Translation Shift Approach解读
翻译研究笔记 重要
Chapter 1:Main issues of translation studies:1. Jacobson’s categories of translation:a. Intralingual;b. Interlingual;c. Intersemiotic (verbal- non-verbal).2.History of the discipline:a. From the late 18th to the 1960s – grammar-translation method (replaced by communicative approach in the 1960s and 1970s);b.The USA 1960s –translation workshop concept based on Richards’reading workshops and practical criticism approach that began in 1920s; running parallel to this approach was that of comparative literature;c.The USA 1930s-1960s/70s – contrastive analysis;d.More systematic, and mostly linguistic-oriented, approach 1950s-1960s:i.J.-P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet (French/English);ii. A. Malblanc (French/German);iii.G. Mounin (linguistic issues of translation);iv. E. Nida (based on Chomsky generative grammar).v.James S. Holmes’“The name and nature of translation studies”is considered to be the founding statement of a new discipline.vi.Hermans Manipulation Schoolvii.Vieira Brazilian cannibalist school Postcolonial theoryviii.Venuti cultural-studies-oriented analysisThe Holmes/Toury map of translation studies1:Chapter 2: Translation theory before the 20th century:Traduttore, traditore = the translator is a traitorChapter 3: Equivalence and equivalent effect:In the 1950s and 1960s the place of circular debates around literal and free translation took the new debate revolved around certain key linguistic issues, among them those of meaning and equivalence, discussed by R. Jakobson in 1959. Over the following 20 years many further attempts were made to define the nature of equivalence.Jakobson:1.Meaning: the signifier=the signal of the signified (the concept).2.There is no full equivalence between code-units of different languages.3.So, we should substitute not words, but messages.4.Only p oetry is considered ‘untranslatable’ and requires ‘creative transposition’.Nida’s ‘science of translating (subjective):1.Meaning:a.Linguistic;b.Referential (dictionary meaning);c.Emotive (connotative).2.Ways of determining meaning:a.Hierarchical structuring (animal dog, cow etc);ponential analysis (grandmother, mother, cousin etc);c.Semantic structure analysis (spirit can mean demon, angel, god, ghost, ethos, alcohol etc)meaning depending on context.3.3-stage system of translation (Chom sky’s influence: deep/surface structure of a language):SL1 (analysis) X (transfer) Y (restructuring) TL24.Equivalence:a.Formal (form and content);b.Dynamic (equivalent response of: t2 reader on t2 as t1 reader on t1) (closest naturalequivalent).5.Correspondence in meaning must have priority over correspondence in style.6.Reader-based orientation.主要理论1：对等和等效（1950s－1960s）1．代表人物（1）罗曼雅各布逊A．描写了翻译的三类型：语内翻译，语际翻译和符际翻译B．提出语际翻译指用一种语言替换另一种语言种的整个信息C．强调对等的差异性（2）尤金奈达A. 提出形式对等和动态对等B. 提出著名的读者反应理论C. 他的理论以乔姆斯基的转换生成语法为基础（3）皮特纽马克A．提出语义对等和交际对等（4）韦内科勒A．区分了对应和对等B．描写了五种对等：外延意义，隐含意义，文本规则，语用及形式对等Newmark’s semantic and communicative translation:1.Replaces Nida’s division with semantic (resembles formal equivalence) and communicative(resembles dynamic equivalence) translation.2.Nida’s division inoperant if the text is out of TL space and time.3.Dynamic equivalence: are readers ‘to be handed everything on a plate’?4.Semantic translation differs from literal in that it ‘respects context’, interp rets and explains(metaphors). Literal translation is to be the best approach in both semantic and communicative translation. If semantic translation would result in an ‘abnormal’ TT or would not secure equivalent effect in the TL, then communicative translation should win out.Tertium comparationis, an invariant against which 2 text segments can be measured to determine variation.Chapter 4: The translation shift approach:1.Vinay and Darbelnet’s taxonomy:a)Direct (=literal) translation:(1).Borrowing(2).Calque(3).literal translation (word-for-word)b).Oblique translation:(4).Transposition(5).modulation6(6)..equivalence(7).adaptationc)The 7 categories operate on 3 levels:1.the lexicon2. 2.syntactic structures3. 3.the message 9context)4. 4.word order and thematic structure5. 5.connectors [cohesive links, discourse markers, deixis (pronouns anddemonstrative pronouns) and punctuation]d)2 possibilities:1.servitude (obligatory 4 and 5)2. 2.option (non-obligatory)2.Catford’s linguis tic approach (shifts)a.Distinction between: formal correspondence (a particular ST-TT pair) and textualequivalence (a pair of lgs).b.When the 2 concepts diverge, a translation shift occurs –a departure from formalcorrespondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL. There are 2 kinds of shift:1. A level shift (sth is expressed by grammar in one lg and by lexis in another)2. A category shift:i.Structural shifts; ii.Class shifts (word category); iii.Unit/rank shifts (sentence, clause,group, word, morpheme);iv.Intra-system shifts (systems are similar, but not always corresponding).3. van Leuven-Zwart’s microlevel/macrolever translation shifts:a.The comparative model (a detailed comparison of ST and TT and classification of allthe microstructural shifts within sentences, clauses and phrases);b.The descriptive model (a macrostructural model, designed for the analysis oftranslated literature)Chapter 5: Functional theories of translation:K. Reiss’s text typesNord adds to 3 types of language function a fourth ‘phatic’ function, covering lg that establishes or maintains contact between parties involved in the communication (e.g. greetings).Holz-Manttari’s translational action model for non-literary translations with1.its roles and players:a The initiator;b b.The commissioner (contacts the translator);c.The ST producer;d.The TTproducer;e.The TT user;f.The TT receiver.2.Content:a Factual information; b.Overall communicative strategy.3.Form: a.Terminology; b.Cohesive elements.J. Vermeer’s skopos theory: knowing the purpose and the function of translation is crucial (adequacy over equivalence).Ch. Nord’s translation-oriented text analysis:1.2 kinds of translation: a.Documentary translation(a)reader knows that he’s reading a translation;(b)Instrumental translation (a reader doesn’t know that).2.3 aspects of functionalist approaches particularly useful in translator training:a)The importance of the translation commission;b)The role of ST analysis;c)The functional hierarchy of translation problemsChapter 6: Discourse and register approaches:Halliday’s model of language and discourse b ased on systemic functional grammar (lg=communication):Influence:House’s model of translation qu ality assessment:1.Scheme for analyzing and comparing original and translation texts:Translation: a.Overt;b.Covert.Baker’s text and pragmatic level analysis:1.Textual function2.Cohesion3.Pragmatics:a.Coherence (depends on receiver’s expectations and experience of theworld);b.Presupposition (what the speaker supposes a listener shouldknow);c.Implicature (what the speaker implies).Hatim and Mason’s semiotic level of context and discourse:Text elements:1.Stable (translated fairly literally);2.Dynamic (not).Chapter 7: Systems theories:脚注：1.What is being written about.2.Who is communicating and to whom.3.The form of communication e.g. writtenEven-Zohar’s polysystem theory: a literary work as apart of a literary system in the social, cultural, literary and historical framework. It’s important [for choosing the translation strategy] if translated literature has a primary or secondary position in given literature.Toury and descriptive translation studies (DTS):1.Situate the text within the target culture system, looking at its significance oracceptability;2. pare the ST and the TT for shifts, identifying relationships between ‘coupled pairs’of ST and TT segments, and attempting generalizations about the underlying concept of translation;3. 3.Draw implications for decision-making in future translating.Norms of translation behaviour can be reconstructed from:1.The examinations of texts;2. 2.The explicit statement made about norms by translators, publishers, reviewers and otherparticipants in the translation actNorms:1.Initial norm (general translator’s choice):a.Subjection to source culture norms adequate translation;b.Subjection to target culture norms acceptable translation.2.Preliminary norms:a.Translation policy (text selection);b.Directness of translation (ST TT; ST t2 TT).3.Operational norms (the presentation and linguistic matters of the TT):a.Matricial norms (completeness of TT);b.Textual-linguistic norms (TT linguistic material).‘Laws’ of translation:1.Of growing standardization (tending to TT common options);2.Of interference (ST options transferred to TT, negatively or positively).Chesterman’s translation norms:1.Product or expectancy norms;2. 2.Process or professional norms:a.The accountability norm (an ethical norm);b.The communication norm (a social norm);c.The‘relation’ norm (a linguistic norm).Other DTS models:1.Manipulation School (‘a continual interplay between theoretical models and practical casestudies’);mbert and van Gorp – the scheme for the comparison of the ST and TT literary systems andfor the description of relations within them:a.Preliminary data;b.Macro-level;c.Micro-level;d.Systemic context (data compared andnorms identified)Chapter 8 "Varieties of cultural studies" examines Lefevere (1992), who treats translation as "rewriting" and identifies ideological pressures on translated texts. This chapter also looks at the writing of Simon (1996) on gender in translation, and at postcolonial translation theories which stress the part that translation has played in the colonization process and the image of the colonized (cf. Bassnett and Trivedi 1999).Lefevere (1992) treats translation as "rewriting" and identifies ideological and poetological pressures on translated texts. Translation functions are controlled by the following factors:1.Professionals within the literary system;2.Patronage outside the literary system:a.The ideological component;b.The economic component;c.The status component.d.If a-c come from the same source – patronage is undifferentiated; if not – differentiated.3.The dominant poetics:a.Literary devices;b.The concept of the role of literature.Simon compares the status of translation throughout the centuries to that of women’s and presents pro-feminist methods in translation.Postcolonial translation theories:1.Spivak: ‘translationese’ eliminates the identity of politically less powerful individuals andcultures.2. 2.Spivak: compares the status of translation throughout the centuries to that of colonies.3.Power relations : trans lation as the colonizer’s device used against the colonized.4.S. Bassnett and H. Trivedi’s translational linked to transnatio nal (translation=battleground).Brazilian cannibalism: the colonizers and their lg are devoured, their life force invigorating the devourers, who transform it according to their needs.The Irish context: postcolonialism in Europe.Chapter 9: Translating the foreign:the (in)visibility of translation: A. Berman’s ‘negative analytic’ of translation that prevents the foreign coming thr ough. ‘Deforming tendencies’:1.Rationalization;2.Clarification;3.Expansion;4.Ennoblement;5.Qualitative impoverishment;6.Quantitative impoverishment;7.The destruction of rhythms;8.The destruction of underlying networks of signification;9.The destruction of linguistic patternings;10.The destruction of vernacular1 networks or their exoticization;11.The destruction of expressions and idioms;12.The effacement of the superimposition of languages.‘Positive analytic’ = literal translation.Venuti:1.The invisibility of the translator in contemporary Anglo-American culture.2. 2.Domestication (dominant in connection with the translator’s invisibility) –‘the authortowards the reader’.3. 3.Foreignization –‘the reader towards the writer’ – resistancy – minoritizing (desirable).4. 4.‘Call for action’ –‘visibility’ + ‘foreignization’.Chapter 10: Philosophical theories of translation:Steiner’s hermeneutic1 approach to translation as ‘the act of elicitation and appropriate transfer of meaning’. The parts of the hermeneutic moti on:1.Initiative trust;2. 2.Aggression (penetration);3. 3.Incorporation (embodiment);4. pensation (restitution)Ezra Pound’s energy of language: translation as a tool in the cultural struggle, and the revitalization of the past.W. Benjamin’s task of the translator: translation gives the original ‘continued life’; pure language = coexistence of SL and TL; literal rendering of the syntax.J. Derrida’s deconstruction: capturing the meaning? No stability in the signified-signifier (meaning-sign) relationship; the opposition between SL and TL.1.Letter=Judaism=justice;2.Spirit=Christianity=mercy.Chapter 11: Translation studies as an interdiscipline:M. Snell-Hornby’s integrated approach.Harvey’s combination of linguistic analysis and critical theory.。
Schools of translation theories
现代西方翻译理论与翻译学派二战后，科技、语言学和翻译事业蓬勃发展，机器翻译也悄然兴起。
人们对翻译的看法也随之而改变。
翻译不仅是一门艺术或技巧，而且是一门科学，与文艺学、社会学、心理学、数控论和信息论等多种学科相关但又自成体系的科学。
翻译理论的研究，也不再局限于哲学家、文学家和翻译家，而成为语言和翻译研究专家进行系统探讨的严肃课题。
因此，西方的翻译理论得到进一步发展。
现代西方翻译理论的发展有两大特点：（1）理论研究纳入语言学范畴，受现代语言学和信息理论的影响，因而带有明显的语言学色彩，与传统的文学翻译理论形成鲜明对照；（2）以往理论家闭门造车、不相往来的局面被打破。
理论家通过论著、杂志、论文集等方式，充分发表各自的观点。
此外，由于交通手段、出版业的进步以及国际学术组织的出现，各国翻译理论家之间的交往不断密切，学术交流日益加强。
现代西方的翻译理论主要有四大学派：布拉格派、伦敦派、美国结构派和交际理论派。
一、布拉格学派该学派的创始人为马希修斯（Vilem Mathesius）、特鲁贝斯科伊（Nikolay S. Trubetskoy）和雅可布森（Roman Jakobson）。
主要成员有雅可布森、列维、维内等重要的翻译理论家。
这一学派的主要论点为：（１）翻译必须考虑语言的各种功能，包括认识功能、表达功能和工具功能等；（２）翻译必须重视语言的比较，包括语义、语法、语音、语言风格以及文学体裁的比较。
布拉格学派最有影响的翻译理论家是罗曼·雅可布森。
他原籍俄国，后移居捷克；二战时迁至美国，加入美籍。
作为学派的创始人之一，他对翻译理论的贡献主要体现在《论翻译的语言学问题》（On Linguistic Aspects of Translation）之中。
文章从语言学的角度，对翻译的重要性、语言和翻译的关系以及存在的问题给出精辟的论述。
自１９５９年发表后，此文一直被西方理论界奉为翻译研究的经典之一。
雅可布森的论述主要有五点：（１）翻译分为三类：语内翻译（intralingual translation）、语际翻译（interlingual translation）和符际翻译（intersemiotic translation）。
introducingtranslationstudies《翻译研究入门知识点总结》
Introducing Translation Studies—Theories and ApplicationsName: Zhu MiClass: English 1122013/12/24Introducing Translation Studies—Theories and ApplicationsI.Main issues of translation studies1.1The concept of translationThe term translation itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field, the product or the process.The process of translation between two different written languages involves the translator changing an original verbal language into a written text in a different verbal language.—interlingual translationThe Russian-American structuralist Roman Jakobson in his seminal paper”On linguistic aspects of translation’gave his categories as intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation.1.2What are translation studies?Written and spoken translations traditionally were for scholarship and religious purposes.Yet the study of translation as an academic subject has only really begun in the past fifty years, thanks to the Dutch-based US scholar James S.Holmes.Reasons f or prominence: first, there has been a proliferation of specialized translating and interpreting courses at both and undergraduate and postgraduate level; second, other courses, in smaller numbers, focus on the practice of literary translation; the 1990s also saw a proliferation of conferences, books and journals on translation in many languages; in addition, various translation events were held in India, and an on-line translation symposium was organized.1.3A brief history of the disciplineThe practice of translation was discussed by, for example, Cicero and Horace and St Jerome;their writings were to exert an important influence up until the twentieth century.The study of translation of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the second half of the twentieth century.Before that, translation had normally been merely an element of language learning in modern language courses, known for the grammar-translation method.With the rise of the direct method or communicative approach to English language teaching in the 1960s and 1970s, the grammar-translation method fell into increasing disrepute.In the USA, translation was promoted in universities in the 1960s by the translation workshop concept. Running parallel to it was that of c omparative literature.Another area in which translation become the subject of research was c ontrastive analysis.The continued application of a linguistic approach in general, and specific linguistic models such as generative grammar or functional grammar, has demonstrated a n inherent and gutlink with translation. And it began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s.—Eugene Nida1.4The Holmes/Toury “map”James S.Holems’s” The name and nature of translation studies” was regarded as “generally accepted as the founding statement for the field”. He puts forward an overall framework, describing what translation studies covers. It has been subsequently presented by Gideon Toury.Another area Holmes mention is translation policy, where he sees the translation scholar advising on the place of translation in society, including what place, if any, it should occupy in the language teaching and learning curriculum.“Translation policy”would nowadays far more likely be related to the ideology that determines translation than was the case in Holmes description.1.5Developments since the 1970sContrastive analysis has fallen by the way side. The linguistic-oriented “science”of translation has continued strongly in Germany, but the concept of equivalence associated with it has declined.Germany has seen the rise of theories centred on text types and text purpose, while the Hallidayan influence of discourse analysis and systemic functional grammar, which vies language as a communicative act in a sociocultural context, has been prominent over the past decades, especially in Australia and the UK.The late 1970s and 1980s also saw the rise of a descriptive approach that had its origins in comparative literature and Russian Formalism.The polysystemists have worked with a Belgium-based group and the UK-based scholars.The 1990s saw the incorporation of new schools a nd concepts, with Canadian-based translation and gender research led by Sherry Simon, the Brazilian cannibalist school promoted by Else Vieira, postcolonial translation theory.II.Translation theory before the twentieth century2.1“Word-for-word” or “sense-for-sense”?Up until the second half of the twentieth century, translation theory seemed locked in whatof“literal”, ”free”and “faithful”George Steiner calls a ”sterile” debate over the “triad”translation. The distinction goes back to Cicero and St Jerome.Cicero said,”…keeping the same ideas and forms…but in language which conforms to our usage…Ｉpreserved the general style and force of the language.”He disparaged word-for-word translation.St Jerome said,”…where even the syntax contains a mystery—I render not word-for-word, but sense-for-sense.”2.2Martin LutherLuther follows St Jerome in rejecting a word-for-word translation strategy since it would beunable to convey the same meaning as the ST and would sometimes be incomprehensible. He focuses on the TL and the TT reader and his famous quote:” You must ask the mother at home, the children in the street, the ordinary man in the market and look at their mouths, how they speak, and translate that way; then they’ll understand and see that you’re speakingto them in German.”2.3Faithfulness, spirit and truthFlora Amos notes that early translators often differed considerably in the meaning they gave to terms such as “faithfulness”, “accuracy” and even the word “translation” itself.Louis Kelly in The True Interpreter calls the “inextricably tangled”terms “fidelity”, ”spirit”and“truth”.Kelly considers that it was not until the twelfth century that truth was fully equated with “content”. By the seventeenth century, fidelity had come to be generally regarded as more than just fidelity to words, and spirit lost the religious sense and was thenceforth used solely in the sense of the creative energy of a text or language.2.4Early attempts at systematic translation theory: Dryden, Dolet andTytlerFor Amos, the England of the seventeenth century—with Denham, Cowley and Dryden—marked an important step forward in translation theory with” deliberate, reasoned statements, unmistakable in their purpose and meaning”.John Dryden reduces all translations to three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. Dryden thus prefers paraphrase, advising that metaphrase and imitation be avoided. He is author-oriented.Etienne Dolet is TL-reader-oriented and sets out five principles in his 1540 manuscript The Way of Translating Well from One Language into Another”:1.The translator must perfectly understand the sense and material of the original author,although he should feel free to clarify obscurities.2.The translator should have a perfect knowledge of both SL and TL, so as not to lessen themajesty of the language.3.The translator should avoid word-for-word renderings.4.The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms.5.The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness.Alexander Fraser Tytler has three general “laws” or “rules”:1.The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.2.The style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.3.The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.2.5Schleiermacher and the valorization of the foreignWhile the 17th century had been about imitation and the 18th century about the translator’sduty to recreate the spirit of the ST for the reader of the time, the Romanticism of the early nineteenth century discussed the issues of translatability or untranslatability.In 1813, the German theologian and translator Friedrich Schleiermacher wrote On The Different Methods of Translating and put forward a Romantic approach to interpretation based on the individual’s inner feeling and understanding.He first distinguishes two different types of translator working on two different types of text:1.the “Dolmetscher”, who translates commercial texts;2.the “übersetzer”, who works on scholarly and artistic texts.How to bring the ST writer and the TT reader together is the real question. He considerstranslator: Either the translator leaves the there to be only two paths open for the “true”writer alone as much as possible and moves the reader toward the writer, or he leaves the reader alone as much as and moves the writer toward the reader.Schleiermacher’s consideration of different text type becomes more prominent in Reiss’s text typology.The “alienating”and “naturalizing”opposites are taken up by Venuti as “foreignization”and “domestication”.Additionally, the vision of a “language of translation”is pursued by Walter Benjamin and the description of the hermeneutics of translation is apparent in George Steiner’s “hermeneutic motion”.2.6Translation theory of the ninetieth and early twentieth centuries inBritainIn Britain, the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century focused on the status of the ST and the form of the TL.Francis Newman emphasized the foreignness of the work by a deliberately archaic translation.Matthew Arnold advocated a transparent translation method.2.7Towards contemporary translation theoryGeorge Steiner l ists a small number of 14 writers who represent “very nearly the sum total of those who have said anything fundamental or new about translation”, includes St Jerome, Luther, Dryden and Schleiermacher and also takes us into the 20th century with Ezra Pound and Walter Benjamin, amongst others.He covers a range of theoretical ideas in this period: We have seen how much of the theory of translation—if there is one as distinct from idealized recipes—pivots monotonously around undefined alternatives: ”letter”or “spirit”, ”word”or “sense”. The dichotomy is assumed to have analyzable meaning. This is the central epistemological weakness and sleight of hand.Translation theory in the second half of the 20th century made various attempts to redefine the concepts “literal”and “free”in operational terms, to describe “meaning”i n scientific terms, and to put together systematic taxonomies of translation phenomena.Case studiesThe criteria for assessing the translations are given:1.accuracy: the correct transfer of information and evidence of complete comprehension.2.the appropriate choice of vocabulary, idiom, terminology and register;3.cohesion, coherence and organization;4.accuracy in technical aspects of punctuation, etc.III.Equivalence and equivalent effect3.1Roman Jakobson: the nature of linguistic meaning and equivalenceIn his paper “On linguistic aspects of translation”, he describes three kinds of translation: intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic translation and he goes on to examine key issue of interlingual translation, notably linguistic meaning and equivalence.Jakobson approaches a now-famous definition: “Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics.”He thinks poetry is which requires “creative” transposition.“untranslatable”，3.2Nida and “the science of translating”3.2.1The nature of meaning: advances in semantics and pragmaticsMeaning is broken down into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotivemeaning. There are three techniques: hierarchical structuring, componentialanalysis a nd semantic structure analysis.3.2.2The influence of ChomskyNoam Chomsky’s generative-transformational model analyzes sentences into a series of related levels governed by rules. The key features of this model can be summarized:1.Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure w hich is2.transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another,to produce.3. a final surface structure,which itself is subject to phonological and morphemicrules.Nida presents a three-stage system of translation (analysis, transfer andrestructuring).This involves analysis using generative-transformational grammar’s four types offunctional class: events, objects, abstracts and relationals.3.2.3Formal and dynamic equivalence and the principle of equivalent effectFor Nida, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalentresponse. It is one of the “four basic requirements of a translation”, which are1making sense;2conveying the spirit and manner of the original;3having a natural and easy form of expression;4producing a similar response.3.3Newmark: semantic and communicative translationIn Newmark’s Approaches t o Translation and A Textbook of Translation,he suggests narrowing the gap by replacing the old terms with those of “semantic” and “communicative”translation.3.4Koller: Korrespondenz and AquivalenzWerner Koller examines more closely the concept of equivalence and its linked term correspondence. And he also goes on to describe five different types of equivalence: denotative, connotative, text-normative, pragmatic and formal equivalence.IV.The translation shift approach4.1Vinay and Darbelnet’s modelThe two general translation strategies identified by Vinay and Darbelnet are direct translation and oblique translation, w hich hark back to the “literal vs. free” division.The two strategies comprise seven procedures, of which direct translation covers are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition and modulation and of which oblique translation includes are equivalence and adaptation.three The seven main translation categories are described as operating on three levels; these levels reflect the main structural elements of the book. They are: the lexicon, syntactic structure and the message.A further more important parameter taken into account by Vinay and Darbelnet is that ofservitude a nd option.They continued by giving s list of five steps f or the translator to follow in moving from ST to TT:1.Identity the units of translation.2.Examine the SL text, evaluating the descriptive, affective and intellectual content of theunits.3.Reconstruct the metalinguistic context of the message.4.Evaluate the stylistic effects.5.Produce and revise the TT.They consider the unit of translation to be a combination of a“lexicological u nit”and a “unit of thought”.4.2Catford and translation “shifts”Catford makes an important distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence, which was developed by Koller.Catford considers two kinds of shift: shift of level and shift of category.Most of Catford’s analysis is given over to category shifts. These are subdivided into four kinds: structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts/rank shifts and intra-system shifts.4.3Czech writing on translation shiftsIn the 1960s and 1970s some writing introduces a literary aspect, that of the “expressive function”or style of a text.4.4Van Leuven-Zwart’s comparative-descriptive model of translationshiftsKitty van Leuven-Zwart applies shift analysis to the descriptive analysis of a translation, attempting both to systematize comparison and to build in a discourse framework above the sentence level.The model is “intended for the description of integral translations of fictional texts”and comprises a comparative model and a descriptive model.Shifts are divided into three main categories w ith numerous subcategories. The three main categories are modulation, modification and mutation.V.Functional theories of translation5.1Text typeKatharina Reiss’s work in the 1970s builds on the concept of equivalence but views the text, rather than the word or sentence, a s the level at which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought. Her functional approach aims initially at systematizing the assessment of translation.Three text types—informative, expressive and operative types—are given by Reiss and presented visually by Cheserman.Reiss also lists a series of intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction criteria by which the adequacy of a TT may be assessed.5.2Translational actionTranslation action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter, c ompounds involving intercultural transfer.5.3Skopos theoryHans J. Vermeer introduces skopos into translation theory in the 1970s as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating, as it deals with a translational action that is ST-based.5.4Translation-oriented text analysisChristiane Nord’s Text Analysis in Translation makes a distinction between two basic types of translation production —documentary translation and instrumental translation.VI.Discourse and register analysis approachesVII.Systems theoriesVIII.Varieties of cultural studiesIX.Translating the foreign: the (in)visibility of translation X.Philosophical theories of translationXI.Translation studies as an interdiscipline。
Translation Shift(新)
4
Translation Shift—at Macro Level
Differences between Translation Shifts at Micro and Macro Level
The differences mainly lie in the direction of analysis according to Al-Zoubi and Al-Hassnawi (2001). Micro Macro within the dimension of sentence within the domain of the text
Translation Shift--转移与对等译论的交叉
利维：转移对 风格对等的影 响
他们的研究对象为翻译转移在文学 翻译作品中的体现,以及这些转移对 译文美学和文体风格的影响。文学 翻译是一种再现和创造性质的工作, 目的是使译文达到与原文对等的美 学效果。
Translation Shift--转移与对等译论的交叉
Translation Shift--Introduction
Translation shift, as an inevitable phenomenon in translation activities, has been paid much attention to and studied by translation scholars for a quite long time since the 1950s.
1
Translation Shifts at Macro Level
1. Introduction of Translation Shifts at Macro Level 2. Reasons for Perceiving Translation Shift from Macro Level 3. Differences between Translation Shifts at Micro and Macro Level 4. Subdivision of Translation Shift at Macro Level
语言学派翻译理论
约翰· 卡特福德 John C. Cartford
层次转换（level shift）指源语中处于某一语言层次 的成分，在目的语种的对等物却处于另一个不同 的层次上。例如原文中用语法层次表现的意义， 由于在译文中缺乏确切的对应语法形式，就必须 转向词汇层次，用词汇手段来表现应该表达的意 义。 类型转换（category shift）是翻译对形式对等的偏离。 可分为结构转换（structure shift）、类别转换 （class shift）、单元转换（unit shift）和系统内转 换（intra-system shift)。 （谢天振，2008:25）
罗曼· 雅科布逊 Roman Jakobson
二、翻译所涉及的是两种不同语符的对等信息。
双语符号之间不存在完全对等的关系,对等 关系存在于符号所承载的信息。因此,语际 翻译不是符号转换,而是信息转换。 三、探讨了翻译中可译与不可译这一翻译理 论和实践中的根本问题。 一方面,他认为,各种语言都有同等的表达能 力;另一方面,如果语言形式也表达意义,如诗 歌和双关语等,可译性就受到了限制。
196小节斯奈尔霍恩比立足于翻译学派和翻译文化学派的基本立场批评语言学派将翻译研究划归为应用语言学同时也批评操纵学派将它归入比较文学的研究领域认为翻译研究是一门独立学科并以格式塔整体译研究是门学科理论和原型学为基础借用相关学科如语言学心理学哲学和比较文学的有益成分提出对翻译研究采用一种集各家所长的综合型研究途径
（董广才，孙海燕，2005:57）
罗曼· 雅科布逊 Roman Jakobson 不足之处：
英美文学论文题目全集
黑色的坚毅——小说《飘》主人公的性格分析Black Determination——An Analysis of the Personalities of the Main Character in Gone with the Wind从浪漫走向世俗的新型女性——《理智与情感》中玛丽安的性格分析人性的扭曲信任的危机--重读《奥》剧杂感Random Thoughts on Othello爱情叙写与人性魅力--论《红与黑》中两位女主角Love Account and Human Fascination-- On the Two Heroines in "The Red and the Black"风暴之女--艾米莉·勃朗特--评析作家经历和性格对作品的影响《荒野的呼唤》中"巴克"的多重性格分析Analysis of the Complicated Nature of Buck in ″The Call of the Wild″《呼啸山庄》中希斯克利夫扭曲性格分析《裸者与死者》中的受虐性格分析Analysis of the Masochistic Character Portrayed in The Naked and the Dead压抑与扭曲的灵魂——霍桑《红字》主人公人物性格分析The Constrained and Distorted Soul ——the Analysis of the Protagonists Disposition of "The Scarlet Letter"财经类院校英语专业"体验英美文学"教学模式探究On the Teaching Strategy of Experiencing British and American Literature英美文学虚拟教学课堂的架构设计The Architecture Designing of Virtual Classroom of British and American Literature高校英语专业英美文学课程的现代教学思路增强英美文学意识促进英语语言教学当代英美文学的存在主义解读Interpreting Contemporary British and American Literature From the Angle of Existentialism奈保尔的旁观者写作视角与象征写作手法Onlooker's Perspective and Symbolism ofV.S .Naipaul's Writing福克纳小说中象征隐喻手法微探On the Skill of Symbolic Metaphor in Faulkner' Novels詹姆斯·乔伊斯作品中象征主义手法的运用有组织的混乱,制度化了的疯狂——透视《第二十二条军规》的写作手法Organized disorder and the systemized chaotic society试析《这里的黎明静悄悄》小说的写作手法中国象征派诗歌与西方象征主义之关系浅探Relation between Chinese Symbolic Poetry and the Western Symbolism战争的棋子——茨威格笔下受战争戕害的人物分析The Chess of the War——The Analysis of the Victim in the War from Zweig沉重的背叛——《生命中不能承受之轻》主人公萨宾娜人物分析The oppressive betrayal——The character analysis of the heroine, Sabina, in The Unbearable Lightness of Being Hester and Dimmesdale’s Attitudes towards Love and life in The Scarlet Letter论《红字》中海斯特和丁梅斯代尔对爱情、罪恶、生活的态度On Sister Carrie’s Criticism upon American SocietyOn Scarlett’s Attitude towards Life关于斯佳丽的生活观On the Characterization of Picaresque Huck论哈克的流浪汉形象On the Moral Spirit in the Great Gatsby.论《了不起的盖茨比》中的道德观Thomas Hardy’s Pessimism in Tess of the D’urbervellesA Study of Tom Joad in the Grapes of Wrath《愤怒的葡萄》的中汤姆•约德研究Mark Twain’s Linguistic Style in The Adventures of Tom SawyerOn the Characteristics of Uncle Tom汤姆叔叔的性格分析A Study of the Themes in a Farewell to ArmsThe Tragic Fate of “a Pure Woman”in the Conflict of the Individual and the Society“一个纯洁女人”在人与社会发展冲突中的悲剧命运On the Language Style of a Midsummer-Night's Dream论《仲夏夜之梦》的语言风格The Social Significance of Swift's Gulliver's TravelsThe Psychological Analysis in Macbeth论莎士比亚《麦克白》的心理刻画Inflexible Ada in Cold Mountain《冷山》中执著的艾达On the Romanticism and Realism of Alice in Wonderland论爱丽丝梦游仙境的童话性与现实性On the Tragicomedy of Rebecca in Vanity Fair论《名利场》中利蓓加的悲喜一生On the Humour of Oliver Twist论《雾都孤儿》的幽默艺术Tom Jones, a Dissipated but Kindhearted Man放荡而又善良的汤姆琼斯The Free Will and Rebellious Spirit in Paradise Lost《失乐园》中的自由意志和反叛精神On the Development of Shylock’s Character论夏洛克的性格发展Morality and Criticism in Tom Jones评《汤姆•琼斯》中的道德观与批评观On Imogen，the New Feminine Image in Cymbeline论《辛白林》中伊慕琴的新女性形象Burns’View on Love and Friendship论彭斯的爱情友谊观The Reflection of Art and Life in Ode on a Grecian Urn and Ode on a Nightingale《希腊古瓮颂》与《夜莺颂》中艺术与生活的对照The Womanism in "The Color Purple"On the Differences between Chinese and Westerners in Non-language Communication谈中国人和英美人非语言交际的差异On the Contribution of the American Blacks during American Civil War美国黑人在美国历史上的贡献On American Black English浅谈美国黑人英语On the Differences of the Marriage Concept between Chinese and American浅谈中美婚姻观念的差异A Contrastive Analysis of Table Manners and Culture between China and Western CountriesOn the Ideological Content in Bacon’s Essays论培根散文的思想性Women's Movement in 1960s in American美国六十年代的妇女运动Analysis the negative effects of violent television and movie on children浅析影视暴力对青少年儿童的负面影响The Influence of Chinese Cultural Circumstances on English Learning汉语环境对英语学习的影响A Comprehension of Male Centrad Literature through A Doll’s House"Application of the communicative Approach to Reading Comprehension","英语教学法""The Use of Body Language in Middle School English Teaching ","英语教学法""Teaching Vocabulary Within a Communicative Frame Work用交际法教词汇","英语教学法" "Develop Students' Reading Skills in English Teaching","英语教学法""A Brief Analysis of Improving Senior Middle School Students' Reading Ability浅谈高中生英语阅读能力的提高","英语教学法""The Characteristics of Athletic English and Its Translation 体育英语的特点及翻译","翻译""The Semantic Contrast of Color Words between English and Chinese and their Translation 中英颜色词的语义对比及翻译","翻译""Chinese Reduplicated Words and their Translation into English 汉语叠词及其英译","翻译""Brand Translation 商标翻译","翻译""On Translating Methods of Numerals between Chinese and English中英数字的翻译方法","翻译" "Literal and Free Translation in the Translation of Advertisement Headlines and Slogans 广告用语的直译和意译","翻译""On the Translation of Chinese Trade Mark into English 中文商标的英译","翻译""The Analysis of the Chinese Topic Structure and Its Translation 汉语话题结构的分析及其翻译","语言学""English Euphemism: Classification and Application","语言学""Differences Between Chinese And English Culture Reflected in Connotation of Dragon 从龙一词的文化内涵看汉英文化的差异","文化"" English Vocabulary Teaching Tactics in Junior Middle School初中英语词汇教学策略","英语教学法" "A Brief Presentation of Body Language in Intercultural Communication 跨文化交际身势语简述","文化" "English Euphemism: Classification and Application 英语委婉语的分类及其应用","语言学""A General Study of Women's Culture对女性文化的初步探索","文化""Criticism on American Southern Womanhood in the Sound and the Fury 浅谈《喧哗与骚动》中对于美国南方妇道观的批判","文化""Reproduction of African Myth--on Colonialism in \"Heart of Darkness\" 非洲神话的再现-"黑暗之心"中的殖民主义","文学""The Unification of T.S.Elict's Artistic Theory and Practice As Seen in the Waste Land 论"荒原"中T.S.艾略特的艺术理论与实践的统一","文学""The Application of Gothic Theme"呼啸山庄"中哥特主题的应用","文学""The Family Tragedy and Behavior Analysis of Teresa Degarge对特丽莎家庭悲剧和行为表现的研究","文学""HAMLET APPRECIATION --SHAKESPEAKE'SSUCCESS IN CHARACTERS'S DEPIET"哈姆雷特"赏析--莎士比亚成功的人物描写","文学""An Analsis of the Artistic Features of Lord of the Flies对小说《蝇王》的艺术特色的研究","文学""A Exploration of Fagin Characters and His Function in Oliver Twist 对费金这个角色在《雾都孤儿》中作用的研究","文学""THE ANALYSIS OF LISTENING APPROACH IN ENGLISH TEACHING 英语教学中关于听力教学方法的分析","英语教学法"" and Absurd Theatre《第二十二条军规》与荒诞戏剧","文学""Brief Analysis of Chinese students Errors in English Reading简要分析中国学生在英语阅读中的错误","英语教学法""The Causes of Sophy's Tragedy造成苏菲悲剧的原因","文学""Culture Differences and Translation文化差异和翻译","翻译""Charactecistics and Translation of Adventisement广告英语的特征及其翻译","翻译""Principles and Methods on Brand-Translation商标翻译的原则和方法","翻译""The Study on Features of Advertising and its Translation 广告语的点及其翻译","翻译""Non-Correspondence in English-Chinese Translation of Color Words中英文翻译中颜色词的非对应","翻译""A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles电影片名的翻译","翻译""On the Cultural Signification of Animal Idioms and Translation动物俚语文化含义与翻译","翻译""The Translation of Color Terms试论颜色词的翻译","翻译""A comparative Study of the Old Man and the Sea---Concerning the Perfection in Literary Translation《老人与海》译文比较-谈影响文学翻译完美性的因素","翻译""On the Translation of Advertisement ――From the Perspective Of Functionalist Theory从功能派理论角度看广告翻译","翻译""Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation of Idioms文化差异与习语翻译","翻译""Foreignizing and Domesticating Translations in Cross-cultural Vision跨文化视野中的异化和归化翻译","翻译""The Subject and Topic in Chinese-English Translation Shift汉译英中的主位与话题","翻译""The Loss of Affective M eaning in Translation ―from the Perspective of Cultural Differences从文化差异的角度看翻译中情感意义的丢失","翻译""Scarlett's Courage斯佳丽的勇气","文学""Views on Marriage in Jane Austin's Pride and Prejudice简奥斯汀《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻观","文学" "The Images of Ice and Fire in Jane Eyre 《简爱》中冰与火的意象","文学""The Narrative Techniques in The Great Gatsby 《了不起的盖茨比》中的叙述技巧","文学""William Faulkner's View on Women in His "The Sound and The Fury"福克纳在小说<>中的女性形象","文学""Discussion on the Causes of Tess's Tragedy苔丝悲剧的原因分析","文学""Multiple Themes on The Old Man and the Sea 《老人与海》中的多重主题","文学""Educational Fascination and Essential Designs of Film Course 电影资源的教育魅力及其教学应用的关键设计","英语教学法""The Difficult Factors for Senior Middle School Students Dealing with the Syntax of Reading 高中生在处理阅读句法时的困难因素","英语教学法""How to Improve Class Teaching Art 如何改进课堂教学艺术","英语教学法""The Practice of Innovative Spoken English Teaching in Rural School浅议英语口语创新教学在农村中学的实施","英语教学法""A Brief Comment on the Importance of Setting Situational Context in Teaching 简述情景语境在教学中的重要性","英语教学法""Combination of Games and Teaching in Junior Middle School English 游戏与初中英语教学的结合","英语教学法""How to Improve English Listening Skills怎样提高英语听力能力","英语教学法""Inquiry Learning of English in Senior High Schools 高中的英语研究性学习","英语教学法""Semi-autonomous Learning in Classroom Teaching 课堂教学中的半自主学习","英语教学法" "Vocabulary Teaching Strategies at Intermediate Level 中级词汇教学策略","英语教学法""Problems of and Solutions to Junior Middle School English Language Testing 初中英语测试问题及其对策","英语教学法""Enlightenments from 11 Professors' Foreign Language Study Experiences 11位教授们外语学习的启示","英语教学法""Considerations on English Culture Teaching in Junior Middle Schools in China 初中英语文化教学的思考","英语教学法""Task-bases Approach to Teaching English Reading in Senior Middle School 高中英语阅读的"任务式教学" ","英语教学法""Analysis of Characters in the Scarlet Letter红字中的人物分析","文学""The Application of Irony in Pride and Prejudice 反讽艺术在《傲慢与偏见》中的运用","文学""The Disillusionment of the American Dream in the Great Gatsby 《了不起的盖茨比》中美国梦的幻灭","文学""Ernest Hemingway and His Code Hero in The Old Man and the Sea 厄尼斯特·海明威和他《老人与海》中的准则英雄","文学""An Analysisi on Hamlet's Characters 浅析哈姆雷特的性格","文学""Virginia Woolf's Feminism in A Room of One's Own 《一间自己的房间》一书中伍尔夫的女权思想","文学""On the Explicitness and Implicitness of Conjunctions in English-Chinese Translation Process论连词再英汉翻译中的显性和隐性存在","翻译""On The Application And Connotation Of Color Words 颜色词的运用及其含义","语言学" "Approaching Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from a Functional Perspective从功能翻译角度看归化与异化","翻译""On Translation of Idioms 论习语的翻译","翻译""On Wordsworth and His Conception of Nature 论华兹华斯和他的自然主义情结","文学""On Marriage Reflecting wrence's View on Sex and Love Brief in Women in Love论《恋爱中的女人》婚姻反映D.H劳伦斯的性爱观","文学""On Catherine's Contradicition in ''Love'' And In ''Wuthering'' Heights呼啸山庄中凯瑟琳"爱"的矛盾","文学" "The Destruction of the Nature of Daughter--The Root of Tess's Tragedy大自然之女的摧毁-苔丝悲剧的根源","文学""The Causes of Tess's Tragedy苔丝悲剧成因","文学""Views On Marriage In Jane Austin's Pride and Prejudice简评《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻","文学" "Dickens's Humanitarianism In A Tale of Two Cities双城记中狄更斯的人道主义","文学""Comparison between English and Chinese Taboos英汉禁忌语比较","语言学""Culture Teaching in the Language Acquisition of Middle School-Train students' Intercultural Communication Competence中学英语学习中的文化教学——培养学生的跨文化交际能力","英语教学法" "An Analysis of English and Chinese Proverbs in Intercultural Communication跨文化交际中英汉谚语浅析","语言学""Analysis of Body Language in Nonverbal Communication非言语交际中的体语分析","语言学" "Translation of Chinese Receipts and the Differences of Cookery Culture between Chinese and English-speaking Countries中餐菜谱的英译及中西饮食文化差异","翻译""Words Cultural Connotation in Translation词语文化内涵在翻译中的体现","语言学""A Comparative Study of the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Kinship Terms英汉亲属称谓差异比较研究","语言学""On Cultural Differences and Translation of Color Words汉英色彩词的文化差异及其翻译","语言学" "Cultural Differences and Translation文化差异及其翻译","文化""On the Untranslatability due to Cultural Differences不可译现象在中英文化差异中的体现","翻译" "Extra-linguistic Context and Translation非语言语境与翻译","翻译""Comparison and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms汉英习语对比与翻译","翻译""On Translation of Chinese and English Idioms from Cultural Perceptives从文化的角度谈英汉习语的翻译","翻译""Cultural Differences Between English and Chinese Idioms And Translation中英文习语翻译中的文化差异比较","翻译""Negative Transfer of Mother Tongue in Writing","语言学"" Politeness in Cross-Cultural Business Negotiation","商务英语""A Cross-culture Comparison of Euphemism in Chinese and English英汉委婉语的跨文化比较","语言学" " On Comparisons Between Chinese and Western Food Cultures 浅谈中西饮食文化的比较","文化" "Cultural Comparison Between English and Chinese Animal Expressions 动物词语的中英文化比较","语言学""On Difference of Cultural Connotation Between Chinese and English Color Words 浅析英汉颜色词文化内涵的差异","语言学""Impact of Culture Differences on Brand Translation of Trademarks 文化差异对商标翻译的影响","翻译" "Negative Transfer of Mother Tongue in Writing母语负迁移对写作的影响","语言学"" Politeness in Cross-Cultural Business Negotiation跨文化商务谈判中的礼貌用语","商务英语"" On Comparisons Between Chinese and Western Food Cultures 浅谈中西饮食文化的比较","文化" "Cultural Comparison Between English and Chinese Animal Expressions 动物词语的中英文化比较","语言学""On Difference of Cultural Connotation Between Chinese and English Color Words 浅析英汉颜色词文化内涵的差异","语言学""On Culture and Addressing Terms in Chinese and English 汉英语言之文化及其称谓语","语言学" "Rhetorical Devices in English Poems and their Stylistic Effects 英语诗歌中的修辞手段及其文体学效果","语言学""Reflection on the English Taboo Words论英语禁忌语","语言学""On Sexism in The English Language论英语语言中的性别歧视","语言学""Cultural Context and The Translation of Metaphors文化语境和隐喻的翻译","翻译""A Pragmatic Analysis of the Relations Between the Politeness Principle and the Cooperative Principle","语言学""A Pragmatic Analysis of the Relations between the Politeness Principle and the Cooperative Principle礼貌原则与会话合作原则关系的语用分析","语言学""Communicative Approaches and its Application to Grammar Teaching交际教学法及其在语法教学中的运用","英语教学法""Understanding and Translation of Polysemous Words 多义词的理解和翻译","语言学""Conversion of Part of Speech in English-Chinese Translation 英译汉中词类的转换","翻译" "Foreignizing and Domesticating strategies in Cross-cultural Translation 跨文化翻译中的异化与归化策略","翻译""Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译","语言学""The Phenomena of the Nominal Ellipsis in EST 科技英语的名词性省略现象","语言学""Cultural Differences and Brand Translation 文化差异与商标翻译","商务英语""A Study of the Chinese-English Translation of Trademarks 浅谈商标的汉英翻译","翻译""Irony in Sense and Sensibility《理智与情感》中的反讽手法","文学""The" Tragicomic" Nature of far from Madding Crowd远离尘嚣的悲喜性","文学""Tragic Consciousness in Hemingway's Work悲剧意识在海明威作品中的体现","文学""Submersion and Survival of Gatsby's Greatness盖茨比伟大精神的泯灭和残存","文学""The Opinion of Emme's Happiness爱玛的幸福观","文学""How To deal with culture-loaded words in idioms translation习语翻译中文化词的处理","翻译" "Cultural Connotation and Translation for Color Words颜色词的文化内涵与翻译","翻译""The Translation of English Loanwords into Chinese英语外来词汉化的基本途径","翻译""When in Rome do as the Romans do——On translation of Chinese trademarks into English 入乡随俗——论中文商标的英译","翻译""Cultural differences and Translation between Chinese and English Idioms汉英习语的文化差异与翻译","翻译""Foreignization In Translation in the 21st in China21世纪中国的异化翻译","翻译""The Transfer of Culture Image and of English and Chinese Idioms in Translating论英汉习语翻译中的文化意象的转化","翻译""From Realism to Idealism ━Views on Jane Austen's Attitude towards Marriage in Pride and Prejudice 从现实到理想━论简·奥斯丁在《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻观","文学""Techniques employed to create mystery and suspense in Jane Eyre浅析《简·爱》中运用的神秘和悬念技巧","文学""On the Development of Jane Eyre's Rebellious and Indomitable Character简析简·爱的反抗和不屈服性格的发展过程","文学""On Jane Eyre's Contradictory Characteristics 对简·爱矛盾性格的剖析","文学""Prynne's Final Return 白兰的最后回归","文学""Tess: A Pure Woman —An Analysis of Tess'Tragic Fate 苔丝:一个纯洁的女人—对苔丝悲剧命运的分析","文学""Scarlet's Characters—American traits 思嘉的性格—美国性格","文学""on Situational English Teaching in Middle School中学英语情景教学","英语教学法""on the Application of Nonverbal Communication in English Teaching浅谈非语言交际在英语教学中的运用","英语教学法""on Strengthening Mutual Promotion between Study and Research in English Teaching关于英语教学中加强学习与研究的相互促进","英语教学法""On Body Language in English Teaching 中学英语教学中的肢体语言","英语教学法""On English PHB Idioms and Their Culture 论英语人体器官习语与其文化","语言学""Found the Teaching Situation to Create Students'Individual Character创设教学情景,培养创新能力","英语教学法""How to Promote the Effectiveness of Communicative Language Teaching in Senior English Teaching如何促进交际语言教学在高中英语教学中的有效性","英语教学法""How to Activate Students' Motivation in Middle School English Class 如何在中学英语课堂上发挥学生的能动性","英语教学法""The innovation of Junior English Assignment初中英语作业布置的改革","英语教学法""The Signification of Nonverbal Communication in English Teaching非语言交际在英语教学中的重要性","英语教学法""Application of Playing Games to Middle- school English Grammar Teaching and its Effects中学英语语法教学中游戏的运用及其效果","英语教学法""English teaching from Presentation -Practice -Production to Task-Based Learning","英语教学法" "Basic Strategy for Advertisement Translation-Target-language Oriented Strategy 广告翻译的基本策略--以目的语言为取向的翻译策略","翻译""Cultural Discrepancies in E/C Idioms and Their Translation 英汉习语的文化差异及其翻译","文化" "Lexical Rhetorical Devices in English-Chinese Translation 英汉翻译中的词义修辞格","翻译""The Criteria of the Translation of Computer English计算机英语的翻译标准","翻译" "Comprehension: A Very Important Part of Translation理解:翻译中不可或缺的一部分","翻译""The Translation of the Brand Name 商标名称的翻译","翻译""Strategies for Translationg English Slang into Chinese英语俚语汉译的技巧","翻译""Interpretation of Becky and Amelia in Vanity Fair《名利场》中蓓基和爱米丽娅的形象分析","文学" "Struggle in Nothingness——A Study of Hemingway's theme in A Farewell to Arms 虚无的抗争——《永别了武器》主题研究","文学""An Analysis of Charlotte Bronte' Character 夏洛蒂勃朗特的性格分析","文学""A Sad Melody of Female Characters in The Great Gatsby 《了不起的盖茨比》的一曲女性悲歌","文学" "Dickens's Characerization in The Pickwick Papers 狄更斯在《匹克威克外传》中的人物塑造","文学""The Manifestation of Naturalism In Sister Carrie 自然主义在《嘉莉妹妹》中的体现","文学""Reality and Dream——a Comarisom of Charlotte Bronte's and Jane Eyre's worlds 现实和梦想——夏洛蒂勃朗特和简爱世界对比","文学""On the Tragedy of Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights 论《呼啸山庄》中希斯克里夫的悲剧性","文学""A Brief Analysis of the Similarities between Madame Bovary and Tess of The D'urbervilles 浅析《包法利夫人》与《德伯家的苔丝》之相似点","文学""An Analysis of Roger Chillingworth in The Scarlet Letter 《红字》中齐灵窝斯之人物分析","文学" "Emotionality and Rationality----An Analysis of Jane Austen's Romanticism and Realism in Terms of Elizabeth's Marriage 感性与理性——从伊丽沙白看简.奥斯汀浪漫主义与现实主义并存的婚姻观","文学" "An Analysis of the Defects in Jane Eyre's Character 试析简.爱的性格缺陷","文学""The Analysis of the Characteristics of Oliver Twist 奥列佛.特威斯特之个性分析The Analysis of the Characteristics of Oliver Twist ","文学""An Analysis of the Multiple Images of Buck in The Call of the Wild 《野性的呼唤》中巴克多重形象之分析","文学""Cultural Factors in the Translation of Poems诗歌翻译中的文化因素","翻译""Cultural Differences and the Translation of Brand Names文化差异与商标翻译","翻译""Cultural Differences and Untranslatability文化差异和不可译性","翻译""Cultural Differences and Vocabulary Translation文化差异及词汇翻译","翻译""The Application of Fuzziness in the Translation翻译中的模糊语现象","翻译""Translator as Artist -Translator's Individuality in Literary Translation译者作为一位艺术家--论文学翻译中的译者个性","翻译""The Translation of Movie Titles电影名的翻译","翻译""Analysis of the Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English Address Forms 中英称谓语文化差异分析","文化""A Contrastive Study of Address in Chinese and English 中英称谓对比研究","文化""A Pragmatic Analysis of English Euphemism 英语委婉语语用分析","语言学""On the Features of Advertising English 试论广告英语的特征","商务英语""On the Cultural Differences of Color Words Between Chinese and English 论中英色彩词的文化差异","语言学""Cultural Differences and Similarities in Personal Space Between Chinese and Americans 中美交际空间的文化差异","文化""A Study of Allusions from the Perspective of ICC Competence 从跨文化交际能力角度看典故","文化" "Translating the English Verbs into Chinese 英语动词的汉译","翻译""Colour Words and the Translation 颜色词及其翻译","翻译""Domestication and Foreignization in The Book of Songs 诗经翻译的归化和异化","翻译""Cultural Comparison and Idioms Translation 文化对比与习语的翻译","翻译""Social-cultural Context and the Translator's Choice of Words ——A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of Jane Eyre 社会文化背景和译者的选词——对简爱两种译本的比较","翻译""The Effect That Non-linguistic Context Has on Translation 非语言语境在翻译中的作用","翻译" "Cultural Gaps between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation 英汉习语的文化差异及其翻译","翻译""A Tentative Exploration of Second Culture in FLT 外语教学中第二文化初探","英语教学法""Words Translation between Different Cultures 不同文化中词汇的翻译","翻译""Body Language on International Communication","文化""Cultural Connotation of Animal Words and Translation 动物词汇的文化内涵与翻译","语言学""On Cultural Differences and Idiom Translation 文化差异与习语翻译","翻译""Gender Differences Reflected in Advertisement 性别差异在广告中的反映","文化""Cultural Barriers in Reading of English 英语阅读中的文化障碍","文化""The Reflection of Lawrence's Thoughts in Three Aspects On Lady Chatterly 劳伦斯三方面思想在查特莱夫人身上的反映","文学""A Brief Talk on Gothic Novel:Jane Eyre 浅谈哥特体小说《简爱》","文学""Analysis of the Characters of the Code Hero from Hemingway's Point of View of Death 从海明威的生死观的角度论述准则英雄的性格特点","文学""Symbols in The Grapes of Wrath《愤怒的葡萄》中的象征涵义","文学""Naturalism In D H Lawrence' Works劳伦斯作品中的自然主义","文学"" Analysis of the Tragic Image-Mary and her Characteristic in The Long Days' Journey into Night浅析《长日入夜行》中的悲剧人物玛丽和她的性格","文学""A Good ,Perfect Tutor and Companion of Frederic Henry-An Analysis of Catherine Barkley 《永别了,武器》中的凯瑟琳巴克莱—亨利的爱情导师和人生伴侣","文学""The Influence of the Black on the American Music 黑人对美国音乐的影响","文化""Comparing the Symbolic Meanings of Color Words in Chinese and English 英汉颜色词象征意义的比较","语言学""Afro-American Athletes Dominate Some Sports 关于美国黑人在某些体育运动上优势成因的探讨","文化""A Contrastive Study of the Connotations of Flowers in English and Chinese 英汉花卉的文化内涵比较","文化""Social and Cultural causes of Sexism in English and Chinese英汉语中性别歧视现象的文化和社会成因分析","文化""Some Women Character In David Copperfield","文学""THE SUN ALSO RISES ANG THE LOST GENERATION","文学""An Ethic Conflict between Extreme Individualism and Morality in Jack London's The Sea Wolf 杰克伦敦的《海狼》中极端个人主义与道义的冲突","文学""Hardy's Narrative Skill in Tess of the D'Urbervilles","文学""The Blood of Jesus Christ","文学""An Analysis of Scarlett's marriage分析思佳丽的婚姻","文学""The International Theme in Henry James' Works 亨利.詹姆斯作品中的国际题材","文学""On the View of Marriage in Pride and Prejudice论《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻观","文学""On Hemingway Code Hero","文学""Non-correspondence in Word Meanings Due to Cultural Differences 由文化差异引起的汉英词义的非对应性","语言学""The Analysis of Bodylanguage in Inter Cultural Communication 浅析跨文化交际中的体态语","文化" "The Study of Sexism in English and Chines Language 英汉语言中性别歧视的研究","语言学" "Chiese and Westren-style Diet Cultural Differences 中西方饮食文化差异","文化""Address and Cultural Difference 称呼语言与文化差异","语言学""Cultural Differences Between English and Chinese Metaphorical Expressions in Translation 英汉比喻性表达的文化差异与翻译","语言学""Discussion about the Differences of Color Words Between English and Chinese 中西方语言中有关颜色词的差异","语言学""On Translation of English Trademarks Into Chinese----On Beauty In Sense Sound And Form浅谈英文商标的汉译--意美,音美,形美","翻译""Some of the Ways to Idiom Translation 习语翻译法","翻译""Paralanguage and Literature Translation -With Reflections on the Version of Dream of Red Mansions 副语言与文学翻译--对《红楼梦》译本的思考","翻译""Methods of Translating Color Words Based on Cultural Differences between Chinese and English","翻译""Culture-gap Words and the Translation文化空缺词及其翻译","翻译""Understanding-the Key to Translation理解是翻译的关键","翻译""A Brief Talk about Two Approaches to the Translation of Metaphor浅谈隐喻翻译的两种方法","翻译" "A Glimpse of English Film Title Translation 英语电影名翻译一瞥","翻译"" THE SYMBOLISM IN WOMEN IN LOVE论恋爱中的女人》中的象征手法","文学""Humanity in Great Expectations《远大前程》中的"仁爱" ","文学""The Tragic Colour of Tess of the D'Urbervills 论《德伯家的苔丝》的悲剧色彩","文学""The Similarities between Jane Austen and Elizabeth in Her Novel Pride and Prejudice 简.奥斯丁和其小说《傲慢与偏见》中伊丽莎白的相似点","文学""To Development of Jane Eyre's Characters 论简爱性格的形成","文学""The Revenge in Wuthering Heights 论《呼啸山庄》中的复仇","文学""Study on the Pursuit of Harmonious Male-female Relationship in Sons and Lovers 《儿子和情人》中追求和谐的两性关系的研究","文学""Symbolism in Faulkner's A Rose for Emily《献给爱米丽的一朵玫瑰花》中象征手法的运用","文学" "Marriage in Pride and Prejudice 《傲慢与偏见》中的婚姻面面观","文学""Writing Techniques in Martin Eden 论《马丁.伊登》的写作手法","文学""Love Hatred and Revenge in Wuthering Heights《呼啸山庄》中的爱,恨与复仇","文学"" Analysis of the Protagonist's Character of Emma《爱玛》中女主角性格分析","文学""Symbolism in The Scarlet Letter《红字》中的象征意义","文学""Humanistic Spirit in Dickens's Works人文主义思想再狄更斯作品中的体现","文学""Social-cultural Differences and the Translator's Choice of Words社会文化差异与译者的选词","翻译" "The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Culture 文化翻译中归化与异化的应用","翻译""Cultural Differences and Untranslatability文化差异与不可译性","翻译""The Context in Relation to Translation语境与翻译","翻译"。
Translation Shifts
23
example
（8）She had gone back to staring out of the window. 译文：她又凝望起窗外来了。 SL: 短语、词组 TL: 单个的词
24
（9）All about Charlemagne were his 15,000 followers, testing their prowess at swordplay or their wits over chess, and all joyous to serve so noble a lord. 译文：查理曼周围还有一万五千名追随者，他们 有的舞枪弄剑，有的下棋斗智，个个都乐意为这 么一位高尚的国王效力。
18
examples
（3）A right kind of fuel is needed for an atomic reactor. 译文：原子反应堆需要一种合适的燃料。 SL:被动 TL: 主动 （4）The little bridge is anything but safe. 译文：那小桥极不安全。 SL: 肯定 TL: 否定
6
Translation between the levels of phonology and graphology – or between either of these levels and the levels of grammar and lexis – is impossible. 在语音体系和字体系统之间（或在这两 个层次和语法、词汇层次之间）进行翻译 是不可能的。
21
examples
（6）His speech impressed the audience deeply. 译文：他的讲演给听众的印象很深。 （7）…and that government of the people, by the people, for the people. 译文：民有、民治、民享的政府。 SL:动词 TL: 名词 SL:介词 TL: 动词 class shift（词类转换）= transposition（词性转换）? P89 例子理解
西方主要翻译理论学派总结
most basic structures of Chomsky’s model,for Nida,kernels are the basic structural elements out of which language builds its elaborate(详尽复杂的) surface structures[用来构成语言复杂表层结构的基本结构成分].Kernels are the level at which the message is transferred into the receptor(受体)language before being transformed into the surface structure in three stages:Literal transfer字面转移--minimal最低度~--literary书面~2）Analysis:generative-transformational grammar（转换生成语法by Chomsky）’s four types of functional classEvent(verb)事件：行动、过程等发生的事Object(noun)实体：具体的人和物Abstract(quantities and qualities,adjective)抽象概念Relational(gender,qualities,prepositions and conjunctions)关系2,Basic factors in translation1)The nature of message:content V.S.form2)The purpose(s)of the author/translatorTypes of purposes identified by Nida:①for information②suggest a behavior③imperative(祈使，命令)purpose3)The audiences(4types):children;new literates;average literate adult;specialists3,Relatedness(相关)of language&culture4,Two basic orientations(方向)in translating1)Formal Equivalence(F-E):focuses on the message itself,in both form and content.•Principles governing F-E:①grammatical units语法单元②consistency in word usage词语用法前后一致，连贯性③meanings in terms of the source context源语语境意义2)D-E(dynamic equivalence):①based on the principle of equivalent effect(•Principles governing it)②aiming at complete naturalness of expression;③unnecessary to understand the source culture.•Economic~can be transferable with cultural~.实际上三种形式均可互相转化。
张美芳翻译研究的功能途径
(Toury, 1995:10)
（张美芳 2005：6）
后霍姆斯时期的应用翻译研究
应用翻译研究
译者培训
翻译辅助
翻译批评
教学法
测试
课程设置
IT应用
词典
语法
校译
翻译评估
翻译评论
翻译软件
网上资料库 互联网的使用
（张美芳 2005：9）
Holmes’concept of function 霍姆斯的‚功能‛概念 Descriptive Translation Studies 描写翻译研究
先用贝尔的‚六位仆人‛来分析： 主题是什么？
关于第六届亚洲翻译论坛 让译界了解，以便做好参会的准备。 （1）告示时间：2009/4；（2）开会时间：2009/11 交际手段：文字的/非文字的；交际态度：正规的、符合学术 规范的语言。 向全世界发出公告 （1）信息发送者：澳门大学、澳门翻译联会；（2）中国译 界；（2）其他地方译界。
Multifunctional Text: expressive + operative
表达主人（即‘我’） 对客人的友好态度 希望客人（即‘你’） 遵守教堂内的行为规 范
内容和形式都不对等的译文
欢迎参观 在圣堂内 请勿喧哗 出入关门 多谢合作
(Literal translation:
…
3. Equivalence and equivalent effect 4. The translation shift approach 5. Functional theories of translation 6. Discourse and register analysis approaches 7. Systems theories 8. Varieties of cultural studies 9. Translating the foreign: (in)visibility of translation 10. Philosophical theories of translation 11. Translation studies as an interdiscipline
维内 达贝尔内
Vinay and Darbelnet note that both borrowings and calques often become fully integrated into TL， although sometimes with some semantic change, which can turn them into false friends.
维内和达贝尔内把翻译方法分为直接 翻译（direct translation）和间接翻译 （oblique translation）两种。前者是 指根据源语和目标语中相同的范畴或概念， “把源语信息中每一个要素都转移至目标 语中”；后者是指由于源语和目标语在结 构上和元语言上的差异，译者只有在改变 目标语的句法顺序或是词汇的条件下，才 能移植源语特定文体效果的诸种翻译方法。
这种程式在语系和文化相同的语言间最为常用
Oblique translation
The translator may judge it unacceptable when it: Gives a different meaning Has no meaning
两语言学家提出了五种情况.在这五 种情况下,译者不可能运用上述直译 程式. 1给出的意思不同 2没有意义 3结构上不成立 4在目的语源语言经验中没有相应的 表达法 5其对应的事物属于不同的语言层面
维内和达尔贝内继而讨论这七种翻译类 别在词汇，句法结构，信息这三个方面 的具体运用，对可能出现的源语与目标 语之间的种种不一致做了进一步的区分 并提供了相应的翻译对策。
Servitude: obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language system. Option: non-obligatory changes that are due to the translator’s own style and preference. The role of the translator is to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message.
翻译流派
• • • • • • • • •
西方翻译理论分为九大类型： 等值和等效理论(Equivalence and Equivalent effect) 翻译转换方法(The translation shift approach) 翻译的功能理论学派(Functional theories of translation) 话语及语域分析方法(Discourse and register analysis approaches) 系统理论(Systems theories) 文化研究的类型(Varieties of cultural studies) 异化翻译：翻译的隐身（显身）(Translation the foreign: the invisibility of translation) 翻译的哲学理论（Philosophical theories of translation） ----- J. 曼迪《翻译学导论：理论与实践》
Schools this course will cover:
• • • • • • • 翻译的语言学派 翻译的文艺学派 翻译的功能学派 多元系统及规范学派 翻译的目的论学派 翻译研究的文化学派 女性主义翻译与后殖民翻译理论
Homework：
(1)西方古典翻译理论 （古代至中世纪结束）
• • • • • • 西塞罗（Cicero） 贺拉斯 昆体良 哲罗姆 奥古斯丁 但丁
• • • • • •
语文学派：德莱顿、泰特勒 诠释学派：施莱尔马赫、斯坦纳 语言学派：奈达、纽马克 目的学派：弗米尔、诺德 文化学派：霍姆斯、埃文-左哈尔、图里、朗贝尔 解构学派：本雅明、德里达、德曼、文努迪、欧 阳祯 ----陈德鸿 张南峰《西方翻译理论精选》
• 翻译的文艺学派 • 语言学派 • 翻译研究学派（早期翻译研究学派、多元系统学派、描写 学派、文化学派、中和学派以及女权主义、食人主义和后 殖民研究） • 翻译阐释学派 • 翻译的解构主义学派 • 美国翻译培训班学派 • 法国释意理论学派 ---李文革《西方翻译理论流派研究》
《翻译研究入门理论与应用》简评
W m^《翻译研究入门理论与应用》简评■周昕/贵州师范大学外国语学院摘要：《翻译研究入门理论与应用》由上海外语教育出版社于2010年出版，作 者是英国著名翻译理论家Jeremy Munday。
这本书对翻译学和翻译理论 进行系统性整合的同时，列举了大量翻 译实例来论证相关理论，十分注重理论 与实际的相结合。
关键词：翻译研究入门理论与应用评全书基 时间顺序进行 ，一共由十 组成，大可以分为，简史、和科探究。
书第 包括前 ，方翻译史进行了梳理和介绍。
第绍了 的基 和 框架，第二 20 前各时期 究的了概括总结。
阐述了 界一直有争议的问题，即意译法（k f k- for -sense translation)与直译法(word - for-word translation)，之 述了早期系统翻译理论，代表人物有Dryden，Dolet和 Tytler等人。
书的第二 包括第三章到第十章，Jeremy M unday根据基础，方 和 进行了分类和评价。
第 绍了等值与等效问题(Equivalence and equivalent effect)。
这要的 包括Roman Jakobsn对于语言意义与等值的本质问 题的阐述；N i d a和他的科学；N e w m a r k的语义交。
第四 述了 转换法（the translation s h i f t approach)，包含 Vinay和 Darbelnet的直接翻译（direct translation)和间接翻译（oblique translation);Catford 的转换（leel Sift); Van Leuven - Z w a r t的比较-描写模式(comparative- descriptive model)。
第五章是关于功能 的章。
、十 ，功能和交际的角度 进行分析。
此书阐述了功能的四 ％1. Katharina Reiss的语篇类型理论;2. Holz -Manttari提出的行 ；3.Hans J.Vermeer目的论(skopos theory);4. Christiane Nord的语篇分析理论(translation- oriented textanalysis)。
英汉翻译技巧——转换 翻译讲座
(5) But there is another story, a family saga, that may turn out to be important to unlocking the mystery of what actually happened between Lewinsky and the President.
(1) He added: "I understand and respect those views, but I deeply believe in the correctness of my decision."
(2) 他还说："我理解并尊重他们的看法， 但我深信我的决定是正确的。"
(2) They came back game and glee. 他们兴高采烈地回来了。
• 红军冒着刺骨的寒风英勇前进。
(3) All were unconscious that this experience was a test of character; and, when the first excitement was over, felt that they had done well, and deserved praise.
(5) Most US spy satellites are designed to burn up in the earth's atmosphere after completing their missions. 美国绝大多数间谍卫星，按其设计，是在 完成使命后，在大气层中焚毁。（Biblioteka ） 英语名词转换为汉语形容词、副词
The Translation Shift Approach
Transposition
• A change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense. • n. →v./ adj./ adv. • v. →n. adj . →v. • e.g. It‘s my conviction that… 我坚信 the correctness of this policy 这个政策是正确的
Borrowing
• The SL word is transferred directly to the TL. • Used to fill a semantic gap in the TL • e.g. sofa 沙发 coffee 咖啡
Examples: From Latin:
January 一月 Iānus 象征结束和开始的神 February 二月 febris 发烧（二月是容易感冒的季节） March 三月 Mars 玛尔斯（罗马神话中的战神） May 五月 Maia 春天之神 June 六月 Iunō 神后；生育和妇女之神 July 七月 Iulius 恺撒的名字（G. Iulius Caesar） August 八月 Augustus 奥古斯都，古罗马王
An important parameter
• Servitude: obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language system. • Option: non-obligatory changes that are due to the translator‘s own style and preference. • The role of the translator is to choose from among the available options to express the nuances of the message.
TranslationShiftApproach
原语：My father was a doctor.
法语：Mon père était docteur.
Translation Shifts
Shift means departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL. (p.60)
Servitude and option: obligatory or not
5 steps:
units of translation: lexicological unit + unit of thought The smallest segment of the
utterance Examples Numbering translation units
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Sample
原文 It’s raining cats and dogs. 法译文 (1)Il est pleuvant chats et chiens．(逐词翻译) (2)Il pleut des chats et des chiens．(直译) (3)Il pleut à verse．(意译)
A Linguistic Theory of Translation Catford’s approach to translation equivalence clearly
differs from that stipulated by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistics-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. Meaning：“total network of relations entered into by any linguistic form---text, item-in-text, structure, element of structure, class, term in system---or whatever it may be”．
相关翻译理论和翻译技巧
第三章：相关翻译理论和翻译技巧相关翻译理论3.1.1翻译转换理论翻译转换（translation shift）是翻译中的普遍现象，指的是原文译为目的语时发生的语言变化。
“翻译转换”作为术语最早出现在英国学者卡特福德（Catford）的《翻译的语言学理论》中，他认为翻译转换是“偏离形式对等的等值翻译”，并将将翻译定义为:“一种语言(SL) 中的语篇材料被另一种语言( TL) 中等值的语篇材料所取代。
”卡特福德的翻译转换理论是建立在弗斯和韩礼德的语言学模式之上，并借用了韩礼德的系统语法及其对语言“层次”的分类来说明翻译转换现象。
卡特福德的转换理论主要使用了语法和词汇两个层次，单位、结构、类别和系统四个语法范畴。
卡特福德认为，语言是交际性的，在上下文中发挥功能，而且这些功能的发挥通过不同的语言层次( 如语音、词形、语法及词汇) 和级阶( 句子、分句、片语、词及词素等)。
在对“形式对应”( formal correspondence) 和“文本等值”( textual equivalence) 做了区分后，卡特福德认为，既然这两个概念有很大差异，进行翻译转换就是必然的了，翻译转换因而在从源语到目标语的过程中背离了形式对应。
卡特福德进而提出两种转换: 层次转( level shifts) 和范畴转换( category shifts)。
卡特福德翻译转换理论对汉英翻译有很强的指导意义。
1.层次转换所谓层次转换是指处于一种语言层次上的原语单位，具有处于不同语言层次上的译语翻译等值成分。
卡特福德的层次转换包括语音、词形、语法和词汇四个层面，但他认为翻译中惟一可能发生的层次转换就是语法和词汇之间的转移。
也就是说，一种语言的语法项在翻译时可以转换成另一种语言的词汇项，反之亦然。
例如，汉语中的“着”、“了”、“过”等词汇都可以用来英语中的“现在完成时( has/ have done)”和“过去完成时( had done)”这两种时态表达。
卡特福德
3.单元转换 我们所说的单元转换是指等级的改变，它偏离 了形式对等，源语某一等级上的单元的对等翻 译是译语另一等级上的某一单元。 4. 系统内转换 使用系统内转换这个术语是为了描述那些在系 统内部发生转换的例子，也就是，就构成而言， 源语和译语拥有大致对应的系统，但翻译却选 择了译语中并不对应的系统。
This may reach you before I arrive. → Il se peut que ce mot vous parvienne avant mon arrivée.
语法层次上的词This再次拥有了一个词汇层 次上的部分翻译对等物ce mot 。
类型转换
1.结构转换 在翻译的所有层次上，结构转换是最常见的类 型转换，语法的结构转换会在所有层次中出现， 例如下面英语译为盖尔语的例子： 原文：John loves Mary.（主谓宾） 译文：Tha gradh aig lain air Mairi.（谓主宾状） 如果逐字翻译回英语，盖尔语的意思是： Is love at John on Mary.
卡特福德对转换的定义
• 我们所说的“转换”，是指从源语到目的 语的转变偏离了形式上的对等，主要有两 种“转换”发生： • 层次转换（level shift） • 类型转换（category shift）
层次转换
层次转换，是指在源语中处于某一语言层次 上的成分，在目的语中的对应物却处于另一 个不同的层次，我们理论设定“与相同实质 的联系”是翻译对等的必要条件，这样只剩 下从语法到词汇层次的转换以及相反的转换。 以下面英译法句子为例：
比如，英语和法语拥有大致对应“数”的系统， 都具有单数和复数两种形式，这两种形式也都 可看作是形式对应的，但两种形式的表达方式 在两种语言中的分布是不同的，例如： 英语中的case和cases，法语是le cas和les cas 作为数的系统的表现形式，单数和复数在某种 程度上是对应的，然而，翻译经常会与这种形 式对应发生背离，例如，英语中的单数形式在 法语中的对等物是复数，或是相反，如： advice=des conseils news=des nouvelles lighting=des éclairs trousers=le pantalon
完整word版,Translation Shifts翻译转换
Translation shiftsTranslation shift, as an inevitable phenomenon in translation activities, has been paid much attention to and studied by translation scholars for a quite long time since the 1950s.1.Definition of translation shiftCatford’s definition: Deviation which corresponds with form occurs in the process of conversion of source language into target language.Popovic’s definition: All that appears as new with respect to the original, or fails to appear where it might have been expected.2.Theoretical GroundSince the 1950s, western translation theorists and practitioners began to undergo researches from the perspective of linguistics which kept developing quickly. It put emphasis on scientific, precise and careful description of the source text and target text.3. Research Representatives(1)Vinay & DarbelnetVinay and Darbelnet working in the field of comparative stylistics, developed a system of translation strategies (direct/oblique translation) and procedures: borrowing, calque, literal, transposition (change in word class), modulation (change in semantics), equivalence (completely different translation), adaption (change of situation due to cultural differences) were put forward. There is a slight prescriptive undertone in the work of them, because they state that oblique procedures should only be used if a more direct one would lead to a wrong or awkward translation. Though he discussed and described translation shift but he didn’t give them a definition. No matter what approaches they adopted, their thoughts were influential and provided a solid foundation for the further study.(2)CatfordTranslation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL). J.C. Catford considers the translation process as transference which means transplant some of the original meaning to the target language.Catford is the first one to introduce the term “shift” into translation. He followed the Firthian and Hallidayian linguistic model and analyzed language as communication, operating functionally in context and on a range of levels and ranks. Shift is defined as deviation which corresponds with form occurs in the process of conversion of source language into target language. And then he divided shifts into two kinds: level shifts and category shifts. By a shift of level, we mean that a SL item at one linguistic level (phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis) has a TL translation equivalent at a different level. Category shifts are departures from formal correspondence intranslation. We referred to unbounded and rank-bound translation. Unbounded translation refers to approximately “normal” or “free” translation in which SL-TL equivalences are set up at whatever rank is appropriate. Rank-bound translation refers to those special cases where equivalence is deliberately limited to ranks below the sentence, thus leading to “bad translation”. And he gave a brief introduction of the category shifts in the order of structure-shifts, class-shifts, unit-shift and intra-system-shifts. Structure shifts are amongst the most frequent category shifts at all ranks in translation. They occur in phonological and graphological translation as well as in total translation. Class shift occurs when the translation equivalence of SL item is a member of a different class from the original item. By unit- shift we mean that change of rank - that is, departure from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL. Intra- system- shift means a departure from formal correspondence in which one system in the SL has as its translation equivalent in a different –non- corresponding- system in the TL.(3) Czech TheoristsJiri LevyHe pays attention to how shifts are used in literary translation and its influences on aesthetics and style of translated text.Frantisek MikoHe concentrates on shifts of expression style in translation and maintains that retaining the expressive character or style of the ST is the main and perhaps only goal of the translator. The style under categories such as operativity, iconicity, subjectivity, affectation, prominence was analyzed.Anto PopovicIn Popovic, the main concern is with literary translation, and shifts are therefore defined as a stylistic category and termed ‘shifts of expression’. He divided shifts into five kinds: constitutive, generic, individual, negative and topical shift.(4) Van Leuven-ZwartWithin the methodology of Van Leuven-Zwart, a distinction is made between shifts at the level of a text’s microstructure (comparative model) and the effects of these shifts at the macrostructure (descriptive model).Comparative model has been devised as a practical method for studying syntactic, semantic, stylistic, and pragmatic shifts within sentences, clauses and phrases of literary texts and their translation. It consisted of four steps. Firstly, the units to be compared must be established, which are called transemes consisting of predicates and their arguments or of predicates adverbials. Secondly, the common denomination of the source and the target text transeme- VanLeuven-Zwart calls this the architranseme-must be determined. In a third step, the relationship between each transeme and the architranseme-either synonymic or hyponymic- is established. Finally, he two transemes are compared with each other. If both are synonymic with the architranseme, no shift has occurred. Otherwise, there are three major categories of shifts: modulation, modification and mutation. Descriptive model designed for the analysis of translated literature. Interweave the concepts of discourse level and story level with three linguistic metafunctions: interpersonal, ideational and textual.(5)Gideon TouryIn his Descriptive Translation S tudies and beyond, Toury mentions that “Many real-life translation situations indeed involve no complete acquaintance with the original prior to the commencement of its translation” (Toury 2001:87)Even the most adequacy-oriented translation involves shifts from the source text. Deviation from source-text patterns can always be realized in more than one way. The actual realization of obligatory shift is nonrandom and norm-governed. Non-obligatory shift occur everywhere. Tend to constitute the majority of shifts in any single act of human translation.Bibliography[1] Mona Baker. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004[2] Van Leuven-Zwart. The Field of Translation Studies: An Introduction [M], 1991[3]刘军平覃江华西方翻译理论名著选读[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2012[4]牛宁范·路文兹瓦特的比较模式以及描写模式[J]. 东华大学学报（社会科学版）2009,9（2）。
王克非 语料库翻译学的几个术语
2007年11月第23卷 第6期四川外语学院学报Journal of Sichuan I nternati onal Studies UniversityNov.,2007Vol.23 No.6语料库翻译学的几个术语王克非1 黄立波2(11北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心,北京 100089;21西安外国语大学英文学院,陕西西安 710061)提 要:语料库翻译学,即基于语料库的翻译研究,关注翻译共性问题。
主要阐述语料库翻译学关于翻译共性研究的几个术语,并评介相关论点。
关键词:语料库翻译学;共性;简化;显化;隐化;范化;整齐化中图分类号:H31519 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1003-3831(2007)06-0101-05Ter m s i n Corpus2Ba sed Tran sl a ti on Stud i esWANG Ke2fei HUANG L i2boAbstract:Issues of translati on universals have recently been discussed in cor pus2based translati on studies.The paper ex2 pounds s o me ter m s in this disci p line including translati on universals,si m p lificati on,ex p licitati on,i m p licitati on,nor maliza2 ti on and leveling out,and makes brief co mments on the vie wpoints inv olved.Key words:cor pus2based translati on studies;translati on universals;si m p lificati on;ex p licitati on;i m p licitati on;nor malizati on; levelling out 语料库翻译学,又称基于语料库的翻译研究,是近十多年随语料库语言学发展起来的新学科分支,包括方法论或工具层面上的应用研究、描写性研究和关于翻译特征的抽象性理论研究。
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3 criteria
Levels and ranks:p.60 extent of translation: full translation vs. partial translation) grammatical rank: rank-bound translation vs. unbounded translation, Word for word translation, literal translation vs. free translation levels of language: total translation vs. restricted translation
Hale Waihona Puke 6. equivalence: useful for idioms; the sense instead of the image 7. adaptation Changing cultural reference; game of cricket Eskimo: Lamb of God- Seal of God
Three levels: p.59
Lexicon Syntactic structures: word order and thematic structure; connectors Message: utterance and its metalinguistic situation Servitude and option: obligatory or not
5 steps:
units of translation: lexicological unit + unit of thought The smallest segment of the utterance Examples Numbering translation units
Stylistique Comparée du franç ais et de l’anglais, Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958/1995 Direct translation & oblique translation: p.56 literal & free translation
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4. transposition
Change of a part of speech Obligatory or optional Probably the most common structural change categories
5. modulation
Touchstone of a good translator (p58） Definition: “a variance of the form of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view”… ‘[a] translation method consisting of changing a point of view, an evocation, and often a category of thought”. some are “referred to in dictionaries and grammars and …regularly taught”, others not “sanctioned by usage” in the same way. Types of modulation:p.58 e.g.part for whole ( “to wash one’s hair” for “se laver la tête”) or --most commonly---negation of the opposite ( “forget it!” for “n’y pensez plus!”)
The Translation Shift Approach
Vinay& Darbelnet’s model Catford’s “shifts” Czech writing Levý MIko Popovič Van Leuven-Zwart’s model
Vinay& Darbelnet’s model
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Background information for Catford’s shifts
Translation: “the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)”. A Linguistic Theory of Translation Catford’s approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that stipulated by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more linguistics-based approach to translation and this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. Meaning：“total network of relations entered into by any linguistic form---text, item-in-text, structure, element of structure, class, term in system---or whatever it may be”．
7 procedures
7 procedures
1.borrowing: p.56
2.calque： literal translation; semantic change
3. literal translation: Word-for-word translation;most common; 4 causes for unacceptability