自考语言学Chapter8
Chapter8语言学
Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。
自考英语(本科-)《现代语言学》-复习大纲设计
what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules.The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.f. The study of meaning. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction)g. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics 语用学h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics.社会语言学i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied linguistics1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics.1.3.1 规定性和描述性 prescriptive vs. descriptiveif a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析——描述性的descriptiveif it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则——规定性的prescriptive现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的1.3.2 共时性和历时性 synchronic vs. diachronicthe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。
自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助,我也是学生,这是由老师总的,我将PPT转为WORD)
第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctionsin linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use,it is said to be descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules to tellpeople what they should sayand what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differsfrom traditional grammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actually use,whether it i s “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point intime is a synchronic study; thedescription of a language as itchanges through time isa diachronic study. In modernlinguistics, synchronic study ismore important.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are thetwo major media ofcommunication.Modern linguistics regardsthe spoken form of languageas primary, but not the writtenform.Reasons:●1. Speech precedes writing;●2. There are still manylanguages that have only thespoken form;●3. In terms of function, thespoken language is used for awider range of purposes thanthe written, and carries alarger load of communicationthan the written.Langue and parole [pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. deSaussure made the distinctionbetween langue and paroleearly 20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the members ofa speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue in actualuse.Saussure made thedistinction in order to singleout one aspect of language forserious study. He believeswhat linguists should do is toabstract langue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual use oflanguage and make them thesubjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in the late1950’s.He defines competence asthe ideal user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language,and performance the actualrealization of this knowledgein linguistic communication.He believes the task of thelinguists is to discover andspecify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.Sapir,Edward uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focus on thepurely structural properties oflanguages and to suggest thatthese properties can beinvestigated from amathematically precise pointof view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to thedefining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish itfrom any animal system ofcommunication.American linguist CharlesHockett specified twelvedesign features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there is nological connection betweenmeanings and sounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog and theanimal it refers to. The factthat different sounds are usedto refer to the same object indifferent languages and thatthe same sound may be usedto refer to different objects isanother good example.Although language isarbitrary by nature, it is notentirely arbitrary. Some words,such as the words created inthe imitation of sounds bysounds are motivated in acertain degree. The arbitrarynature of language makes itpossible for language to havean unlimited source ofexpressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive orcreative in that it makespossible the construction andinterpretation of an infinitelylarge number of sentences,including those that they havenever said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is asystem, which consists of twosets of structure, or two levels,one of sounds at the lowerlevel and the other ofmeanings at the higher level.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure ofindividual and meaninglesssounds, which can be groupedinto meaningful units at thehigher level. This duality ofstructure or double articulationof language enables its usersto talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language canbe used to talk about whathappened in the past, what ishappening now, or what willhappen in the future.Language can also be used totalk about our real wordexperiences or theexperiences in our imaginaryworld. In other words,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.********************************** Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
自考本科英语语言学Chapter8LanguageAndSociety
Chapter 8 Language And Society1. Language is not only used to communicate meaning, but also used to establishand maintain social relationships.1. The relatedness between language and society2. The users of the same language in a sense all speak differently related to their语言和社会的关联social background.3. The structure of language vocabulary is different,reflects both the physical andsocial environments of a society.There are different words about snow in Eskimo.1.The scope of sociolinguistics 1. Speech community (linguistic community) : is widely used by sociolinguists to refer to社会语言学范围 2. Speech community and speech variety a community mainly based language. It’s generally defined as a group of people who言语社团和言语变体have the opportunity to interact with each other and there are exist various social groupsdefined not only by the speaker’s geographical background, but also by their educationalbackground, their occupation, gender, age, or ethnic affiliation.2. Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech usedby a speaker or a group of speakers. Linguistic features of a speech variety can be foundat the lexical, the phonological, the morphological, or the syntactical level of the languageThree types of speech variety: regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies1 Regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. (同一地理区域使用的)2.V arieties of language 2 sociolect: refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (特定社会阶层使用的)语言的各种变体 1. Dialectal varieties 3 language and gender.女性的语言比男性“更正确”原因在女性对自己身份更看重(more status-conscious)4 idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age5 language and age6 ethnic dialect; is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it’s mainly spoken by a lessprivileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination and segregation1. Field of discourse语场：指社会行为的类型，即正在进行的活动的领域和目的，包括谈话的主题。
自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结
自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助-我也是学生-这是由老师总的-我将P P T转为W O R D)(总15页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope oflinguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is oftencalled general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used inlinguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language iscalled semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use iscalled pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理recovery of speech ability)is generally knownas applied linguistics.（应用语言学）But in a narrow sense,applied linguistics refersto the application oflinguistic principles andtheories to languageteaching and learning,especially the teaching offoreign and secondlanguage.Other related branchesinclude anthropologicallinguistics, （人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics, （神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computationallinguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some importantdistinctions inlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive anddescriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actuallyuse, it is said tobe descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules totell people what theyshould say and what theyshould not say, it is saidto be prescriptive.Modern linguisticsdiffers from traditionalgrammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actuallyuse, whether it is“correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point ina diachronic study. Inmodern linguistics,synchronic study is moreimportant.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing arethe two major media ofcommunication.Modern linguisticsregards the spoken form oflanguage as primary, butnot the written form.Reasons:1. Speech precedeswriting;2. There are still manylanguages that have onlythe spoken form;3. In terms of function,the spoken language isused for a wider range ofpurposes than the written,and carries a larger loadof communication than thewritten.Langue and parole[pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F.de Saussure made thedistinction between langueand parole early20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the membersof a speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue inactual use.Saussure made thedistinction in order tosingle out one aspect oflanguage for serious study.He believes what linguistsshould do is to abstractlangue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual useof language and make themthe subjects of study oflinguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in thethe ideal user’sknowledge of the rules ofhis language,and performance theactual realization of thisknowledge in linguisticcommunication. He believesthe task of the linguistsis to discover and specifythe language rules.4/ What is language语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbolsused for humancommunication.Sapir,Edward uses“ideas” “emotions” and“desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focuson the purely structuralproperties of languagesand to suggest that theseproperties can beinvestigated from amathematically precisepoint of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer tothe defining properties ofhuman language thatdistinguish it from anyanimal system ofcommunication.American linguistCharles Hockett specifiedtwelve design features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there isno logical connectionbetween meanings andsounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog andthe animal it refers to.The fact that differentsounds are used to referto the same object indifferent languages andthat the same sound may beused to refer to differentnot entirely arbitrary. Some words, such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those that they have never said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. 5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born withthe ability to acquirelanguage, the details ofany language are notgenetically transmitted,but instead have to betaught and learned anew.**********************************Chapter 2Phonology 音系学phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing arethe two media used bynatural languages asvehicles for communication.Of the two media oflanguage, speech is morebasic than writing. Speechis prior to writing. Thewriting system of anylanguage is always“invented” by its usersto record speech when theneed arises.For linguists, the studyof sounds is of greaterimportance than that ofwriting.The limited ranges ofsounds which aremeaningful in humancommunication and are ofinterest to linguisticstudies are the phonicmedium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual soundswithin this range are thespeech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined asthe study of the phonicmedium of language；It isconcerned with all thesounds that occur in theworld’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》分章试题
Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning ___D______ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a ______B___ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) ___C______.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is true?√ A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.√ D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until ____A______.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. ___C_______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ___B___.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ ___A__C_____.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. _____A_____ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, __D_____ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12.T It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of languageuse was left unconsidered.13.T What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. F The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15.F The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16.F The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17T. F Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. F Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19.T Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20.T Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of ___context_______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an ___utterance_______.23. The meaning of a sentence is __abstrac t________, and decontexualized.24. _Constative_________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. __Performative_______ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __locuionary________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) ___illocutionary_______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) __commisive_______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) __expressive______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of ____quantity______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between them can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean? (b) What did you mean by X?” （东北师范大学，2006）36. Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with Cooperative Principle. （南开大学，2004）A: When is the bus coming? B: There has been an accident further up the road.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication? Try to explain the following utterancesrather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy. (2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.Key: Chapter8I. 1~5 DBCBA 6~10 CBCADII. 11~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTTIII. 21.context 22.utterance 23.abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary 27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantity31. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= awarning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can beunderstood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much asyou can (given R).35. Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmaticsincludes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and thehearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. Y es, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. Bdoesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contain s relevant information, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when thebus comes.”37. It occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. The context mayalso be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance. b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress. c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __B________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of ___A_______.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is _______C__.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the _____A_____ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. _____A_____ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. ____A______ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s view, the _____B_____ function is the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is _____D_____.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane9. Chomsky follows _____C_____ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen _____C_____ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. F The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. T London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14.T According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point in a linguistic structure.15.F American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16.F The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.17.T American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18.T Chomsky’s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure’s langue.19.T Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.20. F If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of ___synchronic _______ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __phonetics________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was _____Mathesius__﹙×﹚_J.R Firth_.24. Halliday’s Sys temic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behind his Functional Grammar is ______systemic ___.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) ___socially_sociogically______ oriented functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of ___stucture___ distribution ____.27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __Bloomfieldian________ Age.28. Descriptivism__________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG grammar is his ____innateness______ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __hypothesis maker________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics?36. What is behaviorism? What is behaviorism in linguistics? What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield? Does behaviorism have any limitations? Ifyes, what are they?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools and their influential representatives in modern linguistics?Key: Chapter12I.1~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCCII.11~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTFIII.21. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-makerIV.31. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.＊32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or is dominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.＊34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.V. VI. Omit.。
语言学教程第二版第八章答案
语言学教程第二版第八章答案I. Read each of the following statements and questions carefully. Choose the letter A, B, C or D to complete the statement or to answer the question. (2.5* 20= 50 Scores)1. Linguistics is the scientific study of______. [单选题] *A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human languages in general(正确答案)D. the system of a particular language2. What function does the following dialogue have according to the functions of language?-- A nice day, isn’t it?--Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.[单选题] *A. Emotive.B. Phatic.(正确答案)C. Performative.D. Interpersonal.3. Language can be used to talk about language itself, to help listeners or readers to get clues about the logicial thoughts or attitudes etc of the speakers’ or the writers’. Such language function is called _____. [单选题] *A. phatic function.B. recreational function.C. emotive function.D. metalingual function.(正确答案)4. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______. [单选题] *A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptive(正确答案)D. linguistic5. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language froma ________ point of view. [单选题] *A. sociological…psychological(正确答案)B. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD. semantic…linguistic6. Which is the branch of linguistics that studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription? [单选题] *A. Phonetics(正确答案)B. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics7. The core branch of linguistics excludes ______. [单选题] *A. semanticsB. morphologyC. phoneticsD. psycholinguistics(正确答案)8. Of all the speech organs, the _____ is/are the most flexible. [单选题] *A. mouthB. lipsC. tongue(正确答案)D. vocal cords9. A _____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. [单选题] *A. backB. centralC. front(正确答案)D. middle10. Open vowels don’t contain _______. [单选题] *A. [i](正确答案)B. [a]C. [a:]D. [ɔ]11. The naming theory was put forward by _______. [单选题] *A. Plato(正确答案)B. ChomskyC. Ogden RichardD. Firth12. “Male”and" female"are _________. [单选题] *A. stylistic antonymsB. relational antonymsC. gradable antonymsD. complementary antonyms(正确答案)13. “Can I borrow your bike?”_________“You have a bike”. [单选题] *A. is synonymous withB. presupposes(正确答案)C. entailsD. is inconsistent with14. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ________. [单选题] *A. primaryB. correctC. secondary(正确答案)D. stable15. The core branch of linguistics excludes ______. [单选题] *A. semanticsB. morphologyC. phoneticsD. psycholinguistics(正确答案)16. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language? [单选题] *A. Competence(正确答案)B. ParoleC. PerformanceD. Langue17. Unlike animal communication systems, human languag is _____. [单选题] *A. stimulus-free(正确答案)B. stimulus-drivenC. under immediate stimulus controlD. simulated by some occurrence of communal interest18. Among the three metafunctions of languages proposed by Halliday (1994), _____, the participatory function of langauge, enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context. [单选题] *A. ideational function.B. interpersonal function.(正确答案)C. textual function.D. perfomative function19. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______. [单选题] *A. displacement(正确答案)B. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission20. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct. [单选题] *A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B(正确答案)II. Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with a word or words, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. (2.5* 20= 50 Scores)21. D_____ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that langauge consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：uality)22. Language is p______ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：roductive)23. T______ function of language creates relevance to context and enables us to construct texts out of our utterances and writings. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：extual)24. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k______of the rules of his language. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：nowledge)25. Langue refers to the a______ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：bstract)26. P_______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：arole)27. S_______ is the father of modern linguistics. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：aussure)28. S________ is the study of the meaning of words and sentences. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：emantics)29. Linguistic study in the 19th century was primarily about the d_______ studies. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：iachronic)30. IPA indicates International Phonetics A______. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：lphabet)31. A c_____ is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：onsonant)32. E_______ is a relation of inclusion. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：ntailment)33. "There"and"their" are h_______. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：omophones)34. "Light"and"heavy are g_______ antonyms. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：radable)35. I________ function of language enacts social relationships. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：nterpersonal)36. The d_____ theory sees that the origin of language is from people’s response to the things around them by sounds. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：ing-dong)37. Human capacity for language has a g________ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：enetic)38. C_______ analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：omponential)39. P______ function of language can be used to maintain comfortable social relationship between speakers. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：hatic)40. Lanauge is v________ as the primary medium for all languges is sound. [填空题] * _________________________________(答案：ocal)。
语言学答案
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics1、Do you agree with the following statement? Why or Why not? Among all the regional dialects of Chinese, Beijing dialect is better than the others, that’s why it was chosen as the basis of putonghua (Standard Chinese).I definitely do not agree this statement. (1) As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a language or a variety of a language is entirely social. (2) To the professional linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good, because they all fulfill the communicative function they are expected to fulfill and each of them has its own complex and delicate systems of grammatical rules and speech sounds. (3）A certain variety of language appears to be superior to others maybe because the areas where that variety is spoken is economically or socially more influential, or because the variety is spoken by the class of people possessing higher social, political, and/or economical status.2、What is a register? What factors should be taken into account in identifying a register?Varieties classified according to use are called registers.According to Halliday’s functional-systematic framework, three factors are concerned with registers, namely, field, mode and tenor of discourse. (1) The field of discourse refers to the event in which the discourse is functioning including subject matters, e.g. Classical music , the Olympic games. (2) The mode of discourse refers to the function of discourse in the event, including both the medium of language ——spoken or written,extempore or prepared, and its rhetorical mode, as narrative, persuasive, phatic , etc. (3) The tenor of discourse refers to the role relations among the participants involved, especially then level of formality they adopt, e.g. Intimate, casual, or formal.Chapter 9 Stylistics1、What are the dimensions along which different styles of discourses can be compared?As a branch of linguistics, stylistics refers to the study of style. Style variation occurs not only from situation to situation but also according to medium and degree of formality. Style may vary in literary language within or between texts, genres and periods.Stylistic variation may occur on different linguistic levels. (1) Lexical variation. Different styles may involve different lexical choices. For example, a. The price of meat has been going down steeply.I b. The price of meat has been declining alarmingly. “Go down” and “decline” are synonymous, but the latter one is more formal than the first one. (2) Grammatical variation. Stylistic variation may involve some distinctive grammatical structures. William Shakespeare uses some lexical items characteristic of his period in his Sonnet 18. (3) Phonological variation. Stylistic variation can also be realized phonologically by taking on different patterns of tonality or changing the tonic of a sentence to show different meaning. a. My brother who lives in Nai'robi has just arrived. b. My 'brother who lives in Nai'robi has just arrived. In a, with the stress falling on“Nairobi”, the sentence defines the brother is the one that lives in Nai'robi ,but in b, with the stress falling on “brother” and “Nairobi”, the sentence may mean that there is in fact only one brother to refer to.(4) Graphological variation. he author may specially design the text so as to achieve some particular effect. Take E.E. Cummings’poem“…and breakonetwothreefourfivepigeons-justlikethat ”for example. In this line, the poet use a numer of words in succession as if to portray the shooting of five pigeons without any break.Chapter 10 Psycholinguistics1、Summarize the process of language production.(1) The biological foundation of language production include the operation of speech organs, the modification of air stream, and more importantly, and the function of human brain.(2) Language production is logically divided into three major steps: deciding what to express (conceptualization), determining how to express it (formulation), and expressing it (articulation). Conceptualization is the process when a speaker decides upon an intention or some content to express (e.g. A desired outcome or an observation) and encodes the situational constraints on how the content may be expressed (e.g. polite or informal speech ) . Formulation is divided into a word selection stage, deciding ehich word to use, and a sound processing stage, which in volves constructing the phonological form of a selected word. The last process is articulation, that is, the execution of motor programs to pronounce the sounds of a word.2、Compare language acquisition and language learning.Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate. Language acquisition is said to be a subconscious process of rule internalization resulting from exposure to comprehensible input when the learner’s attention is on meaning rather than form, and it is not dependent on the teaching of grammatical rules. Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their native language. This is distinguished from language learning, which deals with the learning (in both children and adults) of additional languages. However, Language learning centers on issues such as second, and foreign language learning, language education, bilingualism, literacy, language representation in mind and brain, culture, cognition, pragmatics, and inter-group relations. Language learning refers to a conscious process involving the study of explicit rules of language. It, in a broad sense, includes both formal learning in the classroom stimulated by teaching and natural, informal language learning without instruction from any teacher. The concept of language learning is linked to the traditional approach to the study of languages and today is still generally practiced in high schools worldwide. Attention is focused on the language in its written form and the objective is for the student to understand the structure and rules of the language, whose parts are dissected and analyzed. The task requires intellectual effort and deductive reasoning. Generally speaking, language learning involves receiving information about the language, transforming it into knowledge through intellectual effort and storing it through memorization, mostly for second-language learner, While, language acquisition involves developing the skill of interacting with foreigners to understand them and speak their language, mostly for native speaker.Chapter 11 Cognitive Linguistics1、Exemplify what conceptual metaphors are.Metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptualdomain, which can be schematized as: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUALDOMAIN (B). This is known as conceptual metaphor. In other words, a conceptual metaphor is essentially a device that involves conceptualizing one domain of experience in terms of another.LOVE IS A JOURNEYOur relationship had hit a dead-end street.We are going in different directions.The marriage is on the rocks.In this example, LOVE IS A JOURNEY is the conceptual metaphor, and it suggest that love , like journey, may have different directions and may end. To understand conceptual metaphors more accurately, we should know that conceptual metaphors from linguistic metaphors.Conceptual metaphors relate to“ways of thinking”, and thus are schematic or abstract such as LOVE IS A JOURNEY; in contrast, linguistic metaphors are manifestations of conceptual metaphors, which are those concrete expressions listed beneath the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY. 2、Exemplify what is referred to by iconicity.The iconicity of language means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the language mimes the world. On the syntactic level, theiconicity of language manifests itself especially as iconicity of order iconicity of distance, and iconicity of complexity.(1)Iconicity of order refers to the order of elements in language parallels that in physical experience or the order of knowledge. Word-order iconicity is found in the ordering of events in narrative sequences, which tends to reflect closeness in time. E.g. He stood up and jumped onto his horse. In this sentence, “ stood up” is what happened before “jumped onto his horse”.Another example of iconic ordering involves the concept of closeness to the speaker. What is nearest to the speaker in a physical or in a metaphorical sense is always mentioned first.(2) Iconicity of distance means that the linguistic distance between expressions corresponds to the conceptual distance between the ideas they represent. Lexical causatives (e.g. kill) tend to convey a more direct causation than periphrastic causatives (e.g. cause to die) in the following sentences : a.The farmer killed the animal.b. The farmer caused the animal to die.(3)Iconicity of complexity means more complex meanings are expressed by more complex forms. This principle of iconicity can be used as well to explain why the description of a multi- event is longer than that of a single event.a. Mary cleaned the floor.b. Mary cleaned the floor, and then watered the flowers.c. Mary cleaned the floor, watered the flowers, and then walked to the kitchen.This explains why a multi-event is longer than that of a single event.Chapter 12 Applied Linguistics1、What is applied linguistics?In its broadest sense, applied linguistics refers to all studies that are to apply linguistic theories, methods and findings to solve problems or improve situations involving language and its users and uses. In its narrowest sense,applied linguistics is the study of second and foreignlanguage learning and teaching.2、Comment on the following statement: Girls generally do better than boys in learning a foreign language.This statement is not correct, and the following are the reasons.Learners vary enormously in learning a language. There are 6 factors responsible for individual differences in L2 learning.(1) No age or stage stands out as optimal or critical for all aspects of L2 learning, but each stage of development may have certain advantages and disadvantages. young children acquire L2 more readily and intuitively in social and communicative situations while older learners tend to learn more readily by means of cognitive and academic approaches.(2) Language aptitude refers to the natural ability, or gift, to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc. Some language learners appear to have a gift for languages while others do not , and that gift is called language aptitude.(3) Another factor is motivation. Motivation refers to a combination of the learner’s attitudes, desires, and willingness to expend effort in order to learn the second language. Motivation can be divided into intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. The former is enjoyment of language learning itself. The latter is driven by external factors such as parental pressure, societal expectations, more practical concerns such as getting a job or passing an examination, and other sources of rewards and punishments. Motivation is generally considered to be one of the primary causes of success and failure in L2 learning. Research has repeatedly proven that intrinsic motivation contributes strongly to L2 learning.(4) In addition, language attitude, may also affect language learning. Language attitude refers to the feelings that learners have about the target language. The attitude that speakers have towards their own language or the language of others can be either positive or negative. Positive attitudes towards a L2 may evoke greater interest and more effort to learn. Knowing about attitudes is an important aspect of evaluating the likely success of a language teaching programme.(5) Learning strategies is a important factor. Learning strategies are behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable. In general, they are the ways in which learners attempt to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of the language they are learning. Successful learners generally use a greater number of active learning strategies.3、How can we tell whether a teacher’s teaching is learner-centered or not?In learner-centered teaching, teachers serve as a guide and companion as well as a motivator, counselor and analyst of needs. Learner-centered teaching emphasizing the active role of students in learning, try to give learners more control over what and how they learn and encourage learners to take more responsibility for their own learning. Learner-centeredness may be reflected by recognizing (1) learners’prior knowledge, (2) learners’needs, goals and wishes, (3) learners’ needs styles and learning preferences and (4) learners’views of teaching and of the nature of classroom tasks. If the teacher’s teaching is in accordance with the above requirements, the teacher is learner-centered, and vice versa.。
英语语言学八(8.2.3)
• (1) Calulability • (2) Cancellability • (3) Non-detachability • (4) Non-conventionality
•(1)Calculability
• The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and listeners are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable. They can be worked out on the basis of some previous information. He also lists some necessary datas in his paper.
It means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. In other words,an implicature will not be detached, separated from the utterance as a whole, even thoue changed.
• He suggests there is a general pattern for the working out of a conversation implicature • That is--when somebody says something,which apparently does not make sense at superfical lever,the lever of what is said,you will not simply think that he is taking nonsense and stop thinking about it any more. • If you find there is something supporting your previous assumptions, you will take it as the real point the speaker is trying to get across.
自考语言学概论笔记（全）
简答题1言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。
2书面语和口语的主要差别。
3书面语的产生具有重大的社会历史意义。
4语言和种族的关系5语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语言学必须明确自己的研究对象，才能成为一门现代意义上的科学。
6语言和言语的区别。
7任何符号，包括语言符号都是形式和意义的统一体。
8语言符号的强制性。
9语言符号的可变性10语言是一个系统11语言系统的各个子系统的系统性不平衡。
12语言系统具有相对的封闭性和自主性。
13语言系统的层次性14组合关系的含义15聚合关系的含义16组合关系和聚合关系的关系17普通语言学的含义和主要研究领域。
18应用语言学的性质和主要研究领域19、古代哲学家对语言的研究、古代的语言本体研究20、历史比较语言学的产生21、普通语言学的产生22、索绪尔的主要贡献23、社会语言学、功能语言学、认知语言学等语言学新学派的产生24、语言学和文学的关系25、语言学在历史学和考古学中的应用26、语言学研究在语言规划中的作用。
27、语言学研究与计算机科学。
28.简答语音中最基本的要素。
29.简答语音的本质属性体现在那些方面?30 简答国际音标与音素之间的关系。
31 简述元音分类的依据。
32 论述音位的性质(特征)。
33 音位的划分。
34.简答“对立关系”与“互补”关系35. 简答音位和音位变体的关系。
36. 音位与音素的区别。
37. 简答复元音与几个相连的单元音的区别。
38. 简答汉语普通话的音节结构特点。
39什么是语言的客观存在形式、为什么说语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言不完全是一模一样的、应该如何理解口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的40、为什么说语言虽然是民族的重要标志，但并不是最可靠的标志。
41.为什么不能单凭“相互理解程度”来区分语言和方言。
42区分语言和言语有什么意43.应该如何理解语言符号的任意性44.语言符号的离散特征和线形特征对语言系统的结构特点有什么重大意义。
专八语言学知识点
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
自考语言学复习大纲(整理)
自考英语语言学复习大纲Chapter 1Introduction 绪论1.What is linguistics?什么是语言学1.1Definition:Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。
2.What is language?什么是语言？2.1Definitions:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交流的一个任意的语音符号系统。
(1)language is a system (2)language is arbitrary (3)language is vocal (4)language is human specific Chapter 2Phonology 音位学1.The phonic medium of language 语言的语音媒介2.Phonetics 语音学 a.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学。
b.The study of sounds,which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.语音学c.The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.音位学d.The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.形态学e.The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.句法学f.The study of meaning in language is called semantics.语义学g.The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.语用学h.The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.社会语言学i.The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycholinguistics.心理语言学j.The study of applications(as the recovery of speech ability)is general known as applied linguistics.应用语言学h.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics,(人类语言学)neurological linguistics(神经语言学),mathematical linguistics(数字语言学)and computational linguistics(计算机语言学).1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴a.语言的任意性（武断性）Arbitrarinessb.语言的能产性Productivityc.语言的双重性Dualityd.语言的移位性Displacemente.语言的文化传递性Cultural transmission1Prescriptive vs.Descriptive 规定性与描写性2Synchronic vs.Diachronic 共时性与历时性(Saussure)3Speech and Writing 口头语和书面语4Langue and Parole (both from French words)语言（抽象）和言语（具体）(Saussure)5Competence and Performance 语言能力与语言运用(Chomsky)1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的一些重要的区分2.2Design features语言的甄别性特征Hockett人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的一些特征语言学内部的主要分支跨学科分支2.1Definition:phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language.语音学关注的是语言世界中的所有声音↘three points of view 2.2Organs of speech 从三个角度审视语言的发音器官2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds —broad and narrow transcriptions IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标语音的正字表征—宽式标音和严式标音There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds:两种标音方法2.4Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类(1)articulatory phonetics 发音语音学→研究语言的产生(2)auditory phonetics 听觉语音学→研究语言怎样被感知(3)acoustic phonetics 声学语音学→研究语音的物理属性The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔(the throat)→喉咙The oral cavity 口腔(the mouth)→嘴巴The nasal cavity 鼻腔(the nose)→鼻子One is the transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription.The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics called narrow transcription.stops 闭塞音/p/,/b/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/g/fricatives 摩擦音/f/,/v/,/s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/θ/,/ð/,/h/affricates 塞擦音/tʃ/,/dʒ/liquids 流音/l/,/r/nasals 鼻音/m/,/n/,/ŋ/glides 滑音/w/,/j/bilabial 双唇音/p/,/b/,/m/,/w/labiodental 唇齿音/f/,/v/dental 齿音/θ/,/ð/alveolar 齿龈音/t/,/s/,/d/,/z/,/n/,/l/,/r/palatal 鄂音/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/tʃ/,/dʒ/,/j/velar 软腭音/k/,/g/,/ŋ/glottal 喉音/h/Front 前元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/a/Central 中元音/ɜ:/,/ə/,/ʌ/back 后元音/u:/,/u/,/ɔ:/,/ɔ/,/a:/close vowels 闭元音/i:/,/i/,/ɜ:/,/u/semi-close vowels 半闭元音/e/,/ɜ:/semi-open vowels 半开元音/ə/,/ɔ:/open vowels 开元音/æ/,/a/,/ʌ/,/ɔ/,/a:/Consonants 辅音in terms of manner of articulation 按照发音方式in terms of place of articulation按照发音部位Vowels元音the position of the tongue in the mouth按照舌在口腔的位置the openness of the mouth 按照嘴的张合度the shape of the lips 按照嘴唇形状the length of the vowels 按照音的长度rounded vowels 圆唇元音/u:/,/u/,/ɔ:/,/ɔ/unrounded vowels 不圆唇元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/a/,/ɜ:/,/ə/,/ʌ/long vowels 长元音/a:/,/ɔ:/,/ə:/,/i:/,/u:/short vowels 短元音/ʌ/,/ɔ/,/ə/,/i/,/u/,/e/,/æ/monophthong 单元音在元音中还有一些双元音(diphthong),包括：/ei/,/ai/,/au/,/əu/,/ɔi/,/iə/,/εə/,/uə/3.Phonology 音位学3.1phonology and phonetics 音位学和语音学3.2phone,phoneme,allophone 音素、音位和音位变体3.3Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体3.4Some rules in phonology 3.5Suprasegmental features Chapter 3Morphology 形态学1.Definition:Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。
语言学教程Chapter 8. Language in Use概述
Groom:
I do.
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• Features of performatives
• First person singular
• Speech act verbs / performative verbs:
– The present tense – Indicative mood
– Active voice
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3. Illocutionary Act Theory
• John Searle (1932- ) • Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels: • A locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.
7
• Contextual Meaning: meaning in context
– The meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is , who the hearer is, when and where it is used. – It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.
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• Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
2024年4月高等教育自学考试《00541语言学概论》试题附参考答案
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1.方言之间的差异主要体现在A.语法方面B.语音方面C.语汇方面D.语义方面2认为不同的语言就有不同的思维方式的观点被称作A.语言相关论B.语言能力论C.语言反应论D.语言认知论3.下面各项属于传统“小学”的是A.音韵学B.音响学C.音位学D.音律学4.下面各词中借自佛经的是A.苜蓿B.罗汉C.蛮夷D.大戎5.语言本质上是一种A.个人现象B.社会现象C.物理现象D.天然现象6.掌管人的语言和抽象思维活动的是大脑的A.脑桥B.右半球C.左半球D.右半球的某些部位7.“三好”“环保”属于A.惯用语B.专有名词C.成语D.简缩词语8.下面各项中具有排他性特征的是A.隐语B.隐含C.隐喻D.影射9.“书包”这个词的能指是A.“书包”这两个字B.“书包”的意思C.“书包”的声音D.“书包”的用法10.把“You are a lucky dog”译为“你是一条幸运狗”属于A.语汇平面翻译B.句法平面翻译C.语义平面翻译D.语境平面翻译11.“犬子”是一种A.自称B.面称C.厌称D.谦称12.下面各项中属于礼貌原则的是A.质量和数量B.相关和负责C.得体和慷慨D.理解和赞同13.下面语言属于孤立语的是A.日语B.汉语C.英语D.维吾尔语14.不同行业的“行话”属于A.地域方言B.社会方言C.亲属语言D.混合语言15.汉族过年时“福”字倒贴，称“福倒(到)了”，这是一种A.反说话B.避讳话C.吉祥话D.惯用话16.下面方言属于北方方言的是A.长沙话B.武汉话C.南昌话D.上海话17.用概念、判断和推理等复杂逻辑形式进行的思维活动是A.发散思维B.表象思维C.抽象思维D.感性思维18.下面辅音中属于擦音的是A.[f]B.[t]C.[b]D.[m]19.一个民族的全体或部分成员放弃使用本民族语言转而使用另一民族语言的现象叫A.语言混合B.语言转用C.克里奥尔D.双语现象20.能听懂别人说话但基本不能看懂文字表达的意思，这样的语言障碍是A.失忆症B.失写症C.失话症D.失读症非选择题部分注意事项:用黑色字迹的签字笔或钢笔将答案写在答题纸上,不能答在试题卷上。
语言学 第八章
Chapter 8
Language and Society
8.2 Varieties of language
Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers 8.2.1. Dialectal varieties 8.2.1.1 Regional dialect : is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. The change from one dialect to another is very often a gradual process Reason:1 geographical barriers 2 loyalty to one’s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change
Speech Community:
For general linguistics: speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language For sociolinguistics: speech community is a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes towards linguistic norms
新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society
新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-soc ietyChapter 8 Language and society语⾔和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regionaldialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核⽬标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应⽤：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应⽤：Halliday’s register theory⼀、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语⾔学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语⾔学是语⾔学中的⼀个次领域，它研究语⾔与社会的关系，以及语⾔的运⽤和语⾔使⽤者所在的社会结构之间的关系。
《八级备考语言学》word版
Chapter 1 IntroductionLinguistics，Core of linguistics, Important distinctions, Language, Design features of language, Functionsof languageLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languagesin general. Linguistics has firmly established its place as a major branch of social science.It includes general (theoretical) linguistics and applied linguistics.General linguistics－the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.Applied Linguistics:In a narrow sense, it refers to the aapplication of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, esp. the teaching of foreign and second languages.In a broad sense, it refers to the fact that findings in linguistic studies are applied to the practical problems. For example, lexicology, translation, speech pathology, recovery of speech ability; sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, biolinguistics, computational linguistics, stylistics, information theory, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc…Main branches of linguistics: Phonetics 语音学, Phonology 音位学, Morphology 形态学, Syntax 句法学, Semantics 语义学, Pragmatics 语用学Some important distinctions in linguistics: prescriptive vs. descriptive, synchronic vs. diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance.Prescriptive vs. descriptive: 规定性和描写性A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay d ow n rules for “correct and standard” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive while modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronic:共时和历时The description of a language at some point of time is a synchronic study (synchrony). The descriptionof a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachrony).An essay entitled “On the Use of THE” may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.Speech and writing: 口语和书面语•The two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is primary because: 1. It existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write; 2. Written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds.Writing gives language new scope and uses that speech does not have:1. Messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other;2. Messages can be carried though time so that we can read the books in the past;3. Oral messages are readily subject to distortion while writing messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century. Langue and parole:语言和言语F. de Saussure (Swiss linguist) refers langue to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue: the set of conventions and rules language users have to abide by, abstract, relatively stable. Parole: the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, concrete, variable. Saussure: a linguist should abstract langue from parole (to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language).Competence and performance:语言能力和语言应用According to N. Chomsky (American linguist), competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the act realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication. competence: stable; performance: influenced by psychological and social factorsChomsky: a linguist should study the competence instead of performance.Saussure: a sociological view of languge langue=a matter of social conventionsChomsky: psychological point of view competence=a property of the mind of each individualTraditional grammar and modern linguisticsF. de Saussure 1916 Course in General LingusiticsTraditional grammar: prescriptive, priority of written word, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics: descriptive, priority of spoken, a universal frameworkLanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a system, because linguistic elements are arranged according to rules, rather than randomly.It is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books” and also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” –Romeo and JulietIt is vocal because the sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children can only learn to speak before they write also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writing.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.Design Features (识别特征): arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.” By Bertrand Russell.Arbitrariness: 任意性 There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法上的任意性 Different languages have different ways to construct the words into a sentence (syntax).Duality: 双层性 two sets of structure or patterningAt the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, meaningless by themselves. Secondary units (sounds) 底层结构The sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (morphemes, words) , which are found at the higher level of the system. Primary units (meaning)上层结构Productivity/creativity:能产性、创造性 It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Partially originating from its duality; and in another sense, language has the potential to create endless sentences.Unique to human language.Productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky).Displacement: 不受时空限制性 It refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moments of communication. (Hu) It gives human beings the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.Cultural transmission: 文化传递性 While we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system is not genetically transmitted, but have to be taught and learned. Interchangeability：互换性 Any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand messages. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.Functions of LanguageDescriptive function, or cognitive / referential / propositional function is assumed to be the main function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.Expressive function, or emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s fe elings, preferences, prejudices and values.Social function, or interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.Speech Elements and FunctionRussian-born structural linguist Roman Jakoson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific function.addresser---emotive 感情功能addressee---conative 意动功能context---referential 指称功能message ---poetic 诗意性功能contact ---phatic communion 应酬功能code --metalinguistic 元语功能addresser---emotive 感情功能 The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.e.g. I hate what they are planning for me.addressee---conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.e.g. Why not go and see another doctor?context---referential 指称功能 The addresser conveys a message or information.e.g. As far as I know, the earth’s resources are being astonishingly wasted.message---poetic 诗意性功能 The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. e.g. poetrycontact ---phatic communion 应酬功能 The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. e.g. Good morning. // 吃饭了吗？God bless you. Nice day. code ---metalinguistic 元语功能 The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.e.g. Let me tell you what the word “water” means.Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics, 3 branches of phonetics, Classification of English consonants and vowels, Phonology, Difference between phonetics and phonology, Suprasegmental featuresPhonetics is the the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages. It studies how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.3 branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics. Articulatory: how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. This branch has the longest history and is the focus of this chapter.Auditory: how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic: the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Organs of Speech:The pharyngeal cavity the throat 咽腔 the lungs, the windpipe, the glottis, the vocal cords(vibration of which→voicing, voiceless)The oral cavity the mouth 口腔 the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate(the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge(the alveolus), the teeth, the lipsThe nasal cavity the nose 鼻腔Voicing: the vibration of the vocal cords when speech sounds are articulated. The sounds are voiced. Voiceless: the lack of vibration of the vocal cords when the sounds are produced. The sounds are voiceless.The first version of International Phonetic Alphabet (国际音标) came into being in August 1888, which was revised recently in 1993, and updated in 1997.IPA’s basic principle: one letter from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式/严式标音Diacritics(附加符号): another set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only; Narrow transcription: transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.English Sounds: They are divided into consonants and vowels, according to the obstruction whatsoever. If the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction, the sound produced is a vowel; otherwise, it is a consonant.ConsonantsIn terms of manner of articulation:stops: [p] [b], [t] [d], [k] [g] fricatives: [f] [v] [s] [z] [∫] [З] [θ] [ð] [h] affricatives: [t∫] [dЗ] liquids: [l] [r] nasals: [m] [n] [ŋ] glides: [w] [j]In terms of place of articularionbilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w] labiodental: [f] [v] dental: [θ] [ð] alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]palatal: [∫] [З] [t∫] [dЗ] [j] velar: [k] [g] [ŋ] glottal: [h]Vowels: monophthongs, diphthongsMonophthongs are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth; the openness of the mouth; the shape of the lips; the length of the vowels.כ] [a:][ ]:[i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a] [∂:] [∂] [^] [u:] [u] [כDiphthongs: [ei] [ai] [i∂] [e∂] [u∂] [au] [∂u]Phonology and phoneticsSsimilarity: the study of sounds Ddifference: different approaches and focusesPhonetics: all the speech sounds used in all human languages; 语音研究的方法 [s], [i], [t] Phonology: how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication; 语音使用的模式(发现语言中语音的组成规则并解释发生的变化). [s] [i] [t]怎样组合Phone, Phoneme, AllophonePhone: a phonetic unit or segment. 音素The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning. Some do, some don’t.Phoneme: a phonological unit of distinctive value .音位 An abstract unit, not any particular sound, represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. e.g. /l/Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets and phonemes in slashes. e.g. Phone [t]---Phoneme /t/The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. 音位变体.Phonological Analysis 音位分析Principle: Certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. Minimal pairs(最小对立体): When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, they form a minimal pair. For example: [tin] [din], [bi:t] [bit]All these sound combinations together constitute a minima set. 最小对立集This also applies to the vowels.Minimal pair test is used to find the important sounds in language. It leads to the identifications of over 40 important units in English, which are called phonemes(音位).Phonetically similar sounds related in two ways: pphonemic contrast and ccomplementary distribution pphonemic contrast: two distinctive phonemes. 音位对立 /p/-/b/, /t/-/d/ccomplementary distribution: the allophones of the same phoneme which do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. (音位变体的)互补分布 spit-pit, little,Free variants (音位的)自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound causing by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. either [i:ð∂], [aið∂]Rules in phonologyIn what way the phonemes are combined.Sequential rules (序列规则): the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.e.g. spring, book, snake, ...Assimilation rule(同化规则): the rule assimilating one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. e.g. incorrect, indiscreetDeletion rule(省略规则): the rule that tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. sign-signatureSuprasegmental features 超音段特征Suprasegments are the units of language which are larger than the phonemes---the sound segments, such as syllables, words, phrases and sentences.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology, Word-formation processes, Closed class words and open class wordsDefinition 形态学,词法The branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morpheme, morph, allomorphMorpheme(语素/词素): the smallest unit of meaning, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. box+es, desire+ableIn view of word-formation, the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. Syntactically, it is the minimal form of grammatical analysis. e.g. studies, studying, studied (study+, -es, -ing, -ed)Morphemes are abstract units, realized by discrete units known as morphs.Morph (语素形式/形素): The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are morphs.The morph to a morpheme what a phone is to a phoneme.Most morphemes are realized by one morph like bird, cat, tree, sad, want, etc. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph in relation to their phonological context in a word. e.g. The morpheme of plurality {s}: cats, bags, matches // The past tense of the morpheme {be} : was, wereAllomorph(语素变体): alternate shapes or phonetic forms of the same morpheme . An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph allomorph/wud/ /w∂d/ /∂d/ /d/Types of morphemes: free vs. bound, derivational vs. inflectionalFree morpheme(自由语素): a morpheme that constitu tes a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree”, “dog”, …They can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with words. They are all roots. Bound morpheme(粘着语素): a morpheme that appears with at least another morpheme, such as “-er” in “teacher”.They are mainly found in derived words. They consist of both roots and affixes.Derivational morphemes(派生语素): those morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach. e.g. ccomputerize, multimediaIn English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折语素): For the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case,…word (part of speech unchanged) e.g. He was reading a letter then.In English, most inflectional morphemes are suffixes.Morphology and Word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A root can be free or bound. All free morphemes are free roots such man, earth, ... A bound root is a form that cannot stand alone but has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Stem is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added. It can be a root or a form bigger than a root. E.g. friends, friendshipsBase is alternative to root or stem.Affix are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.All of them are bound morphemes. They can be divided into inflectional and derivational affixes according to the functions.In view of their distribution, they can be classified as prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes in English are all derivational whereas suffixes are both derivational and inflectional.Word-formation Processes: compounding, affixation or derivation, shortening:/blends混成词(smoke +fog—smog), acronyms(缩略语)( laser, dinky), abbreviations(缩略语)(UN, P.R.A., RMB), clippings(缩写词)(fridge, gym, math), backformation (逆构词法)(editor--- to edit)Types of Words:variable words(可变化词): follow, mat, ... invariable words(不变词): since, when, seldom,... grammatical word(语法词)/function word: conj., prep., art., pron. lexical word(词汇词)/content word 实义词: n., v., adj., ...Open class(开放词类)/content words: n., adj., v., adv. closed class(封闭词类)/functional words: conj., prep., art., pron.Chapter 4 SyntaxSyntax, Category, Phrase, Phrase structure rule, Deep structure and surface structureSyntax(句法): a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Categories(范畴）: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Word level categories: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories. Three criteria(meaning, inflection and distribution) are employed to determine a word’s category.Phrase categoriesA phrase is a syntactic unit that is built around a certain word category, a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Phrase types:NP: the hardworking people VP: buy a book AP: very excited PP: behind the tablePhrase structure rulePhrase structure rule（短语结构规则): a special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase. NP → (Det) N (PP) ... VP → (Qual) V (NP) ... AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ... PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...Phrase ElementsHead (中心成分）：the word around which a phrase is formed;Specifier（标志成分）: the words on the left side of the heads; They can be deterniners, qualifiers, degree words, ... .Complement（补充成分）: the words on the right side of the heads.Modifier (修饰语): the words specifying optionally expressible properties of heads. AP proceeding the head ( a very careful girl), PP following he head ( open with care), and AdvP proceeding or following the head ( read carefully, carefully read).A moving story about a sentimental girlspecifier modifier head complementXP Rule: a single general phrasal structural rulethe XP rule →(specifier)X(complement)Coordination rule（并列规则）: Coordination: the phenomenon where the structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Subcategorization(次范畴化) The information about a word's complement is included in the head. A certain lexical itemrequires a certain type of complement. e.g. to appear, to cut a tree, to give him a bookA sentence-like construction=a complementMiss Hebert believes that she will win.complementizer, complement clause, complement phrase, matrix clauseThe expanded XP rule: XP→ (spec)((Mod) X (complement﹡)(Mod)SentenceStructuralist view: (Bloomfield) It is a maximum free form; it is an independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form.A sentence is similar to a phrase, with Infl. as its head, NP its specifier and VP its complement. So it has the same internal structure as other phrases and is consistent with the XP rule. Transformations: It refers to the syntactic movement. It can help explain such language phenomena as yes-no question, wh-question and passive voice.Auxiliary movement: Inversion; Do insertion, Wh movement → Move aInversion (Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. → Move Infl to C.) The train will arrive. → Will the train arrive?Trace(语迹): records of the movement of a word.Do Insertion: Used to form a yes-no question without an overt Infl. E.g. Birds fly. Step 1: Birds do fly. (Insertion of Do)Step 2: Do birds fly? (Inversion of Do)D-structure and S-structureDeep structure: The syntactic structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties.Birds fly.Surface structure: The final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations.Do birds fly? Birds do fly. Birds didn't fly.Organization of the Syntactic Componentthe xp rule↓deep structure←subcategorization restrictschoice of complement↓transformations↓surface structureWh MovementDeep structure of Wh questions. E.g. You can speak what language.Wh movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. E.g. What language you can speak. Inversion occurs to can. E.g. What language can you speak?Move the wh phrase to the specifier position under CP.Move a 移动a规则: A general rule for all the movement rules.a: any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints on movement: a. Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. b. No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 SemanticsSemantics, Some views concerning the study of meaning, Major sense relations, Sense relations betweensentences, Analysis of meaning, Two-place, one-place, and no-place predicationSemantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.Different Views: the naming theory, the conceptualist view, conceptualism, behaviorismThe naming theory (命名论): Proposed by PlatoThe linguistic forms or symbols (i.e. words) used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. They are just names or labels for things.Limitations: applicable to nouns but not to verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.; Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the worldThe conceptualist view（概念论）There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Ogden and Richards’ semantic triangle or triangle of significance thought/referencesymbol/form……………………..referentContextualism（语境论）: (1930-1960)Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---elements closely linked with language behavior.J.R. Firth (British linguist): We shall know a word by the company it keeps. Wittgenstein (German philosopher): the meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism（行为主义论）The meaning of a language form is: the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer (Bloomfield 1933)Jill JackS…………..r………..s…………….RLexical Meaning: Sense (意义) and reference (语义）Sense: the inherent meaning of a linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized; the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. e.g. Dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form. (Collins Dictionary of the English Language, 1979)Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.Major Sense RelationsSynonymy 同义关系 It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.Dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects e.g. autumn---fall, flat---apartment Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style e.g. start, begin, commence Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning e.g. famous---notorious Collocational synonyms e.g. to accuse …of…/to charge …with…Semantically different synonyms e.g. gaze --- glarePolysemy 一词多义While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than meaning. This is what we call polysemy.Homonymy 同音异义It refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. E.g. sun, sonWhen two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. E.g. wind n., wind v.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. e. g. break n., v. Hyponymy 下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.animal (dog, duck, tiger,…)superordinate hyponyms co-hyponymsAntonymy 反义关系It refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Gradable antonyms 等级反义关系 old-youngComplementary antonyms 互补反义关系 alive-dead, male-femaleRelational opposites 反向反义关系 husband-wife, father-sonSense relations between sentencesX is synonymous with Y. E.g. X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. X is inconsistent with Y. E.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.hX entails Y. E.g. X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe.X presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike.X is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.X is semantically anomalous. E.g. The table has bad intentions.Meaning AnalysisComponential analysis 成分分析: a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. It is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. (语义特征)–Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALE–Woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMAL, -MALE–Boy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMAL, +MALEPredication analysis (Sentence meaning)Some basic points: The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning (grammaticality) and semantic meaning (selectional restrictions)The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions(选择限制), which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.Predication analysis (述谓结构分析） Proposed by British linguist G.LeechPredication: the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. It consists of argument(s) and predicate. Argument:the logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element or elements in a sentence.Predicate: something said about an argument or it states the logical relations linking the arguments in a sentence.Examples: TOM (SMOKE) Tom smokes. Tom is smoking. Tom has been smoking. Tom, smoke! Does Tom smoke? KID, APPLE (LIKE): Kids like apples.Two-place, one-place, and no-place predication ( It is hot. (BE HOT))Chapter 6 PragmaticsPragmatics vs. semantics; Some basic notions: pragmatics, context, sentence meaning; utterance meaning; Important theories of pragmatics: Speech act theory, Principle of conversation/conversational implicature Definition of Pragmatics: The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful。
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Chapter 8 SociolinguisticsⅠ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. A particular register often distinguishes itself from other registers by all the following except( )A.having a number of distinctive wordsing words or phrases in a particular wayC.showing special social identitiesing such special grammatical constructions as scientific or legal language, etc.2. The goal of ____ is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among avariety of speech communities and different social situations. ( ) A.psycholinguistics B.sociolinguisticsC.historical linguisticsD.general linguistics3. In a narrower sense, an individual speaker’s idiolect is made up of such factors as ( )A.voice quality and pitch Bpitch and rhythmC.voice and rhythmD.voice, pitch and rhythm4. ____ moves on a scale of the national language, dialects, and individual ways ofcommunication. ( )nguage changeB.Speech varietyC.Speech variationD.Speech change5. Language ____ means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agencyof a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries. ( )A.variety Bvariation C.planning D.decision6. The original Lingua Franca is believed to be ( )A.Proto-GermanicB.an Italian-based pidginC.a Dutch-based pidginD.Chinese Pidgin English7. No two speakers of the same language or ____ use their language or ____ in exactly the sameway. ( )A.variety, dialectB.variation, dialectC.dialect, idiolectD.dialect, dialect8. Notable examples of creoles that have become first languages from previously pidginizedlanguages are ( )A.English-based creoles spoken in Haiti and LouisianaB.French-based creoles spoken in Jamaica and SierraC.English-based creoles spoken in Haiti, Louisiana, and French-based creoles spoken inJamaica and SierraD.English-based creoles spoken in Jamaica and Sierra and French-based ones spoken in Haitiand Louisiana9. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups ofpeople for diverse linguistic backgrounds. ( )A.lingua franca Bpidgin C.creole D.national language10. The ____ variety of diglossia is used for more formal or serious matters. ( )A.formalrmalC.highD.low11. Belgium is one of the well-known officially bilingual countries where both ____ are officiallanguages. ( ) A.French and English B.French and SwedishC.French and FinnishD.French and Flemish12. It is the ____ differences that have often been used to illustrate the “illogic” of Black English.( )A.phonologicalB.morphologicalC.syntacticD.all of the above13. In early Modern English ____ was the second person pronoun used by social superiors toinferior. ( )A.yeB.thouC.youD.both A and B14. Black English is probably the most widespread and most familiar ____ variety of the Englishlanguage. ( )A.regionalB.ethnicC.socialD.lower class15. Thai is one of the languages that have much more elaborate codes of register usa13. There is avariety of words for “eat”. Thai speakers use ____ to strangers. ( )A.”rabprathaan”B.”kin”C.”chan”D.”thaan”16. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____counterparts with the same social background. ( )A.female; maleB.male; femaleC.old; youngD.young; old17. When referred to as ____, slang does not carry any negative connotations.( )A.vernacularB.colloquialismC.both A and BD.neither A nor B18. In English-language speech communities, the most obvious taboo words are related to( ) A.religion, sex, sex organs B.religion, sex, excrementC.sex, sex organs, excrementD.religion, sex organs, excrement19. A linguistic ____ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society fromgeneral use. ( )A.slangB.euphemismC.jargonD.taboo20. There is a gradation of ____ ranging along a continuum between two extremes of very formaland very informal. ( ) A.dialect B.register C.variation D.slangⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1. A e____ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speakeror writer fears more direct, or offensive wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.2.The central characteristic of s____ comes from the motive for its use: a desire for novelty,for vivid emphasis, for membership in a particular group or class of people, etc.3.Many languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differentlyaccording to their degree of f____.4.An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less p____ population that has experienced someform of social isolation.5.In Black English, the double negation structure provides a very effective means of e____ thenegative part of a message.6.The use of s____ language does not mean that it is the language that is sexist but rather thesocial attitudes connoted in the language that is sexist.7.S____ are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.8.Speakers of an ethnic dialect usually regard the language they speak as the major s____ oftheir socio-cultural identity.9.In general, old people tend to be more c____ than the younger generation in their speechhabits.10.B____ refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by anindividual or by a group of speakers.11.In mangy cultures, males and females do not speak i____.Ⅲ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. The situational use of language is, to a large extent, socially dependent. ( )2. A speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of a language. ( )3. As a technical term in linguistics the term dialect carries value judgement with it. ( )4. In comparison with other variations, regional variation of language is the least discernible anddefinable. ( ) 5. Linguistic performance is essentially a social phenomenon but not a context-dependentbehavior. ( ) 6. From a sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of alanguage. ( )7. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its regional background. ( )8. An individual speaker’s linguistic performance is homogeneous, rather than heterogeneous.( ) 9. The standard language and the nonstandard language are both socially prestigious.( ) 10. No two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in exactly thesame way. ( ) 11. A lingua franca is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of otherlanguages as a medium of communication. ( ) 12. In all the countries, the standard language serves as a yardstick against which all othervarieties are measured. ( ) 13. From a linguistic point of view, it is justified to regard the standard variety of a language as“correct”, “logical” and “pure”. ( ) 14. A lingua franca may, but does not need to, be a native language currently spoken by aparticular people. ( )15. A lingua franca may be used internationally across the world. ( )16. Perfect bilingualism is uncommon because it is rare for individuals to be a perfect user of twolanguages in a full range of situations. ( ) 17. The assumption that Black English is “genetically inferior”, “deficient” and “incomplete” isquite reasonable. ( ) 18. In the ethnic variety of Black English, the word-final-stop-deletion rule does occur in allwords that end stop consonants. ( ) 19. Difference in one’s pronunciation may also have a bearing on the among of schoolingindividual speakers have received. ( ) 20. Sex-preferential differentiation in terms of speech varieties of males and females exists inonly some of the natural languages across the world. ( )Ⅳ. Define the following terms, giving example for illustration if necessary.1.sociolinguistics2.speech community3.dialect4.regional dialect5.register6.idiolect7.standard language8.lingua franca9.pidgin10.creole11.diglossia12.bilingualism13.slang14.vernacular。