关于产权的理论 德姆塞茨
产权理论

3.1.1.1产权理论研究高校国有资产的经营和管理,首先应从其产权的研究着手。
目前,产权关系模糊不清是造成高校国有资产流失的关键。
长期以来,我国的高等院校资产名义上是国家所有,实际上是“谁占有谁所有”。
所有权、使用权、支配权混在一起,概念不清,产权关系模糊,打着为公的旗号,以集体名义,明公暗私,难以识别。
随着市场经济的发展,高等院校的经济活动日趋频繁,在创办“三产”、出租联营、股份合作等环节过程中,发生资产转移和流失的情况将更为严重。
为此,必须加强对高等院校国有资产的产权界定和权属管理,对现有的资产价值重新核定,以保持资产价值的真实性;同时资产管理机构要认真履行职责,代表高校行使监督管理权、投资和收益权、资产处置权,实现对高等院校国有资产的全过程管理,促进高等院校国有资产结构、布局的优化,资源配置合理,保证国有资产的保值增值,为我国高等教育的发展做好资产保证。
3.1.1.1 产权的概念《新帕尔格雷夫经济学大辞典》对产权定义是:“产权是一种通过社会强制而实现的对某种经济物品的多种用途进行选择的权利。
属于个人的产权即为私有产权,它可以通过转让以换取对其它物品同样的权利。
”这一定义强调产权是一组权利,其有效性取决于对此权利强制实现的可能性以及为之付出的代价,而这种强制有赖于政府的力量、日常社会行动以及通行的伦理道德规范。
德姆塞茨在《关于产权的理论》中认为,“在鲁宾逊的世界里,产权是不起作用的。
产权是一种社会工具,其重要性就在于它们能帮助一个人形成他与其他人进行交易时的合理预期”,“产权包括一个人或其他人受益或受损的权利”,“产权的一个主要功能就是为实现外部效应的更大程度的‘内部化’提供行动的动力”。
德姆塞茨将产权与外部效应联系起来,指出外部效应存在的根源在于资源稀缺性导致的对资源使用的竞争性需求。
德姆塞茨认为,产权作为一种社会工具,有助于实现外部效应内部化,使资源在市场机制的调节下能够达到最优配置。
同时,产权是一个不断变化的概念,新的产权的形成是相互作用的人们对新收益-—成本的可能渴望进行调整的回应,随着社会技术的发展和组织结构、制度的创新,社会会赋予产权以新的内涵。
产权概念和产权研究的方法_读哈_德姆塞茨_关于产权的理论_

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产权分析

产权分析
讲义结构
学习目的和要求 产权:内涵、功能与特征 作为一种分析方法的产权理论 德姆塞茨所有制经济学/巴泽尔产权分析
产权:内涵、功能与特征
产权:内涵、功能与特征
产权的概念
– 产权不是指人与物之间的关系,而是指由 物的存在及关于它们的使用所引起的人们 之间相互认可的行为关系
在决定自愿如何利用方面起着极为重要的作用
– 第三层次:在不同的经济、法律环境下,外在性 问题存在不同的最佳解决办法,因此产生了“制 度选择思想”
– 经济学研究从“自由交换论”到“交易成本论” 再到尽可能的“完全竞争论”
– 科斯定理的争议
作为一种分析方法的产权理论
GHM模型
– 不完全契约理论 – GHM模型的基本思想 – 当事人的有限理性,以及预见、缔约和执行契约
日期2
新旧产权理论的区别:资产剩余收入的索取权还是对剩余控制的权利
讲义结构
学习目的和要求 产权:内涵、功能与特征 作为一种分析方法的产权理论 德姆塞茨所有制经济学/巴泽尔产权分析
德姆塞茨的所有制经济学与巴泽尔的产权分析
德姆塞茨的所有制经济学
– 从科斯的外部性到德姆塞茨的所有制 – 所有制经济学框架 – 所有制作为一个外在现象:所有制的特性(或权
• 产权的可分割性使产权更容易流动和交换,大 大增强了资源配置功能
• 产权的可分割性有利于企业制度的完善和发展 • 产权的可分割性是资本市场建立的一个必要条
件 • 产权的可分割性大大降低了集体产权的运作成
本
– 产权的可转让性意味着所有者有权按照双 方共同决定的条件将其财产转让给他人
– 案例:股份公司所有权、经营权、控制权
– 案例:加拿大的皮革贸易市场与海狸狩猎
产权的经济理论-德姆塞茨

Towards a Theory of Property RightsHarold DemsetzThe American Economic ReviewVolume 57, Issue 2May, 1967, 347-359.IndexIntroductionThe Concept and Role of Property RightsThe Emergence of Property RightsThe Coalescence and Ownership of Property RightsIntroductionWhen a transaction is concluded in the marketplace, two bundles of property rights are exchanged. A bundle of rights often attaches to a physical commodity or service, but it is the value of the rights that determines the value of what is exchanged. Questions addressed to the emergence and mix of the components of the bundle of rights are prior to those commonly asked by economists. Economists usually take the bundle of property rights as a datum and ask for an explanation of the forces determining the price and the number of units of a good to which these rights attach.In this paper, I seek to fashion some of the elements of an economic theory of property rights. The paper is organized into three parts. The first part discusses briefly the concept and role of property rights in social systems. The second part offers some guidance for investigating the emergence of property rights. The third part sets forth some principles relevant to the coalescing of property rights into particular bundles and to the determination of the ownership structure that will be associated with these bundles.The Concept and Role of Property RightsIn the world of Robinson Crusoe property rights play no role. Property rights are an instrument of society and derive their significance from the fact that they help a man form those expectations which he can reasonably hold in his dealings with others. These expectations find expression in the laws, customs, and mores of a society. An owner of property rights possesses the consent of fellowmen to allow him to act in particular ways. An owner expects the community to prevent others from interfering with his actions, provided that these actions are not prohibited in the specifications of his rights.It is important to note that property rights convey the right to benefit or harm oneself or others. Harming a competitor by producing superior products may be permitted, while shooting him may not. A man may be permitted to benefit himself by shooting an intruder but be prohibited from selling below a price floor. It is clear, then, that property rights specify how persons may be benefited and harmed, and, therefore, who must pay whom to modify the actions taken by persons. The recognition of this leads easily to the close relationship between property rights and externalities.347Externality is an ambiguous concept. For the purposes of this paper, the concept includes external costs, external benefits, and pecuniary as well as nonpecuniary externalities. No harmful or beneficial effect is external to the world. Some person or persons always suffer or enjoy these effects. What converts a harmful or beneficial effect into an externality is that the cost of bringing the effect to bear on the decisions of one or more of the interacting persons is too high to make it worthwhile, and this is what the term shall mean here. “Internalizing” such effects refers to a process, usually a change in property rights, that enables these effects to bear (in greater degree) on all interacting persons.A primary function of property rights is that of guiding incentives to achieve a greater internalization of externalities. Every cost and benefit associated with social interdependencies is a potential externality. One condition is necessary to make costs and benefits externalities. The cost of a transaction in the rights between the parties (internalization) must exceed the gains from internalization. In general, transacting cost can be large relative to gains because of “natural” difficulties in trading or they can be large because of legal reasons. In a lawful society the prohibition of voluntary negotiations makes the cost of transacting infinite. Some costs and benefits are not taken into account by users of resources whenever externalities exist, but allowing transactions increases the degree to which internalization takes place. For example, it might be thought that a firm which uses slave labor will not recognize all the costs of its activities, since it can have its slave labor by paying subsistence wages only. This will not be true if negotiations are permitted, for the slaves can offer to the firm a payment for their freedom based on the expected return to them of being free men. The cost of slavery can thus be internalized in the calculations of the firm. The transition from serf to free man in feudal Europe is an example of this process.Perhaps one of the most significant cases of externalities is the extensive use of the military draft. The taxpayer benefits by not paying the full cost of staffing the armed services. The costs which he escapes are the additional sums that would be needed to acquire men voluntarily for the services or those sums that would be offered as payment by draftees to taxpayers in order to be exempted. With either voluntary recruitment, the “buy-him-in” system, or with a “let-him-buy-his-way-out” system, the full cost of recruitment would be brought to bear on taxpayers. It has always seemed incredible to me that so many economists can recognize an externality when they see smoke but not when they see the draft. The familiar smoke example is one in which negotiation costs may be too high (because of the large number of interact-348ing parties) to make it worthwhile to internalize all the effects of smoke. The draft is an externality caused by forbidding negotiation.The role of property rights in the internalization of externalities can be made clear within the context of the above examples. A law which establishes the right of a person to his freedom would necessitate a payment on the part of a firm or of the taxpayer sufficient to cover the cost of using that person’s labor if his services are to be obtained. The costs of labor thus become internalized in the firm’s or taxpayer’s decisions. Alternatively, a law which gives the firm or the taxpayer clear title to slave labor would necessitate that the slaveowners take into account the sums that slaves are willing to pay for their freedom. These costs thus become internalized in decisions although wealth is distributed differently in the two cases. All that is needed for internalization in either case is ownership which includes the right of sale. It is the prohibition ofa property right adjustment, the prohibition of the establishment of an ownership title that can thenceforth be exchanged, that precludes the internalization of external costs and benefits.There are two striking implications of this process that are true in a world of zero transaction costs. The output mix that results when the exchange of property rights is allowed is efficient and the mix is independent of who is assigned ownership (except that different wealth distributions may result in different demands). 1 For example, the efficient mix of civilians and military will result from transferable ownership no matter whether taxpayers must hire military volunteers or whether draftees must pay taxpayers to be excused from service. For taxpayers will hire only those military (under the “buy-him-in” property righ t system) who would not pay to be exempted (under the “let-him-buy-his-way-out” system). The highest bidder under the “let-him-buy-his-way-out” property right system would be precisely the last to volunteer under a “buy-him-in” system. 2We will refer back to some of these points later. But for now,1. These implications are derived by R. H. Coase, “The Problem of Social Cost,” J. of Law and Econ., Oct., 1960, pp. 1-44.2. If the demand for civilian life is unaffected by wealth redistribution, the assertion made is correct as it stands. However, when a change is made from a “buy-him-in” system to a “let-him-buy-his-way-out” system, the resulting redistribution of wealth away from draftees may significantly affect their demand for civilian life; the validity of the assertion then requires a compensating wealth change. A compensating wealth change will not be required in the ordinary case of profit maximizing firms. Consider the farmer-rancher example mentioned by Coase. Society may give the farmer the right to grow corn unmolested by cattle or it may give the rancher the right to allow his cattle to stray. Contrary to the Coase example, let us suppose that if the farmer is given the right, he just breaks even; i.e., with the right to be compensated for corn damage, the farmer’s land is marginal. If the right is transferred to the rancher, the farmer, not enjoying any economic rent, will not have the wherewithal to pay the rancher to reduce the number of head of cattle raised. In this case, however, it will be profitable for the rancher to buy the farm, thus merging cattle raising with farming. His self-interest will then lead him to take account of the effect of cattle on corn.349enough groundwork has been laid to facilitate the discussion of the next two parts of this paper.The Emergence of Property RightsIf the main allocative function of property rights is the internalization of beneficial and harmful effects, then the emergence of property rights can be understood best by their association with the emergence of new or different beneficial and harmful effects.Changes in knowledge result in changes in production functions, market values, and aspirations. New techniques, new ways of doing the same things, and doing new things - all invoke harmful and beneficial effects to which society has not been accustomed. It is my thesis in this part of the paper that the emergence of new property rights takes place in response to the desires of the interacting persons for adjustment to new benefit-cost possibilities.The thesis can be restated in a slightly different fashion: property rights develop to internalize externalities when the gains of internalization become larger than the cost of internalization. Increased internalization, in the main, results from changes in economic values, changes whichstem from the development of new technology and the opening of new markets, changes to which old property rights are poorly attuned. A proper interpretation of this assertion requires that account be taken of a c ommunity’s preferences for private ownership. Some communities will have less well-developed private ownership systems and more highly developed state ownership systems. But, given a community’s tastes in this regard, the emergence of new private or state-owned property rights will be in response to changes in technology and relative prices.I do not mean to assert or to deny that the adjustments in property rights which take place need be the result of a conscious endeavor to cope with new externality problems. These adjustments have arisen in Western societies largely as a result of gradual changes in social mores and in common law precedents. At each step of this adjustment process, it is unlikely that externalities per se were consciously related to the issue being resolved. These legal and moral experiments may be hit-and-miss procedures to some extent but in a society that weights the achievement of efficiency heavily, their viability in the long run will depend on how well they modify behavior to accommodate to the externalities associated with important changes in technology or market values.A rigorous test of this assertion will require extensive and detailed empirical work. A broad range of examples can be cited that are consistent with it: th e development of air rights, renters’ rights, rules for350liability in automobile accidents, etc. In this part of the discussion, I shall present one group of such examples in some detail. They deal with the development of private property rights in land among American Indians. These examples are broad ranging and come fairly close to what can be called convincing evidence in the field of anthropology.The question of private ownership of land among aboriginals has held a fascination for anthropologists. It has been one of the intellectual battlegrounds in the attempt to assess the “true nature” of man unconstrained by the “artificialities” of civilization. In the process of carrying on this debate, information has been uncovered that bears directly on the thesis with which we are now concerned. What appears to be accepted as a classic treatment and a high point of this debate is Eleanor Leacock’s memoir on The Montagnes “Hunting Territory” and the Fur Trade. 3 Leacock’s research followed that of Fr ank G. Speck 4 who had discovered that the Indians of the Labrador Peninsula had a long-established tradition of property in land. This finding was at odds with what was known about the Indians of the American Southwest and it prompted Leacock’s study of the Montagnes who inhabited large regions around Quebec.Leacock clearly established the fact that a close relationship existed, both historically and geographically, between the development of private rights in land and the development of the commercial fur trade. The factual basis of this correlation has gone unchallenged. However, to my knowledge, no theory relating privacy of land to the fur trade has yet been articulated. The factual material uncovered by Speck and Leacock fits the thesis of this paper well, and in doing so, it reveals clearly the role played by property right adjustments in taking account of what economists have often cited as an example of an externality - the overhunting of game.Because of the lack of control over hunting by oth ers, it is in no person’s interest to invest in increasing or maintaining the stock of game. Overly intensive hunting takes place. Thus a successful hunt is viewed as imposing external costs on subsequent hunters - costs that are not taken into account fully in the determination of the extent of hunting and of animal husbandry.Before the fur trade became established, hunting was carried on primarily for purposes of food and the relatively few furs that were required for the hunter’s family. The external ity was clearly present. Hunting could be practiced freely and was carried on without assessing its impact on other hunters. But these external effects were of such3. Eleanor Leacock, American Anthropologist (American Anthropological Asso.), Vol. 56, No. 5, Part 2, Memoir No. 78.4. Cf., Frank G. Speck, “The Basis of American Indian Ownership of Land,” Old Penn Weekly Rev. (Univ. of Pennsylvania), Jan. 16, 1915, pp. 491-95.352small significance that it did not pay for anyone to take them into account. There did not exist anything resembling private ownership in land. And in the Jesuit Relations, particularly Le Jeune’s record of the winter he spent with the Montagnes in 1633-34 and in the brief account given by Father Druilletes in 1647-48, Leacock finds no evidence of private land holdings. Both accounts indicate a socioeconomic organization in which private rights to land are not well developed.We may safely surmise that the advent of the fur trade had two immediate consequences. First, the value of furs to the Indians was increased considerably. Second, and as a result, the scale of hunting activity rose sharply. Both consequences must have increased considerably the importance of the externalities associated with free hunting. The property right system began to change, and it changed specifically in the direction required to take account of the economic effects made important by the fur trade. The geographical or distributional evidence collected by Leacock indicates an unmistakable correlation between early centers of fur trade and the oldest and most complete development of the private hunting territory.By the beginning of the eighteenth century, we begin to have clear evidence that territorial hunting and trapping arrangements by individual families were developing in the area around Quebec… The earliest references to such arrangements in this region indicates a purely temporary allotment of hunting territories. They [Algonkians and Iroquois] divide themselves into several bands in order to hunt more efficiently. It was their custom to appropriate pieces of land about two leagues square for each group to hunt exclusively. Ownership of beaver houses, however, had already become established, and when discovered, they were marked. A starving Indian could kill and eat another’s beaver if he left the fur and the tail. 5The next step toward the hunting territory was probably a seasonal allotment system. An anonymous account written in 1723 states that the “principle of the Indians is to mark off the hunting ground selected by them by blazing the trees with their crests so that they may never encroach on each other… By the middle of the century these allotted territories were relatively stabilized.” 6The principle that associates property right changes with the emergence of new and reevaluation of old harmful and beneficial effects suggests in this instance that the fur trade made it economic to encourage the husbanding of fur-bearing animals. Husbanding requires the ability to prevent poaching and this, in turn, suggests that socioeconomic changes in property in hunting land will take place. The chain of reasoning is consistent with the evidence cited above. Is it inconsistent with the absence of similar rights in property among the southwestern Indians?Two factors suggest that the thesis is consistent with the absence of5. Eleanor Leacock, op. cit., p. 15.6. Eleanor Leacock, op. cii., p. 15.352similar rights among the Indians of the southwestern plains. The first of these is that there were no plains animals of commercial importance comparable to the fur-bearing animals of the forest, at least not until cattle arrived with Europeans. The second factor is that animals of the plains are primarily grazing species whose habit is to wander over wide tracts of land. The value of establishing boundaries to private hunting territories is thus reduced by the relatively high cost of preventing the animals from moving to adjacent parcels. Hence both the value and cost of establishing private hunting lands in the Southwest are such that we would expect little development along these lines. The externality was just not worth taking into account.The lands of the Labrador Peninsula shelter forest animals whose habits are considerably different from those of the plains. Forest animals confine their territories to relatively small areas, so that the cost of internalizing the effects of husbanding these animals is considerably reduced. This reduced cost, together with the higher commercial value of fur-bearing forest animals, made it productive to establish private hunting lands. Frank G. Speck finds that family proprietorship among the Indians of the Peninsula included retaliation against trespass. Animal resources were husbanded. Sometimes conservation practices were carried on extensively. Family hunting territories were divided into quarters. Each year the family hunted in a different quarter in rotation, leaving a tract in the center as a sort of bank, not to be hunted over unless forced to do so by a shortage in the regular tract.To conclude our excursion into the phenomenon of private rights in land among the American Indians, we note one further piece of corroborating evidence. Among the Indians of the Northwest, highly developed private family rights to hunting lands had also emerged - rights which went so far as to include inheritance. Here again we find that forest animals predominate and that the West Coast was frequently visited by sailing schooners whose primary purpose was trading in furs. 77. The thesis is consistent with the development of other types of private rights. Among wandering primitive peoples the cost of policing property is relatively low for highly portable objects. The owning family can protect such objects while carrying on its daily activities. If these objects are also very useful, property rights should appear frequently, so as to internalize the benefits and costs of their use. It is generally true among most primitive communities that weapons and household utensils, such as pottery, are regarded as private property. Both types of articles are portable and both require an investment of time to produce. Among agriculturally-oriented peoples, because of the relative fixity of their location, portability has a smaller role to play in the determination of property. The distinction is most clearly seen by comparing property in land among the most primitive of these societies, where crop rotation and simple fertilization techniques are unknown, or where land fertility is extremely poor, with property in land among primitive peoples who are more knowledgeable in these matters or who possess very superior land. Once a crop is grown by the more primitive agricultural societies, it is necessary for them to abandon the land for several years to restore productivity. Property rights in land among such people would require policing cost for several years during which no sizable output is obtained. Since to provide for [sustenance these people must move to new land, a property right to be of value to them must be associated with a portable object. Among these people it is common to find property rights to the crops, which, after harvest, are portable, but notto the land. The more advanced agriculturally based primitive societies are able to remain with particular land for longer periods, and here we generally observe property rights to the land as well as to the crops.]HHC: [bracketed] displayed on page 354 of original]353The Coalescence and Ownership of Property RightsI have argued that property rights arise when it becomes economic for those affected by externalities to internalize benefits and costs. But I have not yet examined the forces which will govern the particular form of right ownership. Several idealized forms of ownership must be distinguished at the outset. These are communal ownership, private ownership, and state ownership.By communal ownership, I shall mean a right which can be exercised by all members of the community. Frequently the rights to till and to hunt the land have been communally owned. The right to walk a city sidewalk is communally owned. Communal ownership means that the community denies to the state or to individual citizens the right to interfere with any person’s exercise of communally-owned rights. Private ownership implies that the community recognizes the right of the owner to exclude others from exercising the owner’s private rights. State ownership implies that the state may exclude anyone from the use of a right as long as the state follows accepted political procedures for determining who may not use state-owned property. I shall not examine in detail the alternative of state ownership. The object of the analysis which follows is to discern some broad principles governing the development of property rights in communities oriented to private property.It will be best to begin by considering a particularly useful example that focuses our attention on the problem of land ownership. Suppose that land is communally owned. Every person has the right to hunt, till, or mine the land. This form of ownership fails to concentrate the cost associated with any person’s exercise of his communal right on that person. If a person seeks to maximize the value of his communal rights, he will tend to overhunt and overwork the land because some of the costs of his doing so are borne by others. The stock of game and the richness of the soil will be diminished too quickly. It is conceivable that those who own these rights, i.e., every member of the community, can agree to curtail the rate at which they work the lands if negotiating and policing costs are zero. Each can agree to abridge his rights. It is obvious that the costs of reaching such an agreement will not be zero. What is not obvious is just how large these costs may be.Negotiating costs will be large because it is difficult for many per-354sons to reach a mutually satisfactory agreement, especially when each hold-out has the right to work the land as fast as he pleases. But, even if an agreement among all can be reached, we must yet take account of the costs of policing the agreement, and these may be large, also. After such an agreement is reached, no one will privately own the right to work the land; all can work the land but at an agreed upon shorter workweek. Negotiating costs are increased even further because it is not possible under this system to bring the full expected benefits and expected costs of future generations to bear on current users.If a single person owns land, he will attempt to maximize its present value by taking into account alternative future time streams of benefits and costs and selecting that one which hebelieves will maximize the present value of his privately-owned land rights. We all know that this means that he will attempt to take into account the supply and demand conditions that he thinks will exist after his death. It is very difficult to see how the existing communal owners can reach an agreement that takes account of these costs.In effect, an owner of a private right to use land acts as a broker whose wealth depends on how well he takes into account the competing claims of the present and the future. But with communal rights there is no broker, and the claims of the present generation will be given an uneconomically large weight in determining the intensity with which the land is worked. Future generations might desire to pay present generations enough to change the present intensity of land usage. But they have no living agent to place their claims on the market. Under a communal property system, should a living person pay others to reduce the rate at which they work the land, he would not gain anything of value for his efforts. Communal property means that future generations must speak for themselves. No one has yet estimated the costs of carrying on such a conversation.The land ownership example confronts us immediately with a great disadvantage of communal property. The effects of a person’s activities on his neighbors and on subsequent generations will not be taken into account fully. Communal property results in great externalities. The full costs of the activities of an owner of a communal property right are not borne directly by him, nor can they be called to his attention easily by the willingness of others to pay him an appropriate sum. Communal property rules out a “pay-to-use-the-property” system and high negotiation and policing costs make ineffective a “pay-him-not-to-use-the-property” system.The state, the courts, or the leaders of the community could attempt to internalize the external costs resulting from communal property by allowing private parcels owned by small groups of person with similar355interests. The logical groups in terms of similar interests, are, of course, the family and the individual. Continuing with our use of the land ownership example, let us initially distribute private titles to land randomly among existing individuals and, further, let the extent of land included in each title be randomly determined.The resulting private ownership of land will internalize many of the external costs associated with communal ownership, for now an owner, by virtue of his power to exclude others, can generally count on realizing the rewards associated with husbanding the game and increasing the fertility of his land. This concentration of benefits and costs on owners creates incentives to utilize resources more efficiently.But we have yet to contend with externalities. Under the communal property system the maximization of the value of communal property rights will take place without regard to many costs, because the owner of a communal right cannot exclude others from enjoying the fruits of his efforts and because negotiation costs are too high for all to agree jointly on optimal behavior. The development of private rights permits the owner to economize on the use of those resources from which he has the right to exclude others. Much internalization is accomplished in this way. But the owner of private rights to one parcel does not himself own the rights to the parcel of another private sector. Since he cannot exclude others from their private rights to land, he has no direct incentive (in the absence of negotiations) to economize in the use of his land in a way that takes into account the effects he produces on the land rights of others. If he constructs a dam on。
产权的交换与实现.

哈罗德·德姆塞茨
一、产权
产权
物质基础是资源 的稀缺性 体现人与人之间 的一种社会权利 起源于外部性
德姆塞茨则把产权看作:“产权包括一个人或其 他人受益或受损的权利...产权式界定人们如何受 益及如何受损,因而谁必须向谁提供补偿以使他 修正人们所采取的行动。”即在德姆塞茨看来 “产权的一个主要功能是引导人们实现将外部性 较大地内在化的激励。”
在这个例子中,提供这种成本高昂但不收费的停 车场的效率取决于提供者能否收回这种成本,即 能否把这种成本打入商品的价格中。也就是说搭 配销售能够降低交换成本会时,提供免费停车场 的办法才能为企业带来经济优势。
例2:蜜蜂采蜜无价格问题
养蜂人和果农很可能会在应该种多少棵果树上讨价还价,争 辩果树对蜂蜜生产有多大贡献,蜜蜂授粉对苹果生产有多大 贡献。如果这种相互作用产生的预期收益在价值上足以抵消 因缺乏分工所造成的任何不经济,那么同一个农民就有可能 既养蜂又种树。然而,放弃分工也可能会带来损失,如果兼 业经营的收益还抵不上这种损失,那么兼业也许就不是什么 好办法。
二、交换成本
他认为传统的最优化原理被误用了,原因在于“大部分 福利经济学理论很少考虑到相对于使用政治机制的成本 而使用市场的成本”。 他认为,“在此情况下对市场无效率的通常分析的困难 在于,缺乏用‘合意’的价格衡量显露出副效应的市 场”。 为了化解这种误用,他认为可以分别考虑“生产出来的 物品”和“未生产出来的物品”。最优化原理要求考虑 前者的各种边际替代率相等。作者似乎认为,对最优化 原理的这种运用忽视了这一点——无论是市场交易还是 政府服务都是有费用的,而对市场和政府提供的这类服 务的成本的忽视就是最优化原理被误用的原因。正如作 者所言,“所以,大多数有关副效应的福利前提是建立 在标准的最优化原理的一个无效的运用上的,即它们不 考虑一些物品的成本”。
关于产权的理论

一般地,①由于交易中的“自然”困难,交易的成本要相对大于所得; ②或由于法律的原因它们也可能较大。 ①人们所熟悉的烟尘的例子是由于谈判的成本可能非常高(由于有大量 的相互作用的参与者),而使得将烟尘的所有效应内在化不值得。
成他与其他人进行交易时的合理预期。(在鲁宾逊的世界里,产权是
不起作用的)。
外部性是一个意义不明确的概念。为了本文的目的,这 一概念包括外部成本、外部收益以及现金和非现金的外 部性。
3
作用:
产权的一个主要功能是引导人们在更大程度上将外部性内在化。 A primary function of property rights is that of guiding incentives to achieve a greater internalization of externalities.
皮革贸易的出现有两个直接的结果,第一,印 第安人的皮毛价值大大增加了;第二,其结 果,狩猎活动的范围明显扩大了。(以前只要 动物的肉够吃、皮毛够做自己的衣服即可,现 在动物皮毛可以进行贸易了,可以认为需求是 无上限的)。
7
这两种结果必然极大地突出了自由狩猎(所造成的)外部性的重 要程度。产权制度开始改变,特别是由于皮货贸易对经济的影响 日益重要,指出了这种改变的方向。
上述两者的改变是为了解决一些现实问题(如经济效益的提高),它们 的出发点可能不是为了解决外部性问题,最多算是间接、凑巧与外部性 有关,但是社会习俗、法律改变的正确与否却与效率直接相关,而效率 却与外部性密切相关,所以外部性问题的处理程度是检验他们好坏的标 准。解决外部性问题不是它们的目标,却成为确定它们合理与否的裁 判。例如:空气的权利,美国印第安人的土地私有权的发展。
关于产权的理论读后感豋姆塞茨

关于产权的理论读后感豋姆塞茨篇一关于产权的理论读后感豋姆塞茨读完登姆塞茨关于产权的理论,我真的是感慨万千啊!这玩意儿可不简单,可能很多人觉得产权这东西离咱老百姓挺远的,我一开始也这么觉得,嘿,谁能想到它其实跟咱们的生活息息相关呢?你想想,咱们住的房子、开的车,那不都是有产权的嘛。
产权就像是给这些东西上了一把锁,告诉别人,这是我的,别人不能随便动。
可这锁有时候也不是那么结实,也许会有各种问题出现。
比如说,有些地方因为产权界定不清楚,导致资源浪费,这多可惜啊!我就在想,要是能把产权这事儿弄得明明白白的,是不是很多矛盾和问题就能迎刃而解啦?不过呢,这理论也不是完美无缺的。
可能在某些特殊情况下,严格按照产权的规则来,反而会让事情变得更糟糕。
比如说,在一些紧急救援的场合,要是死抠产权,那不是耽误事儿嘛!但总的来说,登姆塞茨的理论还是给了我们很多思考的方向。
让我们明白了产权的重要性,也让我们知道在处理产权问题时要灵活,不能一刀切。
这一路读下来,真的是收获满满,我觉得自己对经济这一块的理解又深入了一些。
你们觉得呢?篇二关于产权的理论读后感豋姆塞茨哎呀妈呀,读了登姆塞茨关于产权的理论,我这脑子就像开了锅一样,翻腾个不停!产权,这俩字听起来挺高大上的,可仔细琢磨琢磨,不就是咱生活里那些实实在在的东西嘛。
比如说,我家那片小菜园子,那就是我家的产权,谁也别想来乱搞。
但有时候我又觉得,产权这东西也挺复杂的。
你说要是有块地,几家人都觉得自己有份,这可咋整?难道要天天吵架打架不成?这时候,登姆塞茨的理论好像能给咱指条道儿,可我又觉得,理论是理论,实际情况可能更乱套。
也许有人会说,管他什么产权不产权的,能过日子就行。
可我觉得吧,要是产权不清晰,社会不就乱了套啦?那经济还怎么发展?但话说回来,为了明确产权,投入太多的成本,值不值呢?我也说不好。
读这理论的时候,我一会儿觉得自己明白了,一会儿又糊涂了。
这感觉就像在大雾里走路,模模糊糊能看到点方向,可又不敢确定是不是走对了。
关于产权的理论

读《关于产权的理论》题目:《关于产权的理论》作者:哈罗德-德姆塞兹内容摘要与自己的理解:本文由三个部分组成。
1.产权的概念和作用;2.产权的出现;3.产权的组合与所有制。
第一部分,作者首先强调,脱离集体或社会的产权是毫无意义的。
其中涉及到产权含义的特点,产权是个体之间的关系,即人与人之间的关系,是所有者与其他人在物品权利问题上的关系。
其次作者提到“产权意味着权利对所有者自己或他人有益或有害,注意到这一点是十分重要的。
”该点可以从社会资源的稀缺性来解释,产权某种程度上是对稀缺资源提供的一种划分制度。
那么,某些人对于资源的使用,必然导致另一些人可以使用的资源减少。
最后作者在提出“外部性”问题的同时引出产权的基本功能即“在更大程度上实现外部性内部化的动力。
”为了说明产权在外部性内部化过程中的作用,作者在工厂烟尘污染(谈判费用较高)的例子上补充了军队征兵(禁止谈判)的例子进一步进行了说明。
第二部分,作者提到“知识的变化导致生产函数、市场价值和市场预期的变化。
新技术、新方法和新事物等都将对还未能与之相适应的社会产生有利或有害的影响。
”以上概括起来就是成本和收益是不断变化的。
也即在产生某种与之相适应的制度(比如产权)前,制度是非均衡的(其实这就使制度变迁成为可能,在一定条件都具备的情况下就会发生变迁产生新的制度)。
新产权的出现就是对这一变动愿望的反应。
接着,作者对以上现象进行了细化的分析。
指出“当内部化收益变得比内部化成本大时,产权的发展是为了使外部性内部化。
”以土著居民土地所有制产生过程为例(开始,土地私有制不存在,各自自由捕猎,存在较小的外部性达不到引起制度变迁的条件。
后来随着毛皮贸易的产生,需求量增大,捕猎规模急剧上升,导致外部性明显上升。
至某种程度,内部化的收益将超过成本,产生制度的需求,引起私有制的产生)对成本-收益理论进行了说明。
自此,就从有益与有害的相互联系中阐述处了产权的产生过程。
第三部分,作者提出了三种形式的所有权:共有权、私有权、国有权。
关于产权的理论读后感豋姆塞茨

关于产权的理论读后感豋姆塞茨篇一关于产权的理论读后感豋姆塞茨读完登姆塞茨关于产权的理论,我这心里啊,真可谓是五味杂陈。
可能你会问,不就是个理论嘛,至于这么大反应?嘿,您还别说,真就至于!一开始,我觉得这理论挺高深莫测的,就像那遥不可及的星辰,我怎么够也够不着。
产权这东西,以前我觉得不就是谁拥有啥嘛,简单得很。
可看了登姆塞茨的理论,我才发现,哎呀妈呀,这里面的门道可多了去了。
比如说吧,他提到产权的界定和分配对资源的配置有着至关重要的作用。
我就在想,也许在我们日常生活中,那些看似平常的买卖交易、租赁合作,背后都有着产权这只看不见的手在操纵着呢?再比如,他强调产权的明晰能够降低交易成本。
这让我联想到,要是产权模糊不清,那不得乱套啦?大家都争来争去,可能会浪费大量的时间和精力,这不就是瞎折腾嘛!不过呢,我又觉得这理论是不是有点太理想化啦?在现实中,产权的界定和保护哪有那么容易?也许会有各种复杂的情况和利益纠葛,不是单纯的理论就能解决的。
但话说回来,尽管有这样那样的疑问和不确定,这理论还是给我打开了一扇新的大门,让我对经济领域的这个重要概念有了更深的思考。
我觉得吧,以后再看待各种经济现象,我可能就会多一个视角,多一份理解。
总之,读了登姆塞茨关于产权的理论,我这脑袋里像是刮过了一阵旋风,把我原有的想法搅得乱七八糟,又重新组合,也许这就是学习新知识的魅力所在吧!篇二关于产权的理论读后感豋姆塞茨哎呀,刚读完登姆塞茨关于产权的理论,我这心情就跟坐过山车似的,忽上忽下!你知道吗?一开始接触这理论,我简直一头雾水,啥是产权?为啥要研究这玩意儿?我心里那叫一个迷茫。
可随着深入阅读,我好像有点开窍了。
登姆塞茨说产权是一种社会规则,它决定了资源的归属和使用方式。
这难道不就像我们玩游戏得有规则一样吗?没有规则,那不就乱套了?比如说,一块土地的产权,如果不明确,那大家都去抢,谁能种出好庄稼?谁能保证公平?这时候,产权的重要性就凸显出来啦!但我又想,这理论真能完全适用于现实吗?在我们身边,经常会有产权纠纷,处理起来可麻烦了。
4产权基本理论

第五章产权的基本理论第一节产权的含义和形式一、产权的含义产权最初只是一个法学范畴,法学理论的产权概念强调所有权,承认所有权的绝对性、排他性和永续性,它所关注的是公平、合理及所有权的具体内容。
与法学上的产权范畴相比,经济学上的产权的内涵和外延都要宽泛得多,它更强调产权制度与个人经济行为的内在联系,更重视产权制度对行为主体的激励和约束作用。
阿尔钦:产权是一个社会强制实施的选择一种经济品的使用的权利德姆塞茨:产权包括一个人或他人收益或受损的权利菲吕博顿:产权不是指人与物之间的关系,而是指由物的存在及关于它们的使用所引起的人们之间相互认可的行为关系。
巴泽尔:产权是使用经济物品的人权科斯的解释:产权就是一种权利中国学者对产权的两种理解:财产使用过程中发生的权责利关系;产权即财产权产权的一般定义:产权是一定社会所确认的人们对一定财产或资产的相关权利,是围绕一定的经济品所形成的人与人之间的权责利关系。
财产与产权:财产是客观存在的可以给人带来经济效用的东西。
财产的规定:有使用价值;可以控制和支配;稀缺性。
财产是产权客体,是产权的基础,产权是建立在财产基础上的人与人之间的关系物权与产权:现代产权远远超出了传统的物权,包括对一切可以给人们带来利益和价值的资产的权利。
知识产权、无形资产产权、肖像、名誉等都属于广义的产权。
产权不是指人与物之间的关系,而是基于对一定的资产的占有和使用表现出的人与人之间的一种权责利关系。
这种权利不是自己以为的,而是社会所确认的,这种社会对产权关系的确定,就是产权制度。
社会确认可以是国家法律强制确定,也可以通过习俗、惯例,通过市场交易实现权利与产权:产权不是一个权利,而是一束权利,一般包括所有权、占有权、使用权、、收益权、转让权等。
资产的不同属性,可以分解和界定为不同权利。
产权与交易:产权制约市场交易:产权界定是交易的前提;交易本质上是产权的交易;权利的价值规定了商品的价值。
交易是产权价值实现的机制:市场交易是实现产权价值的条件;市场竞争是优化产权安排的动力(招拍挂)。
德姆塞茨论企业和产权

德 姆 塞 茨
论企 业 和 产 权
在现 实 中 ,德 姆 塞茨 和 阿尔钦 所 说 的 “ 中心签 约人 ”对 应 的是 企 业 的老板 ,而 团队成 员对 应 的则 是企 业 的雇 员 。老 板对 于企 业 的雇 员有 监 督 的责 任 ,所 有老 板 能发 现 的 问 题就 是 工人 的 问题 ,而 所有 没有 被发 现 的 问题 ,就 是老 板 的 问题
究 竟 产 权 是 什
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产权起源的政治经济学解释

产权起源的政治经济学解释一、引言德姆塞茨(Demsetz,1964,1967)认为“产权出现”是这样的:当成本太高而难以定价时,物品可能出现一个市场(假如有的话)的零的价格。
但是技术的、人口的或社会的变化可能带来正的价格。
然后产权有效的配置物品,以免造成错误使用(如造成污染)或者过度使用(如公地的悲剧)。
市场配置因此取消指令配置或者最初的配置。
⑴德姆塞茨的解释存在着新古典政治经济的典型缺陷(William,1988),“为均衡规定条件和规定均衡的财产,而没有规定这些条件在真实世界里如何产生。
”⑵从现实中来看,有时条件被满足,但是产权并没有出现。
实际上,德姆塞茨的条件充其量是必要的,而不是充分的。
这是因为,新古典方法把政治结构完全排除(Riker,1988),⑶但是,真实的经济活动深深地镶嵌在政治活动中,“产权必然是政治制度,无论过去还是现在,现存权利结构的性质和实施都是由政治力量决定的”,⑷因此,有必要以一个比新古典模型更为现实的背景,来研究产权的起源。
与德穆塞茨不同,本文关注的是政府官员和政治家在农村土地产权制度演进过程中的作用。
(5)此外,这种演进无疑是动态的,其中政治和经济的相互作用不仅影响到结果,而且影响各种参与者的处境。
在这里,发挥作用的是一种政治-经济力量。
二、70年代末至今中国农村土地制度的经验研究(一)1978年至1983年在1978年中国农村的一些地区,土地的“集体所有”产权向相对较小的群体或个人控制转变这一趋势是很明显的,在浙江温州、安徽的肥西县、凤阳县以及四川的部分地区,已经出现了“分产到户”,以及“分组作业”、“定产分工”、“超产奖励”等土地产权的初级形式。
这种趋势很明显同诺思和托马斯(1973)以及德姆塞茨(1967)阐述的产权理论假设相一致,正如博什阿普(Boserup,1981)的研究所表明的:人口压力最大、商业性农业收益最高和最可能接近技术进步的地区,如果不是完全私有化的话,它们将最快地朝着排他性产权的方向发展。
产权理论

产权制度是制度集合中最基本、最重要的制度,产权理论的发展有助于人们解释人类历史上交易费用的降低和各种经济组织形式的替换,并且与国家理论、意识形态理论成为制度变迁理论的三块基石。
德姆塞茨认为,“所谓产权,意指使自己或他人受益或受损的权利”。
“交易一旦在市场上达成,两组产权就发生了交换。
虽然一组产权常附着于一项物品或劳务,但交换或劳务的价值却是由产权的价值决定的。
”施瓦茨认为:“我所说的产权不仅仅是指人们对有形物的所有权,同时还指包括人们对有权决定行使市场投票权时的权利,行使行政特许权,履fj契约的权利以及专利权利著作权。
”菲吕博顿和配杰威齐对产权的解释是;“产权不是人与物之间的关系,而是只有由物的存在和使用引起的人们之间一些被认可的行为性关系。
产权分配格局具体现定了人们那些与事物相关的行为规范。
每个人在与他人的相互交往中都必须遵守这些规范,或者必须承担不遵守这些规范的成本。
这样,社会中盛行的产权制度便可以被描述为界定每个人在稀缺资源利用方面的地位的一组经济利社会关系。
”巴泽尔认为:“人们对不同财产的各种产权包括财产的使用权、收益权和转让权。
”阿贝尔认为:“所有权,即排斥他人对所有物的控制权。
使用权,即区别于管理和收益权的对所有物的享受和使用权。
管理权,即决定因素怎样和由谁来使用所有物的权利。
分享剩余收益或承担负侦的权利,即来自于对所有物的使用或管理所产生的收益利成本分卓和分摊的权利。
对资本的权利,即对所有物的转让、使用、改造和毁坏的权利。
安全的权利,即免于被剥夺的权利。
转让权,即所有物遗赠给他人或下一代的权利。
以上尚未列举的一些权利,即不对其他权利和义务的履行加以时间限制约束的权利,禁止有害使用权利的权利。
产权还指支配重新获得已失去的所有权的规则。
安德逊认为:“产权是决定人们获取或使用诸种资源(包括他们的体力和脑力)所必须遵循的规则。
为了使这些规则能够有效地协调入类的行动,产权必须加以限定,可以保护,也可以被剥夺。
CH2 产权理论基础-习题参考答案

CH2 产权理论习题参考答案一、名词解释产权:关于财产的一种行为规则,安排确定了每个人相应于物的行为规范,以及在与其他人交往过程中必须遵守的行为准则,或承担的不遵守的成本。
二、简答:1.如何理解德姆塞茨的“产权”:(1)定义:界定人们容易和获取利益或损害他人的权益,以及他们之间如何进行补偿的规则。
(2)决定个人可以做什么和不可以做什么,能拥有什么和不能拥有什么。
(3)强调了产权的行为性。
由此容易获得产权与外部性问题之间的理论联系。
(4)从功能上界定产权。
2.为什么说“潜在收益(letant profit)或预期收益是产权产生的基本动力”?(1)权利是经济活动中在人的相互交往中产生的。
为了在经济活动中更有效率,一些权利才被肯定。
(2)现代新制度经济学家一般认为,产权作为一种排他性权利,其产生是人们比较了排他(防御侵占、偷窃等)的成本与收益之后形成的一种规则安排。
(3)经济学意义上的产权,只有当界定权利的费用与权利带来的好处在边际上达到相等时会产生;或只有当产权界定的收益大于产权界定的成本时,人们才有动力去制订规则和界定产权。
即:潜在收益或预期收益是产权产生的基本动力。
3.如何理解产权的产生?(1)稀缺性是产权产生的前提。
(2)潜在收益是产权产生的基本动力。
4.如何理解“产权是受限制的”?(1)产权不仅仅是法律赋予的权利。
巴泽尔,1989,任何权利强度依赖于(1)个人为保护该项权利所做的努力;(2)他人企图分享这项权利的努力;(3)任何第三方所做的保护这项权利的努力。
而“努力”是有成本的,从而权利必定受到限制。
(2)权利需要限制。
科斯:限制加强了权利。
方便于运用排他性。
埃格特森:政府不保护未被弱化的产权。
(3)产权的“弱化”问题:不恰当的限制。
5.讨论:产权的主要性质是私有的吗?三、判断:任何社会由法律规定和明确解释的权力只是一部分,甚至是一小部分,产权还要由社会的文化、习俗、伦理道德等支撑和维持。
制度经济学产权理论

制度经济学产权理论制度经济学产权理论产权即财产权利,是财产权的泛称?由于人们研究侧重点和视角不同,对它的内涵与外延存在不同的理解?产权,作为现代市场经济理论的重要组成部分,经济学家越来越重视相关理论在经济发展与运行中的作用,它已是市场经济发展过程中不可回避的话题。
制度经济学产权理论20世纪60年代以来,经济学最为引人瞩目的发展之一就是新制度经济学的出现和发展,而产权问题的产生也可追溯到这个时期。
1991年诺贝尔经济学奖获得者科斯最早提出了产权存在的必要,其后继者,如德姆塞茨、诺思等又对产权进行了更深入的探讨。
本文即将重点讨论产权问题的提出及其相关发展。
一、产权问题的提出制度经济学以研究制度本身的产生、演变及制度与经济活动的关系为主,研究或倾向于制度与分配的关系, 或倾向于制度与经济增长、资源配置的关系。
制度经济学在发展过程中也形成了不同流派,新制度经济学与旧制度经济学不同,在于它从现实问题谈起,扩展了以往经济学的基本假设,它们都强调制度的重要性,新制度经济学使得经济理论对现实有了更强的解释力。
新制度经济学把对产权安排与资源配置效率之间的关系作为研究对象。
产权理论作为新制度经济学的主要内容之一,科斯是其创始人和领袖,在他的《企业的性质》、《社会成本问题》等文章中体现了他对产权的理解。
在科斯发表《企业的性质》一文前,经济学家一直认为:经济体制是自行运行的,生产要素受到价格支配而得到良好配置。
科斯由此提出质疑:如果价格支配是完美的,那如何解释企业的存在呢?又何须企业家发挥协调者的作用?鉴于现实和理论的差异,科斯尝试给出解释。
科斯认为:“建立企业有利可图的主要原因似乎是,利用价格机制是有成本的。
”而通过建立企业,不仅可以“签订一个较长期的契约以替代若干个较短期的契约,那么,签订每一个契约的部分费用就将被节省下来”,而且“通过形成一个组织,并允许某个权威(一个“企业家”)来支配资源,就能节约某些市场运行成本”,并且“有管制力量的政府或其他机构常常对市场交易和在企业内部组织同样的交易区别对待”。
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关于产权的理论当一种交易在市场中议定时,就发生了两束权利的交换。
权利束常常附着在一种有形的物品或服务上,但是,正是权利的价值决定了所交换的物品的价值。
提出权利束构成的形成与结合的问题比经济学家所共同探讨的问题更为重要。
经济学家常常将产权束作为一个论据,来寻求对决定价格和这些权利所附着的物品的单位数量的力量的解释。
在本文中,我将试图形成一些关于产权的经济理论的基本原理。
全文由三部分组成。
第一部分简要地讨论了在社会体制中产权的概念和作用。
第二部分为研究产权的形成提供了一些指导。
第三部分阐述了一些将产权结合成特定的权利束以及那些决定与这些权利束相联系的所有制结构的基本原理。
产权的概念和作用在鲁宾逊的世界里,产权是不起作用的。
产权是一种社会工具,其重要性就在于事实上它们能帮助一个人形成他与其他人进行交易时的合理预期。
这些预期通过社会的法律、习俗和道德得到表达。
产权的所有者拥有他的同事同意他以特定的方式行事的权利。
一个所有者期望共同体能阻止其他人对他的行动的干扰,假定在他的权利的界定中这些行动是不受禁止的。
要注意的很重要的一点是,产权包括一个人或其他人受益或受损的权利。
通过生产更优质的产品而使竞争者受损是被允许的,但是如果诋毁他就不行了。
一个人可能被允许去诋毁他的入侵者而受益,但是他在一个价格下眼下销售产品则会受到禁止。
那么很显然,产权是界定人们如何受益及如何受损,因而谁必须向谁提供补偿以使他修正人们所采取的行动。
这一认识能很容易地导致产权和外部性之间的密切关系。
外部性是一个意义不明确的概念。
为了本文的目的,这一概念包括外部成本、外部收益以及现金和非现金的外部性。
没有一种受益或受报效应是在世界以外的,有的人或人们常常会遭受或享有这些效应。
将一种受益效应或受损效应转化成一种外部性,是指这一效应对相互作用的人们的一个或多个决策的影响所带来的成本太高以至于不值得,这就是该词在这里的含义。
将这些效应“内在化”是指一个过程,它常常要发生产权的变迁,从而使得这些效应(在更大程度上)对所有的相互作用的人产生影响。
产权的一个主要功能是导引人们实现将外部性较大地内在化的激励。
与社会相互依赖性相联系的每一成本和收益就是一种潜在的外部性,使成本和收益外部化的一个必要条件是,双方进行权利交易(内在化)的成本必须超过内在化的所得。
一般地,由于交易中的“自然”困难,交易的成本要相对大于所得,或由于法律的原因它们也可能较大。
在一个法制的社会,对自愿谈判的禁止会使得交易的成本无穷大。
当外部性存在时,资源的使用者对有些成本和收益没有加以考虑,但允许交易中内在化的程度增加。
例如可以认为,一个企业在使用奴隶劳动时就没有承认他的活动的全部成本,因为它可以只向奴隶劳动者支付自给工资。
如果允许谈判,情形就不会如此,因为奴隶会要求企业向他们支付以作为自由人的预期报酬为基础的自由的补偿。
这样,奴隶的成本在企业的计算中就被内在化了。
欧洲封建社会中的农奴向自由人的转变就是这一进程的一个例子。
外部性的一个最有意义的例子或许是它在征兵中的广泛使用。
纳税人通过不向讲授军务的教授支付全部成本而受益,他所逃掉的成本是自愿提供服务的人们所必须获得的追加总量。
为了免税,这一总量是由征兵者向纳税人提供的补偿,对于自愿征兵的“将他买进(buy-him-in)”或“让他以自己的方式将他卖出(let-him-bu y-his-way-out)”体制。
征兵的全部成本将由纳税人来承担。
使我经常感到不可思议的是,如此多的经济学家在看到烟尘时承认它是一种外部性,但当他们看到征兵时却不这样认为。
人们所熟悉的烟尘的例子是由于谈判的成本可能非常高(由于有大量的相互作用的参与者),而使得将烟尘的所有效应内在化不值得,而征兵则是一种由禁止谈判所造成的外部性。
在以上例子的逻辑关系中,产权在将外部性内在化中所起的作用就十分明显了。
在一项关于一个人的自由权利的法律创立时,如果一个人要得到服务,这将迫使企业对纳税人提供部分补偿以足以包括使用他的劳动的成本。
因此,劳动的成本在企业或纳税人的决策中就被内在化了。
换言之,法律授予了企业或纳税人对奴隶劳动的明确的权利,这将迫使奴隶的所有者考虑愿意为他们的自由提供的支付总量。
因此,尽管在这两种情形下财富的分配不同,但这些成本在决策中都被内在化了。
在每种情形下内在化所需要的是,所有制包括了售卖的权利,正是对一种产权调整的阻止,对建立一种从那以后可以交换的所有权的禁止,妨碍了外部成本与收益的内在化。
在一个零交易费用的世界,这一进程中有两个显著的含义是确实的。
当允许产权交换时,由此所致的组合是有效的,且这一组合与所有权分配给谁无关(除不同的财富分配会导致不同的需求外)。
例如,老百姓与军队的有效组合将导致可转让的所有权,而不管纳税人是否会雇佣自愿兵,或征兵看是否会为了逃避服役而向纳税者提供补偿。
由于纳税人所雇佣的只是那些(在“让他以自己的方式将他卖出”体制下)不愿提供免税的(在“将他买进”体制下)士兵,在“让他以自己的方式将他卖出”产权体制下,最高的投标者肯定是“将他买进”体制下的最后一位自愿者。
我们将在后面回过来讨论其中某些观点,不过到现在,我们已为促进本文下面两部分的讨论打下了充分的基础。
产权的形成如果产权的主要配置性功能是将受益和受损效应内在化,那么产权的形成就可以通过它们与新的或不同的受益与受损效应的形成的联系而得到最好的理解。
知识的变化会导致生产函数、市场价值及期望的变化,新的技术,做同一事情的新的方式,以及做新的事情——都会产生社会所不习惯的受益和受损效应。
我在本部分提出的论点是,新的产权的形成是相互作用的人们对新的收益-成本的可能渴望进行调整的回应。
这一论题可以用稍微不同的方式来重述:当内在化的所得大于内在化的成本时,产权的发展是为了使外部性内在化。
内在化的增加一般会导致经济价值的变化,这些变化会引起新技术的发展和新市场的开辟,由此而使得旧有产权的协调功能很差。
要对这一主张作出适当的解释,需要考察一个共同体对私有制的偏好。
有些共同体的私有制没有很好的发展,但它们的国有制却高度发展。
不过在一个共同体对这方面的偏好给定的情况下,新的私有和国有产权的形成将是对技术和相对价格的回应。
我无意主张或否定产权的调整必然是为对付新的外部性问题所作出的有意识的努力的结果。
在西方社会所发生的这些调整,一般是社会道德和普通法的惯例逐渐变迁的结果。
在每作出一步这种调整时,外部性在本质上是不可能与所要解决的问题自觉相关的。
这些法律和道德试验在某种程度上可能是一些碰巧的程序,但在一个社会中它们与效率的实现却关系重大。
它们的长期活力将依赖于它们如何为适应与技术或市场价值的重大变化相联系的外部性而修正它们的行为。
对这一主张的严格检验需要进行大量的详细的实证研究。
我们可以引证大量与之相一致的例子:如空气的权利,出租者的权利,以及偶然事故的责任规则的发展等等。
在这一部分讨论中,我将比较详细地陈述一组这类例子,它们所论述的是美国印第安人的土地私有权的发展。
这些例子的范围很广,且非常接近于人类学领域所称的可信的证据。
土著间的私有产权问题使人类学家着迷。
他们所思考的一个重要问题是试图评价一个在“人造的”文明中不受限制的人的“真实特性”。
在进行这一争论的过程中,还没有包括能直接涉及我们这里所关注的论题的信息。
这一争论中所出现的一个被人们所接受的经典论述和权威性观点是E.利科克的那篇题为“关于山区的狩猎区域与皮革贸易”的纪念文章。
利科克的研究是循着F.G.斯配克的研究,斯配克已发现拉布拉多半岛的印第安人具有悠久的建立土地财产的传统。
这一发现在我们所了解的有关美国西南印第安人的知识中是十分奇特的。
它激发了利科克对居住于魁北克周围的广大区域的山区的进一步研究。
利科克明确证实了土地私有产权的发展与商业性皮革贸易之间无论在历史上还是在地理上都存在着一种密切的关系,这一相关性的事实基础还没有受到挑战。
不过就我所知,还没有一种理论能清楚地论述土地的私有与皮革贸易之间的关系,在斯配克和利科克那里并没有涵盖能很好地适应于本文论点的事实材料。
在做这一研究时,它明确地揭示了产权的调整在考虑经济学家经常引证的一个外部性例子——对动物的过度狩猎所起的作用。
由于缺乏对其他人狩猎的控制,就没有人会对增加或维持动物存量的投资感兴趣,从而会发生过于密集的狩猎。
因此,一个成功的狩猎者可被看作是将外部成本强加给继他之后的狩猎者——这些成本在决定狩猎的程度和动物的畜养时没有完全考虑到。
在进行皮革贸易之前,狩猎的主要目的是为了吃肉及狩猎者家庭所需要的少量皮毛,外部性是显然存在的。
狩猎能自由地进行,且不需要估价对其他人的响。
但是这些外部效应的重要性是如此之小,因而不需要对考虑它们的任何人支付补偿。
这并不能代表土地私有制的存在。
利科克发现L.热那于1633-1634年冬天对山区所作的记录及F.德鲁莱特于1647-1648年所给出的简要说明,都没有证明土地私有的存在。
这两个记载表明,在当时的社会经济组织下,土地私有权并没有得到很好的发展。
我们可以有把握地推测,皮革贸易的出现有两个直接的结果,第一,印第安人的皮毛价值大大增加了;第二,其结果,狩猎活动的范围明显扩大了,这两个结果都大大提高了与自由狩猎相联系的外部性的重要性,产权体制开始变化,其变化的方向尤其要求考虑由皮革贸易变得重要了的经济效应。
利科克所收集的地理和分布的证据表明,早期的皮革贸易中心与最古老的和最完整的私有狩猎区域的发展具有准确无误的相关性。
18世纪初,我们开始有关于在魁北克附近所发展的单个家庭的区域性狩猎与设陷井的安排的证据……就这—地区所涉及的最早的这一类安排来看,它所表明的是对狩猎区域的纯粹临时性分配,他们将这一区域分成条带状,以便更有效地狩猎,他们的习惯……是将土地恰当地分成两里格的地块以使各个团体能排他地狩猎,不过,养海狸的场所的所有制已经确立了,当它们被发现时,就给标上了一个记号,一个饥饿的印第安人可以杀掉和吃掉另一个人的海狸,只要留下皮毛和海狸尾就行了。
狩猎区域的下一步可能是一种季节性的分配体制。
1723年的一份匿名的记载这样论述到,“印第安人的原则是在他们所选择的狩猎地带的树顶上烧一个痕迹来作为标记,因而他们可以互不侵占……到该世纪中期,这些分配区域已相对比较稳定了。
”在这一例子中表明了产权的变迁与新的受损和受益效应或对原来的这类效应的再评价相联系的原则是,皮革贸易促进了更为经济地畜养皮毛动物。
畜养要求有能力阻止偷猎,这反过来又表明发生了关于狩猎土地财产的社会变迁,这些推理与上面引证的证据是相一致的,那么它与西南部印第安人缺乏类似的财产权利的事实是否一致呢?有两个因素表明这一论题是与西南部平原的印第安人缺乏类似权利相一致的。