contrast between the two, if you want to have a holistic study of linguistic problems.5.If we compare newspaper articles published recently with those published five years ago, we will catch a big difference in their lexical choice—there are so many new words and expressions in these new articles. Based on the results of this comparison, we may predict that today's readers will find it a little bit difficult to understand what future newspapers will carry. Over the past decades, Chinese people have enjoyed a much more colorful life, materially and spiritually. The rapid development in science, technology, economics, culture, and education has brought in our daily communication thousands and thousands of new words. Words such as 短信、动漫、网游、按揭、干细胞、海选（in an election）、海面（in a job interview）, which used to sound so professional, have now become part of our active vocabulary and are used frequently in our speech. Facing a situation like this, you may ask this question: Where do these new words and expressions come from? It is not an easy job to tell a complete story of these words. If you look at the question from a sociolinguistic point of view, you may claim that language changes with society. Words are the most active, sensible, and changeable component of language. Following this line of reasoning, we may conclude that, as society changes, the vocabulary of our language will become richer, more colorful and expressive in the days to come. 6.Basically speaking, the above explanation is not a correct one. As we all know, people from different cultural backgrounds speak differently.A maxim we should keep in mind is that one culture's meat can be another culture's poison. Take the quoted example again. English people and Chinese people have their distinctive ways to express politeness. In most cases, expressions like “thank you” and “please” are used as a lip service（口惠）in English, not really meaning that the speaker owes you something. On the other hand, a friendly smile or a slight nodding will be a more common practice in Chinese culture to express politeness. If we are not aware of this subtle difference, new cultural misunderstanding will come into being. For instance, you may either feel that English speakers are so polite for trivial things that they appear false and less sincere（虚情假意）or consider that Chinese speakers are so rude that they never know how to speak politely.7.In cross-cultural communication, when people have some trouble and do not know how to behave correctly, they tend to turn to their source culture for help. This is a strategy often used by communicators in a new cultural setting. Convenient as it is, this strategy may not always work. Far too many bad stories can be told to illustrate this point. This is because people from different communities think, behave, and speak differently. As our case studies in Chapter 7 show, if we are not readyfor this difference, we may run into trouble. Therefore, a principle that cross-cultural communicators should follow is to understand the target culture by transcending the source culture. Put alternatively, try to do as the Romans do when in Rome.8.According to Berns (1990: 339), sociolinguistics can make the following contributions to language teaching. If you like, you may add more. •Sociolinguistics has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teaching.•It has also contributed to innovations in materials and activities for the classroom.•It has contributed to a fresh look at the nature of language development and use.•It has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field.9.According to the new development in linguistic studies (Hauser, Chomsky & Fitch, 2002), a revolutionary point of view should be adopted in the linguistic research of the new century. In addition, a distinction has been made between the faculty of language in the broad sense (FLB) and in the narrow sense (FLN). The former covers a much wide range of linguistic studies by calling for an interdisciplinary study of linguistic issues, while the latter “only includes recursion and is theonly uniquely human component of the faculty of language” (ibid, 1569). Clearly enough, this re-classification of linguistic studies will broaden the horizon of linguistic research, enrich linguistic science, and encourage healthier communication between relevant fields so that new breakthroughs in linguistic theorizing will be possible.。
语言学概论课后题答案
9、抽象思维、发音
三、判断正误
1、错2、对3、错4、错5、对6、对7、对8、对9、错10、对11、错12、错13、错14、对15、对16、对17、对18、错19、对20、错
四、问答题
1、指导23页
2、教材31页
3、教材26页
4、教材27页
5、教材29页
6、教材29页
7、教材29页
五、问答题
1、教材P92
2、教材P89
3、教材P99
4、指导书P84
第五章
一、解释下列名词
1、词汇（教材P126）2、基本词汇（指导书P91）3、多义词（指导书P98）
4、同义词（教材P138）5、反义词（教材P142）
二、填空
1、全民常用、稳固、有构词能力
2、一般性、模糊性、全民性
3、本义、中心义、中心义、派生义
10、“洋泾浜”、混合语11、柴门霍夫、1887
三、辨别正误
1、错2、错3、错4、对5、错6、错7、错8、错9、错10、对
四、单项选择
1、C 2、D 3、A 4、B 5、C
五、问答题
1、教材P198
2、教材P206—207
3、教材P211—212
4、指导书P154
第九章
一、填空
1、方言和亲属语言、记录了语言的过去状态的文字2、聚合关系、组合关系
6、表意、表意兼表音、表音7、表意字、单纯表音字、形声字8、形象和会意9、改进
10、书面语、加工
三、辨别正误
1、错2、错3、错4、错5、对6、对7、错8、错9、错10、错
四、问答题
1、教材P152、指导书P114—115
2、指导书P116
3、指导书P125—126
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后习题答案chapter7
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后习题答案chapter7Chapter 7 Language Change1. The vocabulary of English consists of native and also thousands of borrowed words. Look up the following words in a dictionary which provides the etymologies (history) of words. In each case speculate as to how the particular word came to be borrowed from a particular language.a. sizeb. skillc. royald. ranche. robotf. potatog. astronaut h. emerald i. pagodaj. khaki k. bulldoze 1. hoodlum答：a. size (< old French)b. skill (< old Norse)c. royal (< old French < Latin)d. ranch (< Spanish < French)e. robot (< Czech < old Church Slavonic)f. potato (< Spanish < Taino)g. astronaut (< French)h. emerald (< Middle English & old French)i. pagoda (< Persian < Sanskrit)j. khaki (< Hindi <persian)< p="">k. bulldoze (< bull(Botany Bay Slang) < old English)l. hoodlum (< German)2. The Encyclopedia Britannica Yearbook has usually published a new word list, which is, in the Britannic a’s editor'sview, a list of those words that had entered the language during the year. Would you expect a yearbook to publish a “lost-word list” recording the words dropped from the language during the year Defend your answer.答：(略)3. Below is a passage from Shakespeare's Hamlet,King: Where is PeloniusHamlet: In heaven, send thither to see.If your messenger find him not there, seek him i' theother place yourself. But indeed, if you find him notwithin this month, you shall nose him as you go up thestairs into the lobby.Act IV, scene iiiStudy these lines and identify every difference in expression between Elizabethan and Modern English that is evident.答：In modern English, these lines are more likely written as: King: Where is PeloniusHamlet: In heaven, send to see there. If your messenger cannot find him there, yourself seek him at the other place. But indeed, if you cannot find him within this month, you shall notice him as you go up the stairs into the lobby.4. Comment with examples on the following statement “Words and expressions will be forcedinto use in spite of all the exertions of all the w riters in the world.”答：The statement means that when necessary, people will make use of available uses even if there is no writers' efforts. For example, there are more and more new words and expressions which are introduced into language not by writers, ., email, hacker, IBM (international big mouth, means a person who acts like agossip.)5. Suppose you are outside a government office where doors still bear the notice, “This door must not be left in an open position.” Now try to explain the notice in simple and plain English.答：“Keep the door dote. ” or “The door must be kept close.”6. Give at least two examples showing the influence of American English on British English.答：(略)7. Find in any books, newspapers, or journals newly coined words in association with social and political needs, internet or computer language.答：For example: SARS, Golden week, euro, e-mail, bi-media(双媒体的), cybernaut计算机(网络)漫游者, DVD, eyephone(视像耳机), etc．8. With examples, give some plausible explanations for linguistic change.答：(略)</persian)<>。
(完整版)语言学课后练习参考答案
胡壮麟语言学复习及答案Chapter I Introductionl.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8 .F 9.T 10.F11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F19.F 20.FI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. T2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. F7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. F11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. F17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.T18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some pointin time. F 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the writtenlanguage. F20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.F II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive30. scientific (or systematic)21. Chomsky defines “ competence ” as the ideal user ' s k _____________ of the rules of his language.22. ______________________________ Langue refers to the a linguistic system shared by all the membersof a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. _________ D is one of the design features of human language which refers tothe pheno 广告网址n that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a _________ vocal symbols used for humancommunication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s ________________ .26. Humancapacity for language has a g _______ basis, but the details of languagehave to be taught and learned.27. P __ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a linguistics.29. Language is p _________ in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s __ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.D31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ____________________________ .A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ___________ .A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable 34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, becauseA. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a __ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n) __________ view of language, while Chomsky looks atlanguage from a _______ point of view.A. sociological …psychologicalC. applied …pragmatic37. According to F. de Saussure, ___ refersshared by all the members of a speechcommunity.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connectionbetween _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediateB. psychological … sociological D.semantic and linguistic to the abstract linguistic system44.situations of the speaker. This feature is called ________ ,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to thenext through ___ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B IV. Define the following terms:Competence58 Performance 59. Langue 60 Parole V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples forillustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of humanlanguage? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance ?68. Saussure 's distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky ' s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why? I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T6.F7.T8.F 9.T 10.F 11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F17.T 18.F 41. Linguistics Pragmatics42. Phonology 43. Syntax45. PsycholinguisticsMorphology 49.SemanticsLinguistics 52.Arbitrariness46. Language 47. Phonetics 50. Sociolinguistics 53 Productivity 54. 48. 51. Applied Displacement 55.Duality56. Design Features 57.19.F 20.FII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with theletter given:21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive30. scientific (or systematic)III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific studyof language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used incommunication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to formsentences is called syntax. .44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society iscalled sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers tothe application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It meansthat there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makespossible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties ofhuman language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomskydefines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by allthe members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them withexamples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds,which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of languagecan be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This dualityof structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk aboutanything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality oreven comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and adiachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Whydoes modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the mediumthrough which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguistFerdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 ' s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user ' s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentencesthat are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker ' s knowledge of his mothertongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomskybelieves that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68. Saussure 's distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky' s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure 's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, becausethere are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “ photo ” and “ copy” in “ photocopy ” are non-motivated, but thecompound is not arbitrary.Chapter 2 ：Phonology l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19T 20. TI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.T2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. F3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.F4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. F5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.T6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of theamount of information conveyed. T7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. F8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. F9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. T10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.F11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. F12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. T13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.F14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. F15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.F16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. F17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see ifsubstituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. T18. Whentwo different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. F19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. T20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over asequence of two or more phonemic segments. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with theletter given: 21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentence21. A __ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speechsounds.22．A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce thespeech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, theyare all b _______ sounds.24．Of all the speech organs, the t ________ is the most flexible, and is responsiblefor varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation orin terms of p ___ of articulation.26．Whenthe obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s .<![endif]>27．S _______ features are the phonemic features that occur above the levelof the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular languageare called s _______ rules.29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with thediacritics is called n ________ transcription.30． When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather thanthe word in isolation, they are collectively known as i _______ .31． P ____ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particularlanguage and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguisticcommunication.32． The articulatory apparatus of a humanbeing are contained in three importantcavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o _________ cavity and the nasal cavity.33． T ____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates ofvibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34． Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s ________________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark thechoice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41. C 42.C 43.D 44.D35． Of all the speech organs, the _____ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36． The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are __ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37． _________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38． The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “ copying ” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones __________ .A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39． Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ____________________ .B. in complementary distributionC. the allophones40． The sound /f/ is ________________A. in phonemic contrast D. minimal pair A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricative fricative41.A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. A. back B. central C. front D. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments are called ___________ .A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstractunit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44． The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples forillustration if necessary:57.Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing? 58.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels? 59.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics? 60.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning. 61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not? I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F8 .F 9.T 10.F 11.F12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F19 T 20. T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with theletter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. D. voiceless labiodental environments are called the ___ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemes allophones<![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation50. phonetics phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone D. 47.allophone 51. auditory 54. phonemic contrastplace26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark thechoice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41. C 42.C 43.D 44.DIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic mediumof language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's pointof view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. 54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.。
语言学课后习题答案
Chapter 1Introduction 1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguisticsign and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look likea dog.(4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e.performance.(6) performance: Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct fromthe knowledge that underlies it, or competence.(7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguisticfeatures.(8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere ormaintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.(9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to theirsocial function in communication.(10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internalrelations.(11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are usedat a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.2. No, language is human-specific. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural transmission. These features are found utterly lacking in dogs’ or pigs’ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connectionbet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu”in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.5. Firstly, linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of the written language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man’s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of productivity also distinguishes human language from wolf ’s postures.Chapter 2The Sounds of Language 1. Define each of the following terms briefly.(1) articulator: the tongue, lips, and velum, which change the shape of the vocaltract to produce different speech sounds.(2) assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phoneticallysimilar (or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when followed by a [+nasal] consonant.(3) consonant: a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of partof the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction.Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.(4) elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.(5) intonation: the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and rhythmto the tune the voice plays in ordinary speech.(6) phoneme: the abstract element of a sound, identified as being distinctivein a particular language.(7) phonetics: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8) phonology: the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds oflanguage.(9) stress: the prominence given to certain sounds in speech.(10) voicing: the vibration in the larynx caused by air from thelungs passing through the vocal cords when they are partly closed; speech sounds are said to be either voiced or voiceless.(11) voiceless: When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstreamfrom the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described asvoiceless sounds.(12) vowel: a speech sound produced without significant constriction of theair flowing through the oral cavity.2. Minimal pair test or substitution test.Minimal pair test or substitution test is to see whether substituting one sound for 4another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds representdifferent phonemes. For example, as to the English word bear, if we substitute p for b, we get the word pear, the two are different words. Then /b/ and /p/ represent different phonemes. Other examples are chunk/junk, ban/bin, bet/beat, fine/vine, side/site, etc.3. Take the word big for example, in the word big /big/, /b/ is the onset, /i/ is the nucleus and /g/ is the coda. The difference between open syllables and closed syllables is whether the words have codas. If there are codas, they are closed syllables, such as pig, hat and at; if not, they are open syllables, such as do, I, tea and key.4. (1) stop, consonant(2) back, rounded, vowel5. (1) voiceless / voiced(2) bilabial / labiodental(3) close / semi-open(4) stop / nasal(5) alveolar / palatal(6) alveolar / dental(1) kit/git, bucker/bugger, bag/back(2) mark/nark, smack/snack, sum/sun(3) best/vest, ober/over, lib/live(4) bore/more, abate/amate, mob/mom(5) pat/fat, apt/aft (AmE), harp (BrE)/half7. (1) The stresses are placed on the second syllable except for “promise”. We may easily conclude that the verbs usually are stressed on the second syllable. (2) Syllable representations of the words:collide [k2#laid] elect [i#lekt] consider [k2n#sid2]Chapter 3Morphology 1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) morphology: the study of the structure of words.5(2) morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carries meaning orserves a grammatical function.(3) free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance onthe level of parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s, -es,and en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(7) derivation: the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words ormorphemes in morphology and word formation.(8) clipping: the process by which parts of a word of more than one syllablehave been cut off, and reduced to a shorter form.(9) acronym: words which are composed of the first letter of a series ofwords and are pronounced as single words. Examples: NATO, radar and yuppy.(10) initialism: Some new words are composed of the first letters of aseries of words and pronounced by saying each letter in them. Such words are called initialism.(11) blending: A single new word can be formed by combining two separateforms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example,brunch is formed by the shortened forms of breakfast and lunch.(12) root: the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complexword, e.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.(13) stem: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create amore complex form that may be another stem or a word. For example, book is the stem of bookish.(14) prefix: Affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, inwhich case they are called prefixes.(15) suffix: Affixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which casethey are called suffixes.2. (3), (5), (7)3. (1) simple: fly tree suite(2) bound morpheme rootfly / flyreuse re- usespiteful -ful spitepreplan pre- plandesks -s desktriumphed -ed triumphsuite / suiteoptionality -ality optionuntie un- tiedelight de- lightfastest -est fastprettier -ier prettytree / treejustly -ly justdeform de- formmistreat mis- treatdislike dis- likepayment -ment paydisobey dis- obeypremature pre- mature4. (1) Column I: ablaut (vowel modification)Column II: suppletionColumn III: stress modification(2) The process in the Column I is finished by changing the vowel of each word,while in Column II, the process is finished by changing vowel and consonant of each word.(3) Column I: awake/awoke bear/bore arise/aroseblow/blew bite/bit hide/hidlie/lay know/knew foot/feetgoose/geese tooth/teeth louse/liceColumn II: bad/worse are/were many/moreColumn III: ‘combine/com’bine ‘compress/com’press7‘conduct/con’duct ‘insert/in’sert‘insult/in’sult ‘intern/in’tern5. (1) Omitted.(2) Other examples:‘rerun (n.) – re’run (v.) ‘contrast (n.) – con’trast (v.)‘convert (n.) – con’vert (v.) ‘desert (n.) – de’sert (v.)‘export (n.) – ex’port (v.) ‘increase (n.) – in’crease (v.)‘conduct (n.) – con’duct (v.) ‘object (n.) – ob’ject (v.)‘content (n.) – con’tent (v.) ‘protest (n.) – pro’test (v.)‘insult (n.) – in’sult (v.) ‘produce (n.) – pro’duce (v.)When a word belongs to different word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on different syllables. When all the words above are stressed on the first syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verbs.6. (1) It means “the inhabitant of ”.(2) It means “the person who does”.(3) The morphological rule working here is “n. + -er –– n.”, and thelast phoneme of the noun, which the suffix -er is added to, should be aconsonant.(4) The rule in (3) doesn’t work in the word discoverer because the last phoneme of discoverer is a vowel /2/.7. (1) inflection (2) derivation (3) inflection (4) inflection (5) derivationChapter 4Syntax 1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the studyof sentence structure.(2) word class: a group of words which are similar in function; words which aregrouped into word classes according to how they combine with other words, how they change their forms, etc.(3) prescriptive approach: This view regards grammar as a set ofrules for the 8“proper”use of a language, that’s to say, it tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language.(4) descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with whichlinguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used.(5) IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediateconstituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimateconstituents. For example, the immediate constituents of “The man bought a car”are the man and bought a car. The immediate constituents of the man are the and man, and so on until no further cuts can be made. The ultimate constituents of “The man bought a car”at the word level are the, man, bought, a, and car.(6) structural analysis: a type of descriptive approach to study thedistribution of linguistic forms in a language through such methods as the use of “test frames”.(7) immediate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into smallconstituents, which can be further analyzed into smallerconstituents. This process continues until no further divisions arepossible. The first division or units are known as immediate constituents.(8) ultimate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into smallconstituents, which can be further analyzed into smallerconstituents. This process continues until no further divisions arepossible. The final division or units are known as ultimate constituents.(9) constituent structural grammar: It refers to a grammar which analyzessentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels.(10) transformational grammar: a type of grammar which attempts to define anddescribe by a set of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences(without ungrammatical ones) of a language.(11) ideational function: the use of language as a means of giving structure toour experience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function: the use of language for maintaining social rolesand interacting with others.(13) textual function: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used. 2. Yes. As we know, morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms and 9classes of words, while syntax focuses on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. The major distinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, while the latter is concerned with the combination of words.3. (2) Instead of using the form “suggest somebody to do something”, weusually use “suggest + that-clause” or “suggest doing”, here we’d better substitute “advise” for “suggest”(4) The word “request”is a transitive verb which should take an object directly,so the word “for” should be omitted.(6) The word “donate” cannot be followed by double objects as “donatesomebody something”. Instead we always use “donate something to somebody”.(10) The subject of the verb “write”is usually a human; an “article”cannot writeitself. In this case the passive construction is normally used: The article was very well writen.(11) Usually we don’t use “be bored of something/somebody”, but “be bored withsomething/somebody” which means losing interest in somebody/something.(13) Here “myself ” is a reflexive pronoun, which can’t be used as subject, andit should be replaced by “I”.(14) The word “surprise” is usually used as a transitive verb, so theexpression “…surprise for you” is ungrammatical, and it can bereplaced by “surprise somebody (with something)”or “I was surprised by your getting married.”(15) The word “sleep” is usually used as an intransitive verb, which can’t takean object. The cases of “sleep” being used as a transitive verb aresemantically limited, as in “to sleep a good sleep” or “the room can sleep3 people”.4. It’s ungrammatical, because “us” is the objective case which can’t serve asthe subject, while “she”is the subjective case which can’t serve as the object.The sentence should be “We visit her on Sundays”. The personal pronouns “you”and “it” have the same form whether used as the subject or object.5. (1) NP: A Guns “N”Roses concert, an arena, some 2500 fans, a full-fledged riot,A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena , A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena near ST. Louis ,The trouble, venue security, a camera, the front, the stage, the front of the stage. PP: at an arena, at an arena near ST. Louis, near ST. Louis, in disaster, near the front, of the stage, near the front of the stage. VP: staged a full-fledged riot, asked venue security, confiscate a camera.(2) N: Guns, Roses, concert, arena, ST. Louis, disaster, fans, riot, trouble, Axl 10Rose, venue, security, camera, front, stage. Prep: at, near, in, of. V: end, stage, start, ask, confiscate, see.6. (1) You mustn’t end a sentence with a preposition.You mustn’t split infinitives7. (i)(ii)8. (1) a. Terry loves his wife and I love his wife,too. b. I love my wife as well as Terry loveshis wife.(2) a. It’s yesterday that they said she would go. b. She would go yesterdayas they said.(3) a. The governor is a street fighter who is dirty.b. The governor is a fighterin a dirty street.(4) a. The design has squares and circles, both of which are big. b. The designhas big squares, and it also has some circles. (The sizes of the circlesare not mentioned.)Chapter 5Semantics 1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.(2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning ofthe sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentenceis true or false, and knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowingthe part that it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containingit.(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refersto, or names.(4) behaviorist theory: the view that the meaning of a linguistic form is definedas observable behaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.(5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning ofan expression is determined by its use in communication and moregenerally, in social interaction.(6) sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, together with thecontext, determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense ofa noun phrase such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows oneto determine that George W. Bush is the referent.(7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and thethings, actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in Englishis the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree”(referent) in the real world.(8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed interms of what they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitivemeaning. It is the essential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication.For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he”in English is any male personor male animal.(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word ora combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purelyconceptual meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” isemotional, frail, inconstant, irrational, etc.(10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressionsinto a system which shows their relationship to one another. For example,kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belongto a semantic field whose relevant features include generation, sex,membership of the father’s or mother’s side of family.(11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic fieldof a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister,son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for “male”and “female”cousin.(12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaningwhich analyzes a word into a set of meaning components or semanticfeatures. For example, the meaning of the English word boy may be shownas [+human][+male][-adult].(13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaningof word may be described as a combination of semantic components orfeatures. For example, the feature [+male] is part of the meaning of father, and so is the feature [+adult], but other features are needed tomake up the whole meaning of father. Often, semantic features areestablished by contrast and can be stated in terms of [+] and [-], e.g. womanhas the semantic features [+human], [-male] and [+adult].(14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where amore particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.(17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not onlysections of the body but defined in terms of specific functions. For example,the head is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs,i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involvedin the situation described or represented by the clause, forexample as agent, patient, or cause.(19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truthof one (the second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Cordayassassinated Marat and Marat is dead; if the first is true, the second mustbe true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make anutterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken”is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”2. (1) He waited by the bank.a. He waited by the financial institution which people can keep their money inor borrow from.b. He waited by the bank of the river.(2) Is he really that kind?a. Is he really that type of person?b. Is he really that kind-hearted?(3) We bought her dog biscuits.a. We bought dog biscuits for her.b. We bought biscuits for her dog.(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.a. He saw that gasoline container explode.b. He saw that gasoline may explode.(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total.b. Each of the fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.(6) He saw her drawing pencils.a. He saw her pencils for drawing.b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpfuliron: strong, brave, hard, determinedmole: traitor, betrayal, spysnow: pure, virgin, cleanstreet: homeless, living hard, pitiable5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory(2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smell These words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tend to be used more frequently. They consist of only one morphemeand are easier to learn and remember than others. They are also often broaderin meaning and cannot be described by using the name of another member ofthesame field.6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace,house homonyms: ear.7. In a semantic field, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status.The less marked members of the same semantic field (1) are usuallyeasier to learn and remember than more marked members; (2) consistof only one morpheme in contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot bedescribed by using the name of another member of the same field; (4) tendto be used more frequently than more marked terms; (5) broader in meaningthan more marked members; (6) are not the result of the metaphorical usageof the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram.The (a) and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.The (b) words are animals.(2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, hollerThe (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds.The (a) words are normal voice quality.The (b) words are produced by modifying one’s normal voice quality.(3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swimb. fly, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glideThe (a) and (b) words are sports (movement).The (a) words are sports without instruments.The (b) words are sports with instruments.Chapter 6Pragmatics 1.Define the following terms briefly.(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities andsituations with respect to certain points of reference such as the place(here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things,actions, events, and qualities they stand for.(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to anotherword or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to makean utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken”is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”(6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has beendeveloped by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “dothings”, to perform acts. In saying “Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology.(7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location)and intended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt? is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for action.(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher PaulGrice whereby those involved in communication assume that bothparties will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of 4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutorsas a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achievevarious purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintainingharmonious social relations in conversation. This principle requiresspeakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It is composed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy.。
修订版《语言学纲要》第七章语言的演变和分化答案
第七章语言的演变和分化一、名词解释社会方言一一社会方言是社会内部不同年龄、性别、职业、阶级、阶层的人们在语言使用上表现出来的一些变异，是言语社团的一种标志。
人们平常说的官腔”干'部腔”学生腔”女娃娃腔”等等的腔”，都是对某一言语社团在语言表达上的一些共同特点的概括，表明这种腔”就是一种社会方言。
工农群众称自己说的为大白话”，称知识分子说的为字儿话”，这实际上也是对社会方言的一种通俗的说法。
地域方言由一种语言分化而来的地域变体称为地域方言，简称方言。
方言”是一个总的概念，在它下面还可以分出各种次方言”，在次方言”下面又可以分出各种土语”。
亲属方言一一从同一种语言分化出来的几种独立的语言，彼此有同源关系，我们称它们为亲属语言。
例如汉语和藏语来自史前的原始汉藏语，它们同出一源，是亲属语言。
谱系分类一一根据语言是否来自同一语言的分化及分化的辈分等级而对语言做出的分类。
二、填空1、语言演变的两大特点是（渐变性）和（不平衡性）。
2、汉语的七大方言是指：（北方方言）、（吴方言）、（湘方言）、（赣方言）、（客家方言）、（粤方言）、（闽方言）。
3、黑话是一种特殊的（社会）方言，它有强烈的（排他性）。
4、语言谱系结构的层次一般有（语系）、（语族）、（语支）、（语群）。
5、从语言谱系来看，彝语属于（汉藏）语系（藏缅）语族；法语属于（印欧）语系（罗曼）语族；阿拉伯语属于（闪含）语系。
三、简答题1、举例说明为什么社会、人际交流是语言演变的基本条件。
语言是人类组成社会的条件之一。
和社会的发展息息相关，社会的发展是语言演变变化的原动力。
社会的发展是语言发展变化的基本条件和强大动力，主要表现在:(1)语言是一种社会现象，其发展变化必然要受到社会发展变化的影响。
语言随着人类社会的产生而产生，人类社会由低级到高级，由简单到复杂，由落后到先进的发展，都会推动语言的发展。
社会的分化、统一、相互接触也会相应地引起语言的分化、统一和接触。
语言学概论 书本 习题及答案
线条性：是语言符号与符号之间的相互关系表现出来的特点，说话 的时候，语言符号只能一个跟一个依次出现，在时间的线条上延伸， 不能在空间上展开。语言符号的线条性特点使语言符号能够组成各种 结构序列。
1、 语言学（ 研究语言规律的学科） 2、小学（围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，以“字”为单位 的“小学”：文字、音韵、训诂学） 3、普通语言学（普通语言学，以所有语言为研究对象；探讨各种语言 所共有的属性和共同的规律。） 4、个别语言学（个别语言学研究个别语言的结构体系和结构规律。现 代汉语，汉语语音学，英语词汇学。） 5、共时语言学（又叫静态语言学。它以语言在历史发展过程中某一特 定状态中的语言系统为研究对象,揭示语言的内部结构规律，分析各种 语言单位,描写语言规则,而不考虑时间的因素。）
知识
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品质 [] 班级 [] 开封 [] 语言 [] 学习
[] 家乡 []
故事 [] 苦菜 [] 花朵 []
追求 [] 尊
敬 []
三、名词解释 1、语音( 语音是人类发音器官发出的含有一定意义的声音，是语
言的物质外壳（表现形式）。 2、音质(音的性质，本质特色，又叫”音色”→一个音区别于其他
语言的组合关系和聚合关系。 8、为什么说组合关系和聚合关系是语言体系中两种最基本的关系？
组合关系和聚合关系是组成语言符号系统的一个纲。语言符号系统 的每一个的单位都既可以和别的同类单位组合，也可以和别的同类单 位聚合。我们把语言比作一个装置，那么这个装置就是靠组合和聚合 运转的。
《语言学纲要》指导书习题答案（7-9章）
《语⾔学纲要》指导书习题答案（7-9章）第七章语⾔随着社会的发展⽽发展⼀、解释下列名词（20分，每词 4 分）1、⽅⾔：是语⾔的变体，是因为地域或社会的原因⽽发⽣的语⾔分化。
2、社会⽅⾔：指社会内部因年龄、性别、职业、阶级、阶层的⼈们在使⽤语⾔上表现出来的变异，是⾔语社团的⼀种标志。
3、地域⽅⾔：是⼀种语⾔在不同地域上的分⽀，语⾔的地⽅变体。
4、共同语：是在某个⽅⾔的基础上形成的⼀个民族的通⽤语⾔。
5、亲属语⾔：是从同⼀种语⾔分化出来的，彼此有同源关系的⼏种独⽴的语⾔。
⼆、填空题（30 分，每空 4 分）1、社会的发展是语⾔发展的基本条件。
2、渐变性和不平衡性是语⾔发展的两⼤特点。
3、语⾔的发展中，词汇的变化速度最快，语⾳次之，⽽语法的演变最为缓慢。
4、语⾔发展的两个基本过程是语⾔的分化和语⾔的统⼀。
5、社会⽅⾔是因社会的分⼯⽽出现的语⾔分化，⾏业⽤语、科学技术术语、阶级⽅⾔都是常见的社会⽅⾔。
6、⿊话是⼀种特殊的社会⽅⾔，它具有强烈的排他性。
7、地域⽅⾔的差别，主要表现在语⾳上，划分地域⽅⾔的主要依据也是语⾳。
8、地域⽅⾔的进⼀步分化就会发展为独⽴的语⾔、这些源⾃⼀个共同语分化的语⾔归属于同⼀个亲属语⾔，这个成为不同语⾔发展源头的共同语称为母语。
9、汉藏语系和印欧语系是世界上使⽤⼈数最多的两个语系。
10、按谱系分类，英语属于印欧语系⽇⽿曼语族。
11、共同语是在⼀种语⾔或⽅⾔的基础上形成的。
12、在⼀个多民族的国家中，各民族之间往往还需要⼀个共同的交际⼯具，这就是所谓的国语，我国的普通话就是这样的⼀种共同语。
13、语⾔规范化的对象主要是书⾯语。
14、约定俗成的原则在规范化的⼯作中有重要作⽤，它本⾝就是规范化的⼀个原则和标准。
15、⼀种⽅⾔能成为共同语的基础⽅⾔，主要取决于客观的政治、经济、⽂化等各⽅⾯的条件。
16、汉语的普通话，根据规范化的要求，确定为以北京语⾳为标准⾳，以北⽅话为基础⽅⾔，以典范的现代⽩话⽂著作为语法规范。
语言学 全部习题+答案
第三章MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False：1.Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology，so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4.The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5.Bound morphemes include two types：roots and affixes.6.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number，tense，degree，and case.7.The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem，which can be a bound root，a free morpheme，or a derived form itself.8.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word，not the meaning of it.9.There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore，words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10.Phonetically，the stress of a compound always falls on the first element，while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given：11.M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12.The affix “-ish” in the word ‘boyish’ conveys a g____ meaning.13.B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes，either free or bound，to form a word.14.Affixes are of two types：inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15.D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16.A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17.C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18.The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.19.In terms of morphemic analysis，d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20.A s______ can be a bound root，a free morpheme，or a derived form itself to whicha derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement：21The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a（n）______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD. None of the above23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes，either free or bound，to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem，but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is_______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root IV. Define the following terms：31.morphology 32.inflectional morphology 33.derivational morphology34.morpheme 35.freemorpheme 36.bound morpheme37.root 38.affix 39.prefix40.suffix 41.derivation poundingV. Answer the following questions：43.What are the main features of the English compounds？44.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested AnswersI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.l.T 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.TII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given.11.Morpheme 12.grammatical13.Bound 14.derivative15.Derivative 16.suffix pounding 18.morphological19.derivation 20.stemIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.2l.D 22.D 23.B 24.B 25.C 26.C 27.D 28.A 29.B 30.CIV. Define the following terms.31.Morphology：Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32.Inflectional morphology：The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33.Derivational morphology：Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34.Morpheme：It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35.Free morpheme：Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36.Bound morpheme：Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes，either free or bound，to form a word.37.Root：A root is often seen as part of a word；it can never stand by itself although it bears clear，definite meaning；it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38.Affix：Affixes are of two types：inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories，while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39.Prefix：Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem，but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40.Suffix：Suffixes are added to the end of the stems；they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41.Derivation：Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.pounding：Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Answer the following questions.43.What are the main features of the English compounds？Orthographically a compound can be written as one word，two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically，the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically，the meaning of a compound is idiomatic，not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically，the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes：They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves，for example，“book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes：They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes，either free or bound，to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word；it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning，such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types：inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-”in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”，while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.Unit I Some Preliminaries about LanguageI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.3. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole4. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies thecombinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.5. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to formwords is called morphology.6. Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories tolanguage teaching and learning7 Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’sunderlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete8 Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, thecommunication way used by the deaf-mute is not language9 By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language10 language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary11. There is universal agreement about the origin of language.12. Pet dogs can speak human languages.13. All human infants can speak some language.14. By creativity we mean the creative use of language as often practiced by poets.15. With different cultures there will be different languages.16. Not all uses of language are meant to convey new information.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ ofthe rules of his language.2. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.3 The description of a language as it change through time is a ________study4 .Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.5 .The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of wordsinto permissible sentences in languages is called s________.6 Language ,broadly speaking, is a means of _________communication7 language has many functions. we can use language to talk about itself. This function is________8 Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises whileperforming heavy work has been called the ___________theory9 One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ___________over writing10 D_________ is one of the design features of human language whichrefers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lowerlevel of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningfulunits.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actuallyuse, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic2 .Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness3. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable4 The function of the sentence“water boil at 100 degrees centigrade”A interrogativeB directiveC informativeD performative5. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative6 language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human __________.A contactB communicationC relationD community7 languages is _______A instinctiveB non-instinctiveC staticD geneticallytransmitted8 A linguist regards the change in language and language use as _______A unnaturalB something to be fearedC naturalD abnormal9 which of the following words is entirely arbitraryA treeB crashC typewriterD bang10. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing,because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongueD. All of the aboveIV. Define the following terms:1. Linguistics2. Phonology3. Syntax4 Design features 5. Psycholinguistics 6. Language 7. Phonetics 8. Morphology 9.paroleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsused for human communication. Explain it in detail.2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them withexamples.3. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic studyand a diachronic study?4. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language asprimary, not the written?5. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?6. There is a well-known story in the Bible that reflects the importance oflanguage in human society. According to the Old Testament, mankindspoke only one language until Nimrod began to build a tower that was to reach heaven. The Lord said, “Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language, and nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. Come, let us go down, and there confuse their language, that they may not understand each other’s speech.”ASK:(1) What if there were no language?(2) What if there were only one language the world over?(3) What can we learn from this Bible story?7. Not only are many languages dying today, many dialects are alsodisappearing from the planet. For example, according to a report once circulated on the Internet, many parents discourage their children from speaking their local dialect. They would rather their children took hold of every chance to learn English, because the latter will give them an edge in future competition.ASK:(1) What measures do you suggest for protecting dialects as well aslanguages?(2) Do you think that someday people all over the world will speak only onelanguage, or someday no dialect will exist?8. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not?9. What role does body language play in language communication?Unit I Some Preliminaries aboutLanguageAnswer:I.Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:l. T 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6T 7 T 8F 9 T 10F 11. F 12.F 13.F 14. F 15. F 16. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Knowledge2. Abstract3. Diachronic linguistics4. Arbitrary5. Syntax 6 verbal7 metalingual function 8 yo-he ho 9 speech10 DualityIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.l. C 2.D 3.C 4.C 5.B 6.B 7.B 8.C 9.A 10.DI V. Define the following terms:1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used incommunication is called phonology.3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to formsentences is called syntax. .4 Design features: it referred to the defining properties of human languagethat tell the difference between human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. 5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings ofmind is called psycholinguistics.6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication.7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguisticcommunication is called phonetics.8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged toform words is called morphology.9. Parole: it referred to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible.Give examples for illustration if necessary:1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocalsymbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, becauseElements of language are com­ bined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same ob­ject in the world.This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are justSymbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by conven­ tion. Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term “communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their commu­ nicative needs.2. What are the design features of human language? Illustratethem with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no nec­ essary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer tothe same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con­struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or dou­ ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but thedetails of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans­ mitted.3. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study;the de­ scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of languageas primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ­ ten form and most writing systems are derived fromThe spoken form of lan­ guage. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.5. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinct, ion between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.6.(1) What if there were no language?Omit.(2) What if there were only one language the world over?Omit.(3) What can we learn from this Bible story?Language is powerful as a tool of human communication.7.(1) What measures do you suggest for protecting dialects as well as languages?Omit.(2) Do you think that someday people all over the world will speak only one language, or someday nodialect will exist?Omit.8. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not?No. They are genetically not endowed with the capacity.9. What role does body language play in language communication?Omit.。
《语言学纲要(修订版)学习指导书》练习与思考参考答案(第七至九章)
第七章语言的演变与分化一、名词解释社会方言：是同一语言内部由于社会因素不同而造成的各种变异，有多少种社会因素造成了语言在某些方面的不同，就能区分出多少种社会方言。
地域方言：是某一语言在不同地域上的变体，常简称为方言。
亲属语言：是指从同一语言分化出来的几种独立的语言，彼此有同源关系。
谱系分类：根据语言是否来自同一语言的分化及分化的辈分等级而对语言做出的分类。
二、填空1.语言演变的两大特点是渐变性和不平衡性。
2.汉语的七大方言是指：北方方言（官话）、吴方言、湘方言、赣方言、客家方言、粤方言、闽方言。
3.黑话是一种特殊的社会方言，它有强烈的排他性。
4.语言谱系结构的层次一般有语系、语族、语支、语言。
5.从语言谱系来看，彝语属于汉藏语系藏缅语族；法语属于印欧语系拉丁语族；阿拉伯语属于闪—含语系。
三、简答题1.举例说明为什么社会、人际交流是语言演变的基本条件。
语言是人类交际最重要的工具。
人的因素和社会因素构成了语言演变最基本的动力。
语音变化。
例如，在人际交往过程中，如，一些高频词语在使用中常常磨损，造成语音的弱化，常见的虚词在语流中通常都是以混元音ə为韵母。
在社会交际中，英语中的good bye 在不影响交际的情况下缩短了，只说bye。
又如词汇变化，偏好不同，说法也不同。
一些年轻人不说“很多”，而说“N 多”还有语法变化，正因为是约定俗成的，也就可以改变。
比如，现在很多人把“请发短信给我”说成“请短信我”，虽然语法改变，但意义没有改变。
运用中的活语言是人类组成社会的条件之一,是社会成员之间最重要的联系纽带。
同一个社会由低级到高级,由简单到复杂,由落后到先进的发展,必然会带来语言的发展；社会的分化、接触或统一必然会造成语言相应的变化；人与人交流时的创新要求、省力要求也必然会使得语言变化和调整。
2.举例说明语言发展过程中各种因素的相互影响。
语言是符号系统，它内部的各种要素处于对立统一的关系之中，相互间呈现一种平衡的状态。
《语言学概论》课后习题答案.docx
课后习题思考题1.答：人们在各个领域的活动中都离不开语言，语言活动深入到人类生活的一切领域，这种情况必然使语言学和其他学科发生密切的联系，因此说，语言学在现代科学体系中处于领先和关键的重要地位。
⑴语言学的特定研究对象，即人类的语言几乎牵涉到现代科学的每个学科。
现代许多学科的发展最后都与语言问题、思维问题等有关，语言学的突破必将为这些学科的发展起到促进作用。
⑵语言学与社会科学、自然科学有着密切的联系，围绕着语言学，已经形成了众多的边缘学科。
2.答：语言的应用研究统称为应用语言学，它着重解决现实中与语言有关的各种实际问题，把语言学的基础研究成果转化为社会效益。
根据研究范围的不同，应用语言学有狭义和广义之分。
狭义应用语言学主要以语言教学问题为研究对象, 基本可以看作是语言教学的理论与方法的科学。
语言教学包括第一语言教学即本族语的教学和第二语言教学即外族语的教学。
第一语言的学习非常重要，因为它是学习各门知识的基础和手段，也是进行各种交际活动的工具。
第二语言教学包括本族人学习外族语及教外族人学习本族语。
广义应用语言学是把语言学的研究成果同有关学科的某些实用研究结合起来，着重解决有关学科及语言学本身所涉及的应用方面的问题。
它主要包括语言统计、信息传递、自动控制、情报检索、机器翻译、人机对话、人工智能、自然语言理解、语言文字信息处理等。
此外，还涉及到语言规划、语言的使用等问题。
3.答：转换生成语言学的创始人是美国语言学家诺姆-乔姆斯基。
转换生成语言学的研究对象是语言能力而不是语言行为。
1957年，乔姆斯基出版《句法结构》一书，标志着转换生成语言学的诞生。
转换生成语法理论是欧美语言学理论中最有影响的一种，因此，它的诞生被称为“乔姆斯基革命”。
乔姆斯基的生成语法学理论使我们在一定程度上摆脫了行为主义言语获得理论的束缚，认识到婴儿言语获得过程中神经系统的重要作用，同时也向我们提出了研究言语过程的心理机制的问题，这是很有理论意义和借鉴价值的。
语言学课后习题答案(2020年7月整理).pdf
语言学概论作业Chapter 11.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is thescientific study of language?To understand this definition, we should focus on three words in this sentence: scientific, study and language. First of all, scientific here means a study which is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. The linguist studies it to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system. Secondly, the word study here refers to investigation or examination. Thirdly, Language here is general term. It refers to any human language, Chinese spoken by the Chinese, English by the English people, German by the Germans, or even Esperanto, an artificial language. Language here also means the dialects or variants of a common language such as Cantonese, a variant of Mandarin.Therefore, this whole sentence can be interpreted that linguistics is a language study through the systematic investigation of linguistic data and some general theory of language structure.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics:the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phoneticproperties.Phonology:it studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system oflanguage.Morphology: a field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a languageSyntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does notforce languages into a Latin-based framework.4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, the linguists seem to give priority to synchronic studies other than diachronic ones. Because it is believed that unless the various states ofa language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would bedifficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. That is to say, the diachronic studies should be based on synchronic ones. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as beingdescription of a language in its current existence. And most linguistic studies are of this type.5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?①The writing system is invented by its users when needed②Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written③Speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed in daily communication④Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing⑤Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech as spokenlanguage reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech.6.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance?They are similar in two aspects: the definition and the content of study.On one hand, Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole as the realization of langue in actual use. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. We can see that langue and competence both refer to the abstract issue, conventions and knowledge, and parole and performance both are their actual realization, the concrete use.On the other hand, in Saussure’s opinion, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole as parole is too varied and confusing. And this is the same as Chomsky. He thinks linguists should study the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good,comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of languge.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified byC.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communicationsystem?1)Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign andwhat the sign stands for.2)Productivity:provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or twolevels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture5) Cultural transmission9.What are the major functions of language?1)descriptive function2)expressive function3)social functionChapter 31.Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a.microfilm: micro+filmb.bedraggled: be+draggle+edc.announcement: announce+mentd.predigestion: pre+digest+ione.telecommunication: tele+communicate+ionf.forefather: fore+fatherg.psychophysic: psycho+physich.mechanist: mechan+ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types ofstem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)suffix: -ingmeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultstem type: added to verbsexamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of consruction2)suffix: -ablemeaning: able to bestem type: added to verbsexamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessed3)suffix: -istmeaning:denoting a member of a profession or business activitystem type: added to nounsexamples: dramatist : a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: un-meaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarlyapproach or languageunhappy: not happy2)prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medicallyinduced abortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again4.The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme.Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.1)Sue moves in high-society circles in London.The third person singular2)A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The past tense3)The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The present perfect4)The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.The present progressive5.Detemine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to oneanother by process of inflection or derivation.a)go, goes, going, goneprocess of inflectionb)discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityprocess of derivationc)inventor, inventor’s inventors, inventors’process of inflectiond)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratizeprocess of derivation6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a)The farmer’s cows escaped.Derivational affixes: -erInflectional affixes: ‘s, -s, -edb)It was raining.Derivational affixes:noneInflectional affixes: -ingc)Those socks are inexpensive.Derivational affixes: in-Inflectional affixes: -sd)Jim needs the newer copy.Derivational affixes: -erInflectional affixes: -se)The strongest rower continued.Derivational affixes: -est, -erInflectional affixes: -edf)She quickly closed the book.Derivational affixes: -lyInflectional affixes: -edg)The alphabetization went well.Derivational affixes:-ionInflectional affixes: wentChapter 51.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1)The naming theory was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Thelinguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things. The semantic relationship holding between words and things is the relationship of naming.2)The conceptualist view: This view holds that there is no direct link betweena linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaningthey are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards:3)Contextualism: Representatively proposed by the British linguist J. R. Firthwho had been influenced by the Polish anthropologist Malinowski and the German philosopher Wittgenstein.It holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –elements closely linked with language behavior. …the meaning of a word is its use in the language.4)Behaviourism: Based on contextualist view by Bloomfield who drew onbehaviorist psychology in defining “meaning”.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language from as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves3.Explain with examples “homonymy”, “po lysemy”, and “hyponymy”.1)Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.2)Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, thesame one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5.orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6.part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to beoperated on3)Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, moreinclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory4.How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does eachof the following pairs of antonyms belong?①north/south ②vacant/occupied ③literate/illiterate ④above/below⑤doctor/patient ⑥wide/narrow ⑦poor/rich ⑧father/daughterGradable antonyms: literate/illiterate wide/ poor/richComplementary antonyms: vacant/occupiedRelational opposite: north/south dotor/patient father/daughter5.Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:①Tom’s wife is pregnant. Tom has a wife.②My sister will soon be divorced. My sister is a married woman.③He likes seafood. He likes crabs.④They are going to have another baby. They have a child.X presupposes Y(Y is a prerequisite of X): ①②④X entails Y(Y is an entailment of X): ③6.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes intodistinctive features?Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. And that is similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features.7.What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentencesemantically meaningless?The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, especially its grammatical well-formedness. Selectional restrictions, which means the constraints on what lexical items can go with what others, might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless.8.Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:①The man sells ice-cream. ②Is the baby sleeping?③It is snowing. ④The tree grows well.1.MAN, ICE-CREAM(SELL)2.BABY(SLEEP)3.(BE SNOW)4.TREE(GROW)Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditionalsemantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguisticcommunication?答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot besatisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “My bag is heavy”. How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,”he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”, he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person said, “The story of the movie is very moving”, so when the other person said, “The music of the movie is good”, he meant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes back, so when he said, “you have been keeping my notes for a whole week now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the words “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speakerbelieves to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language. Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature? 答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure inthe English used by Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure. Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)syntax1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NSNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.S。
语言学课后练习(附参考答案)
Chapter 1I. Define the following terms.1. design features2. diachronic3. arbitrariness4. competence5. parole6. prescriptive7. duality 8. performance 9. synchronic10. descriptive 11. displacement 12. langueII. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?Answer:Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.III. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language? Answer:On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means “OK/YES” for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.IV. Why is the distinction between competence and performance important in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept communicative competence?Answer:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair---competence and performance.Chapter 2I. Define the following terms.1. phonetics2. consonant3. allophone4. vowel5. assimilation6. syllable7. intonation8. phonology 9. phoneme 10. toneII. Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1. [ð]2. [ʃ]3. [ŋ]4. [d]5. [p]6. [k]7. [l]8. [i]9. [u:] 10. [ɔ]Answers:1. [ð]: voiced dental fricative2. [ʃ]: voiceless postalveolar fricative3. [ŋ]: velar nasal4. [d]: voiced alveolar stop5. [p]: voiceless bilabial stop6. [k]: voiceless velar stop7. [l]: (alveolar) lateral 8. [i]: high front unrounded lax vowel9. [u:]: high back rounded tense vowel10. [ɔ]: low back rounded lax vowelIII. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below.1. voiceless labiodental fricative2. voiced postalveolar fricative3. palatal approximant4. voiceless glottal fricative5. voiceless alveolar stop6. high-mid front unrounded vowel7. high central rounded vowel 8. low front rounded vowel9. low-mid back rounded vowel10. high back rounded tense vowelAnswers:1. [f]2. [Ʒ]3. [j]4. [h]5. [t]6. [e]7. [ʉ]8. [ɶ]9. [ɔ] 10. [u:]IV. To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?Answer:Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology is the study of sound systems that occur in a language and the patterns where they fall in. Minimal pairs, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it focuses on chaos. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add theappropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language. It focuses on order.V. The pronunciation of tell is [teɫ], but that of teller is [telə]. Discuss why the phoneme /l/ is realized as [ɫ] and [l] respectively in this situation.Answer:The word teller is formed by adding a suffix –er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the [l] must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme [l] is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word is formed. In word-formation it is tell+-er while in syllablestructure it is [te+lə].Chapter 3I. Define the following terms.1. morpheme2. affix3. allomorph4. free morpheme5. derivation6. stem7. blending8. back-formation9. inflection 10. root 11. bound morpheme 12. acronym II. Complete the words with suitable negative prefixes.a. removable m. syllabicb. formal n. normalc. practicable o. workabled. sensible p. writtene. tangible q. usualf. logical r. thinkableg. regular s. humanh. proportionate t. relevanti. effective u. editablej. elastic v. mobilek. ductive w. legall. rational x. discreetAnswers:a.irremovable m. dissyllabicrmal n. abnormalc.impracticable o. unworkabled.insensible p. unwrittene.intangible q. unusualf.illogical r. unthinkableg.irregular s. inhumanh.disproportionate t. irrelevanti.ineffective u. uneditablej.inelastic v. immobilek.inductive w. illegall.irrational x. indiscreetIII. Morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammaticalconcept or a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme? Can amorpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole?Answer:Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, that is, it is involved both in grammatical and semantic aspects.A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. For example, the phoneme /s/ in ‘looks’, ‘tapes’, ‘Frank’s’, ‘race’ is the same one, yet they represent different morphemes or even is not a morpheme individually. The phoneme /s/ in ‘looks’: the third-person singular present tense morpheme; the phoneme/s/ in ‘tapes’: the plural morpheme; the pho neme /s/ in ‘Frank’s’: the possessive case morpheme; the phoneme /s/ in ‘race’: is not a morpheme, for it has neither lexical meaning or grammatical meaning.Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structure other than a single phoneme. In other words, a morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. an independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.Chapter 4I. Define the following terms.1. syntax2. constituent3. subordination4. endocentric5. category6. construction7. exocentric8. coordinateII. Put brackets around the immediate constituents in each sentence.1.I rode back when it was dark.2.The boy was crying.3.Shut the door.4.Open the door quickly.5. The happy teacher in that class was becoming away.6. He bought an old car with his first pay cheque.Answers:1.((I) ((rode) (back))) ((when) ((it) ((was) (dark)))).2.((The) (boy)) ((was) (crying)).3.(Shut) ((the) (door)).4.((Open) ((the) (door))) (quickly).5. ((The) (((happy) (teacher)) ((in) ((that) (class))))) ((was) ((becoming) (away))).6. (He) ((( bought) ((an) ((old) (car)))) ((with) ((his) ((first) ((pay)(cheque)))))).III. For each of the underlined constructions or word groups, do the following.—State whether it is headed or non-headed.—If headed, state its headword.—Name the type of constructions.e.g.: His son will be keenly competing.Answer: headed; headword—competing; verbal group(a) Ducks quack.(b) The ladder in the shed is long enough.(c) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.(d) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries.(e) His handsome face appeared in the magazine.(f) A lady of great beauty came out.(g) He enjoys climbing high mountains.(h) The man nodded patiently.(i) A man roused by the insult drew his sword.Answers:(a) non-headed; independent clause(b) non-headed; prepositional phrase(c) headed; headword---damaged; adjectival group(d) headed; headword---singing; gerundial phrase(e) headed; headword---face; nominal group(f) non-headed; prepositional phrase(g) headed; headword---climbing; gerundial phrase(h) non-headed; independent clause(i) headed; headword---roused; adjectival phraseChapter 5 MeaningI. Define the following terms.1. conceptual meaning2. denotation3. connotation4. reference5. sense6. synonymy7. gradable antonymy 8. complementary antonymy9. converse antonymy 10. relational opposites11. hyponymy 12. superordinateII. Do the following according the requirements.(a) Write out the synonyms of the following words:youth; automobile; remember; purchase; vacation; big (b) Give the antonyms of the following words:dark; boy; hot; go; lend; male(c) Provide two or more related meanings for the following:bright; to glare; a deposit; planeAnswers:(a) youth: adolescent automobile: carremember: recall purchase: buyvacation: holidays big: large(b) dark: light boy: girlhot: cold go: comelend: borrow male: female(c) bright: a. shining; b. intelligentto glare: a. to shine intensely; b. to stare angrilya deposit: a. minerals in the earth; b. money in the bankplane: a. a flying vehicle; b. a flat surface。
《新编语言学教程》课后答案
(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.(2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning of the sentenceis the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false, andknowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that it plays in thetruth or falsehood of the sentence containing it.(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names.(4) behaviorist theory: the view that the mea ning of a linguistic form is defined as observablebehaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.(5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning of anexpression is determined by its use in communication and more generally, insocial interaction.(6) sense: the inherent part of an expression‘s meaning, together with the context,determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense of a noun phrasesuch as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that Georgesuch as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that George (7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things,actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationshipbetween the word tree and the object ―tree‖ (referent) in the real world.(8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms ofwhat they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitive meaning. It is theessential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as thecentral factor in verbal communication. For instance, the conceptual meaning of ―he‖ in English is any male person or male animal.(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word or acombination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purely conceptualmeaning. For example, the connotative meaning of ―woman‖ is emotional, frail,inconstant, irrational, etc.(10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressions into asystem which shows their relationship to one another. For example, kinship terms suchas father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a semantic field whose relevantfeatures include generation, sex, membership of the father‘s or mother‘s side of family. (11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of alanguage. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for ―male‖ and ―female‖ cousin.(12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning whichanalyzes a word into a set of meaning components or semantic features. Forexample, the meaning of the English word boy may be shown as[+human][+male][-adult].(13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of wordmay be described as a combination of semantic components or features. Forexample, the feature [+male] is part of the meaning of father, and so is thefeature [+adult], but other features are needed to make up the whole meaning of father.Often, semantic features are established by contrast and can be stated in terms of [+] and[-], e.g. woman has the semantic features [+human], [-male] and [+adult].(14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexical items,e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning between lexical items,e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a moreparticular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (the superordinate): Xis a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.(17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not only sections ofthe body but defined in terms of specific functions. For example, the head is the part ofthe body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in thesituation described or represented by the clause, for example as agent,patient, or cause.(19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one (thesecond) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Corday assassinated Marat and Maratis dead; if the first is true, the second must be true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make anutterance meaningful or appr opriate, e.g. ―some tea has already been taken‖ is apresupposition of ―Take some more tea!‖2. (1) He waited by the bank.a. He waited by the financial institution which people can keep their money in or borrowfrom. b. He waited by the bank of the river.(2) Is he really that kind?a. Is he really that type of person?b. Is he really that kind-hearted?(3) We bought her dog biscuits.a. We bought dog biscuits for her.b. We bought biscuits for her dog.(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.a. He saw that gasoline container explode.b. He saw that gasoline may explode.(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total.b. Each of the fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.(6) He saw her drawing pencils.a. He saw her pencils for drawing.b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpfuliron: strong, brave, hard, determinedmole: traitor, betrayal, spysnow: pure, virgin, cleanstreet: homeless, living hard, pitiable5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory(2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smellThese words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tendto be used more frequently. They consist of only one morpheme and are easier tolearn and remember than others. They are also often broader in meaning and cannot bedescribed by using the name of another member ofthe same field.6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace, househomonyms: ear.7. In a semantic field, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status. The less markedmembers of the same semantic field (1) are usually easier to learn andremember than more marked members; (2) consist of only one morpheme incontrast to more marked members; (3) cannot be described by using the name of anothermember of the same field; (4) tend to be used more frequently than more marked terms;(5) broader in meaning than more marked members; (6) are not the result of themetaphorical usage of the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram.The (a) and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.The (b) words are animals.(2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, hollerThe (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds.The (a) words are normal voice quality.The (b) words are produced by modifying one‘s normal voice quality.(3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swimb. fly, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glideThe (a) and (b) words are sports (movement).The (a) words are sports without instruments.The (b) words are sports with instruments.(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations withrespect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events,and qualities they stand for.(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word orphrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make anutterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. ―some tea has already been taken‖ is apresupposition of ―Take some more tea!‖(6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developedby J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to ―do things‖, to perform acts. In saying―Sorry‖, you are performing an act of apology.(7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location) andintended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt?is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive foraction.(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Gricewhereby those involved in communication assume that both parties willnormally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutors as a meansor strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such assaving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation.This principle requires speakers to ―minimize the expression of impolite beliefs‖. It iscomposed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreementand Sympathy.(10) conversational implicature: the use of conversational maxims in the CooperativePrinciple to produce extra meaning during conversation.2. Deictic expressions: I, now, you, that, here, tomorrow.3. Anaphoric expressions: she, him, it.4. (1) He bought the beer.(2) You have a watch.(3) We bought a car.5. Direct acts: (1)/(5); Indirect acts: (2)/(3)/(4)6. (a) The Maxim of Quality: (1) Do not say what you believe to be false; (2) Do not say thatfor which you lack adequate evidence.(b) The Maxim of Quantity: (1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for thecurrent purpose of the exchange); (2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(c) The Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.(d) The Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous (1) Avoid obscurity of expression; (2) Avoidambiguity; (3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity); (4) Be orderly.7. The speaker is particularly careful about the maxim of Agreement in PP. Theresponse begins with ―well‖ rather than ―no‖ in order to minimize disagreement between the speaker and hearer.8. It is an indirect speech act. Carol invites Lara to a party, but Lara wants to decline theinvitation. To be polite, she doesn‘t choose a direct refusal, inst ead she says “I‘ve got an exam tomorrow‖ as a reasonable excuse to decline the invitation. In this way, she minimizes the expression of impolite beliefs, thus the utterance conforms to PP(1) discourse: a general term for examples of language use, i.e. languagepro-duced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.(2) discourse analysis: the study of how sentences in written and spokenlanguage form larger meaning units such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.(3) given information: the information that the addresser believes is known tothe addressee.(4) new information: the information that the addresser believes is not known to theaddressee.(5) topic: the main center of attention in a sentence.(6) cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements ofa text. This may be the relationship between different sentences or different parts of asentence.(7) coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in adiscourse or of the sentences in a text.(8) discourse marker: the technical term for all the items that are used to helpconstruct discourse, such as signifying the beginning or ending of a paragraph ora turn in conversation. They are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance andare syntactically detachable from a sentence, such as well, I mean, now, then, first, second, finally.(9) adjacency pair: a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that ―go together‖ in a adjacencypair: a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that ―go together‖ in a acceptance,criticism/denial.(10) preference structure: in the conversations there can be several second partsrelated to one first part, but they are not of equal status. The structural likelihood is called preference, and this likely structure is the preference structure that divides second partsinto preferred and dispreferred. The former is the structurally expected and thelatter unexpected. In answering the question “Have you got a light?‖, the reply ―Here you are‖ is preferred and ―Sorry, no, I don‘t smoke‖ is dispreferred.(11 presequence: the opening sequences that are used to set up some special potential actions,such as greetings before formal conversations. ―What are you doing tonight?‖ can be used as a presequence if it is followed by ―If nothing special, come over and have dinne r with us please.‖(12) critical discourse analysis: the analysis of language use directed at, and committed to,discovering the concealed ideological bias, injustice, inequality in the powerrelations among speakers and hearers.2. In the study of discourse, cohesion refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationshipsbetween the different parts of a text. This may be the relationship between differentsentences or different parts of a sentence. It concerns the question of how sentences areexplicitly linked together in a discourse by different kinds of overt devices. Such cohesivedevices include reference, substitution, ellipses, conjunction and lexical cohesion.5. It is not a coherent discourse. Although it has connection words such as a Ford a car and black –– Black, which look like cohesive devices, they refer to entirely different things. There is a total lack of internal relation among the sentences. A text can‘t be only based on superficial connections between the words to pursue coherence; there must be some relationship that links the meanings of the sentences in a text, too. This text is not in line with our real experience of the way the world is. Thus, we can‘t make sense of it directly unless we are laborious to create meaningful connections which are not actually expressed by the words and sentences. So it‘s not a coherent discourse.6. Coherence is the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of thesentences in a text. This extract is coherent. All the sentences (questions in fact) areorganized around the topic ―interview‖, and they are arranged from the gene ral to the more specific in a logical order so that the text is easy to follow.(1) sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is,how social factors influence the structure and use of language.(2) standard language: the variety of a language which has the highest status in a communityor nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.(3) dialect: a language variety characteristic of a particular social group; dialects can becharacteristic of regional, social, temporal, occupational or gender groups.(4) register: a language variety associated with a particular situation of use, e.g. baby talkand legal language.(5) pidgin: a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone, but islearned in contact situations.(6) creole: a language that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the firstlanguage of a speech community through its being learned by children.(7) language planning: planning, usually by a government or government agency,concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.(8) diglossia: a situation when two distinct varieties of the same language areused, side by side, for two different sets of functions.(9) bilingualism: the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group ofspeakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.(10) code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialectswithin the same sentence or discourse.(11) taboo: a word or expression that is prohibited by the polite society from general use.(12) euphemism: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference tocertain acts or subjects, e. g. ―powder room‖ for ―toilet‖.2. Idiolects are varieties of a language used by individual speakers, with peculiarities ofpronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.3. A president who did not have an accent may refer to a president who speaks the standardlanguage. The standard language is a particular variety of a language that is officially given a status higher than any other, and therefore a dominant or prestigious variety. The standard language is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language and is generally used in government documents,education, broadcasting and printing. A good president is expected to speak theprestigious variety of his language.4. Language planning is usually done by a government or government agency whichconcerns the choice of national or official l anguage(s), ways of spreading the use of thelanguage(s), spell reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems. In order to carry it out effectively, the official attempt may concentrate on either the status of a language with regard to some other language or variety or its internal condition with a view to changing it. Language planning usually involves two aspects: status planning and corpus planning. Status planning changes the function of alanguage or a variety of a language and the right of those who use it. And corpus planning seeks to develop a variety of language or a language, usually to standardize it, that is, toprovide it with the means for serving most language functions in society. Governments may take both sides into consideration.5. A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used bypeople who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Pidgin arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English. Typicallypidgins have a limited vocabulary and a much reduced grammatical structurecharact erized by the loss of inflections, gender and case. When a pidgin has become theprimary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speechcommunity as their native language, it is said to have become a creole. Thestructu re of the original pidgin is expanded to enable it to fulfill its newfunctions. The vocabulary is vastly enriched, and new syntactic-semantic conceptsdeveloped. Notable examples of creole are the English-based creole of Haiti.6. There are man y euphemisms for toilet, such as WC, powder room, Men‘s room, Ladies‘room, Gentlemen, bathroom, restroom and so on. In many cultures, people avoid referring to this place by ―toilet‖ or ―lavatory‖ because they are unpleasant to the ear. The use ofeuphe misms reflects social attitudes or social customs. We choose the words or expressions of euphemism because they are more polite or pleasant to use without embarrassing others.7. There are two possible reasons. One reason is that women are usually morestatus-conscious than men and they are aware of their lower status in society and as aresult, they may use more standard speech forms in their attempt to claimequality or even achieve a higher social status. The other reason might be attrib-uted to the education. Women are educated to behave ―like a lady‖ when they are little girls, andsuch education may influence their speech as well. (The answers are quite open) (1) psycholinguistics: the study of the relation between language and mind: the mentalstructures and processes which are involved in the acquisition, comprehension andproduction of language.(2) language production: the process involved in creating and expressing meaning throughlanguage, such as the four successive stages provided by Levelt (1989):conceptualization, formulation, articulation and self-regulation.(3) language comprehension: From a psycholinguistic point of view, we store a great deal ofinformation about the properties of the language, and retrieve this information when we understand language. Besides, language comprehension can be treated in fourlevels: sound, word, sentence and text comprehensions.(4) Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: It refers to the view that the language system could influence oreven determine one‘s thought, and a particular language imposes particular ideas of nature or beliefs of one‘s culture.(5) linguistic determinism: One‘s language structure determines his cognitive structure.That is, learning a language may change the way a person thinks or perceives the objective world.(6) linguistic relativity: As one‘s language influences one‘s cognitive system,speakers of different languages perceive the world differently.2. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usuallyinvestigates the psychological states and mental activities associated with the use oflanguage. Most problems in psycholinguistics are comparatively more concrete,involving the study of language acquisition especially in children andlinguistic performance such as producing and comprehending utterances orsentences among adults. However, theoretical linguistics is more objective. It usuallyinvestigates the existing phenomena about languages and its investigations are usuallycarried out in the branches of microlinguistics: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary study of language andpsychology, with structural linguistics and cognitive psychology as itsroots whiletheoretical linguistics solely focuses on aspects of language.3. (1) The correct form is ―They swam across the lake‖, which is caused byexchange. (2) The correct form is ―The spy was bound and gagged‖ , which is caused by exchange. (3) The correct form is ―I will see you in the park‖, which originates from substitution.4. The slip-of-the-tongue phenomenon described above can be explained by theparallel distributed processing (PDP) approach in word comprehension. The PDP approach holds that people use several separate and parallel processes at the same time to understand spoken or written language. In the slip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, people have alread y conceptualized his/her idea (thought), but can not find a proper word to express the idea. This shows that thought precedes language. According tolinguistic determinism, language shapes one‘s thought. If there isn‘t language, there should be no thought. Thus, this phenomenon goes against linguistic determinism andshows that thought can exist with or without language.5. The fact mentioned here flies at the face of linguistic determinism which says that one‘slanguage structure determines one‘s cognitive structur e. That‘s to say, a particular language can not shape one‘s world view. Language changes al ong social changes. And socialchanges can lead to the changes of people‘s view. At the same time, one‘s world view can affect a particular language. For example, Xiaojie was used to refer to the daughter of rich and important families before 1949. Then, since 1949, great changes havetaken place in China. The world view of Chinese people has changed radically but thelanguage has changed little. During the Cultural Revolution, Xiaojie became very muchculturally loaded —young women not belonging to ‗the revolutionary rank‘ and people not to be politically trusted. After 1979, it gradually became popular again, and now it has taken on a derogatory meaning (hooker). As it is mentioned above, it is socialchanges that shape one‘s world view, and it is cognitive structure that affects language.。
语言学概论课后答案
《语言学概论》习题答案(自考,新版教材) 选择题第一章总论1 言语是×. 言论与语言×. 音义结合的符号系统√. 说话和所说的话2 语言是一种×. 形式和内容相统一的视觉符号√. 音义结合的听觉符号系统×. 用来交际的触觉符号系统3 抽象思维的一般特性是×. 概括性、民族性×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造√. 概括性、社会性4 语言是思维的工具指的是×. 一切思维必须由语言完成√. 主要指抽象思维和直观动作思维、形象思维的高级阶段离不开语言×. 指直观动作思维和表象思维离不开语言5 思维的三种类型是√. 直观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造6 语言符号的任意性是×. 语言符号的创造和使用总是任意的×. 我们可以任意理解语言的符号√. 语言符号音义之间没有本质的联系7 语言符号的线条性×. 语言符号的排列没有阶级性，象一根线条排列在一起×. 语言符号一个跟一个依次出现，随时间推移不分层次逐渐延伸√. 语言符号在时间的线条上逐个出现，同时不排除层次性8 "他肯定不会来了！" 这句话强调了说者的×. 说话行为√. 施事行为×. 取效行为×. 言语行为9汉语声调从中古到现代的"平分阴阳，入派三声"的规律是√. 个别语言的发展规律×. 一般语言的发展规律×. 汉民族各种方言的发展规律□一个民族内部共同使用的语言称为√. 民族共同语×. 民族交际语×. 国际交际语10 克里奥尔语是语言的√. 混合×. 融合×. 分化×. 整化11 语言融合的"底层"现象是×. 语言装置的最下面一层，即语音部分√. 被融合的语言的某些遗留下来的因素×. 被压迫的阶层第二章语音□声调决定于√. 音高×. 音强×. 音长×. 音质□[p、t?、b、k]在发音方法上的共同特点是×. 清音×. 不送气√. 塞音×. 擦音□舌尖后浊擦音是×. [x] ×. [b] √. [?] ×. [z]□[tA]（大）是√. 开音节×. 闭音节×. 元音首音节√. 辅音首音节□[]（血）中的[?]是×. 起音√. 领音×. 收音□[kai51]（盖）中的[i]是×. 起音×. 领音√. 收音×. 辅音□普通话[?in55k?u214]（辛苦）快读是[?i? 55k?u214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化×. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□普通话[f?n214pi214]快读是[f?m35pi214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化√. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□普通话[tou51fu214]（豆腐）快读是[tou51f]这种现象是×. 同化×. 异化×. 弱化√. 脱落×. 增音第三章语义□________是指语言单位的意义在一定的语境的作用下，内部变得具体、丰富或增加一些附加意义。
语言学概论课后习题答案(胡晓研)
术语解释1.语言学：语言学就是专门以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。
语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题，揭示语言存在和发展的规律，使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。
2.语文学：语文学是从文献角度研究语言文字学科的总称。
它以文献评审为主，目的在于解释、注疏和考订。
3.语言：语言是一种特殊的社会现象，它作为人类最重要的交际工具为全社会服务，它同人的思维有密切的联系，是人区别于其他动物的本质特征之一，语言是音义结合的符号系统。
4.言语：言语是人们为了某种目的，在特定条件下发生的说话行为和说出来的话。
这里的“说话行为”是指说话的动作和过程；“说出来的话”是指一连串有意义的声音。
5.索绪尔：现代语言学的历史，是从瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔开始的。
索绪尔的代表作是《普通语言学教程》。
索绪尔被誉为“现代语言学之父”，《普通语言学教程》是现代语言学的奠基之作。
索绪尔的语言学思想和19世纪以前的语文学最根本的区别在于：把语言看成是由各个符号之间的关系组成的有价值的结构系统。
6.布龙菲尔德：是美国描写语言学派的核心人物。
他们注重语言行为的描写，而不注重语言能力的解释；着眼于语言间的差异，而不重视语言的普遍性。
其著作有《语言论》7.乔姆斯基：1957年美国语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基《句法结构》的出版，标志着“转换生成语法”的诞生。
这一理论是建立在理性主义的哲学基础之上的，它完全不同于建立在经验主义基础之上的美国结构主义，因此，它的出现是对当时居于主流地位的美国结构主义语言学的一大挑战，被人称作“乔姆斯基革命”。
8.菲尔墨：是格语法的代表，其代表作是1968年发表的《格辩》。
他认为标准理论无法说明类似下列两个句子中名词短语与动词短语之间的关系究竟有何区别：Thechildopensthedoor./Thekeyopensthedoor.这种名词短语与动词短语之间的功能关系只有用更深一层的语义区别才能解释清楚。