英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结
新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习
新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习首先，我们需要回顾英语的语音学。
英语语音学研究的是英语语音系统的各种音位及其规律。
要了解英语的音位组成，我们需要了解元音和辅音的分类。
英语中的元音可以分为单元音和复元音，单元音包括长元音和短元音。
而辅音可以分为清辅音和浊辅音，清辅音又可以分为塞音、摩擦音、破擦音和鼻音。
此外，了解英语的重音规律也是很重要的。
其次，我们需要复习英语的词法学。
词法学是研究词的形态和构词规律的学科。
在英语中，词可以从词根和词缀构成，我们需要了解常用的词根和词缀，以及它们在构词中的作用和意义。
此外，英语还有一些特殊的构词规律，比如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语态变化等，我们需要熟悉这些规律。
然后，我们需要回顾英语的句法学。
句法学是研究句子结构和成分关系的学科。
在英语中，句子可以分为简单句、复合句和复合复句。
我们需要了解句子的基本成分，包括主语、谓语、宾语等，并了解它们之间的关系。
此外，我们还需要熟悉常用的句型和句子的语序规律。
最后，我们需要复习英语的语义学。
语义学是研究词义和句义的学科。
在英语中，词义可以通过定义、例子、同义词和反义词等来解释。
句义可以通过上下文和语用信息来推断。
我们需要了解词义的多义性和语法义，以及句义的歧义和暗示。
综上所述，新编简明英语语言学教程章期末复习需要回顾英语的语音学、词法学、句法学和语义学。
需要了解英语的音位组成、词的构词规律、句子的基本成分和句型、词义和句义的推断等。
通过复习这些内容，可以巩固所学知识，为期末考试做好准备。
英语语言学期末复习宝典
LinguisticsChapter 1 Language and LinguisticsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Features of language: displacement, arbitrariness, productivity/creativity, cultural transmission, duality, discreteness不连续性1.1考论述①language is systematic. In natural verbal communication, people can learn and use alanguage consistently. This shows that language is systematic. This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans.②language is symbolic. As we know, people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs. The conception of sign through has evolved through a long history of philosophical discussions, dating to the Middle Age.③language is arbitrary. (convention) Arbitrariness does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.④language is primarily vocal. All languages use sounds. Children learn to speak before they learn to read and write; children automatically learna language as they grow up; the spoken form came earlier than the written in human history; writingis based on speech; people use spoken language more often than writing⑤language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species. Although most animals are assumed to communicate in some way, they convey limited information and only express emotions such as fear and warnings.⑥language is used for communication. Language is the result of our communicative needs. Itsattractiveness comes from its social utility. Language enables us to communicate our general attitudes toward life and others.1)language is systematicEach human language is organized into two basic systems, a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.Linguistics is concerned not only with characteristics of the two systems but also with their relationship.Sounds are units which combine to make words or parts of words, different sequences of sounds have difference in meaning. Elements have no meaning themselves. The number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination can be infinite.In a language we can find agreed-upon sound-meaning relations and agreed-upon sequences.These principles can be called rules. These rules make up the syntax of the language.2)language is symbolicLanguage involves signs whose conception can be date back to the Middle Ages. There has been a discipline to study the working of signs, Sassure calls it “semiology”, and Peirce terms it “semiotics”.Charles Peirce views semiotics as a branch of logic and philosophy. Signs are divided into natural signs and conventional signs. Signs are ubiquitous in human society and can be categorized into three major types: icon象征符, index标记符and symbol代码符.3)language is arbitraryAccording to Saussure, the linguistic signs unites, not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The sound-image is not the material sound but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression it makes on our senses.考判断Arbitrary does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable but that human languages use neutral symbols. Concept and sound-image are replaced by signified所指and signifier能指respectively. The most arbitrary level of language is that of the distinctive units of sound. It is because sound units are distinctive. Syntax句法is less arbitrary than words. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.4)language is primarily vocalVerbal communication can involve various forms. Speech and writing are the most common. The primary medium of language is sound. Writing is based on speaking and can influence speaking.Writing systems represent some levels of the spoken language, such as distinct words, syllables, or sounds.5)language is human specific (purely human)Human language is generally said to be different from animal communication in the following aspects:nguage has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space.2.Humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite无限期的，不明确的numberof novel utterance.（openness or productivity）3.Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.nguage is complex in its structure.5.Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6.According to speech act theory, humans can perform acts with language just as they can withobjects of different kinds.6)language is used for communicationA conversation s assumed to be a pattern of two-way communication.1.2The functions of language: general functions of language; metafunctions of language元功能.1)General functions of languagePhysiological function（or emotive/expressive function）, phatic function交际功能（creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers）, recording function, identifying function, reasoning function(as a tool of thought), communication function, pleasure function(or recreational function)……Informative function, performative function施为功能（ppt补充）2)Metafunctions of languageIdeational function 概念功能:Divide into experimental function and logical function; as a symbolic code to represent the world around usInterpersonal function 人际功能:The participatory function of language/enable the speakers (writers) and the listeners (readers) maintain interactions and thus enact a social and intersubjective relationshipTextual function 语篇功能: represent the speaker’s text-forming potential. Relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.1.3The origin and classification of language1)The origin of language(divine source, the natural-sound source, evolutionary source)The belief that all languages originated from a single source is found in Genesis. Many scientists today believe that man arose in many different places of the world.Three broad categories of the origin of language: creation, evolution and invention.Creation/Divine Origin: almost every religion has stories about how man received language from God. But it is impossible for man to name things without acquiring languageEvolution：Man evolved from lower forms of life. Language evolved as an adjunct to early communicationInvention: believe that there is natural connection between the forms of language and the essence of things. (onomatopoetic words)2)Language families语系Two main ways of classifying languages: genetic classification and typological classification (group language into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary---isolating, infecting屈折语, agglutinating 黏着语language)1.4What is linguistic ( Phonetics. Phonology. Morphology. Semantics. Pragmatics. Syntax)1)to do with sounds, vocabulary, grammar, meaning and historicaldevelopment of language.The main purpose of linguistics is to develop a general theory of language and theories on aspects of language.2)语言by all members of a community of speakers.(social, conventional side of language, collective body of knowledge, abstract knowledge)Parole言语is the particular realization of language. (individualized speech, the use of language in utterance, concrete)Prescriptive陈述的and descriptive 描述的：Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.Prescriptivism describe what should be in language, but descriptivism describes the way people actually speak and write their language.---what is in the language.synchronic 共时and diachronic历时:Synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.Diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language. (two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries)speech and writing:language is primarily vocal. No community has a written form only. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech---the spoken first, then the writtenSpeech has the restriction of both time and space. Without writing, human progress would be extremely slow.With modern technology, the distinction between speech and writing is being blurred.syntagmatic and paradigmatic:Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences.(re+write)Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms (foot-feet) competence and performance:Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations.Performance refers to the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies and errors.Chomsky sees the linguist’s task as primarily describing competence because performance is impossible without competence.functionalism and formalism.For Chomsky, competence is not a social but a psychological phenomenon, not a shared generality but a genetic endowment in each individual.1.5The scope of linguistics1)Use of linguisticsPragmatics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics 神经语言学, applied linguistics, computational linguistics.2)Recent developments考小题Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, cognitive linguistics, systemic functional grammar.Chapter 2 phonetics and phonology1.1production of sounds1)scope of phoneticsMaking sounds consists three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message, and the reception of the message.Phonetics is composed of three separate fields:articulatory phonetics, acousctic phonetics, auditory phonetics.2)articulation of sounds发音V oice: sound may be either voiced or voiceless.Two perspectives to examine how sounds are articulated:manner of articulation & place of articulationManner of articulation: plosives and nasal stops; fricatives; affricates; approximants; trills and taps Place of articulation: bilabial; dental; post-alveolar; retroflex; uvular; glottal; labiodental; alveolar;palatal; velar; pharyngealV owels:The primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: 1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth 2) the retraction and extension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips.the height of the tongue raising---high, mid, lowthe position of the highest part of the tongue---front, central, backthe length or tenseness of the vowel---lax or tensethe shape of the lips ---rounded, unrounded3)characteristics of English speech soundsEnglish vowel s: There are 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels, 8 diphthongs双元音, and 5 trip thongs 三元音.P5 monophthongs单元音English consonant s: consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have 24 consonants: 6 plosive consonants,9 fricatives 摩擦音, 2 affricates塞擦音, 3 nasals 鼻音, 3 approximants and 1 lateral consonant. P534)the transcription of soundsA phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds. Aphonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper. The best-known system, the International Phonetic Alphebet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad transcription.1.2which studies the distinctive sound units of a language and their relationship.1)definition of phonemesThe segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes. Phonemes equal distinctive sounds. Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Human languages use a large number of orally transmitted units called phonemes.2)minimal pairs最小语音主力: a pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. When twodifferent forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, deed and seed. Phonemic distinctions can occur in any position within a word. The substitution of one feature for another does not result in a change in meaning. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation.3)Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown as either present [+] or absent [-]. Most distinctive features are binary, that is, they can have only one of two values--plus or minus. [s] is [-voiced] and [z] is [+voiced]1.3refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the permissiblearrangements of these sounds in words, and the processes for adding, deleting or changing sounds. It is highly unlikely that any two languages have exactly the same sound pattern.1）sequential constraints（语音）序列的限制All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.2）★complementary distribution互补性分布When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. The aspirated and the unaspirated phones(pea [Ph] and speed [P; hit and sing [h][n])are in complementary distribution. According to Wardhaugh, phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones音位变体of a single phoneme.1.4suprasegmental features 超音段特征of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less sound. According to Roach, a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation.Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak(vowel), and the coda.首音，音核，音节尾。
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学：英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中，英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学：英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则，包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学：英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况，包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学：英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境，包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学：英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统，包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学：英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯，包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学：英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇，包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学：英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用，包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结，不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位:2.Allophone音位变体:3.Minimal pair最小对立体:第三课1.Morphology形态学:which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes第四课1.Syntax语法句法:classes,4.Surface to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．language?The important characteristicssystematic, arbitrary and vocalFirst of all,language in a wrong way.3．1) Arbitrariness:2)Productivity:provides and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality:4)5)第二课1.语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromSuffix: -ist2. Think of three morpheme be1)prefix: un-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The1.2.3.4.5.6.Hyponymyare called its hyponyms. For example,第六课答：way to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development andand 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics.traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in thattakes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, tothe truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type答：Make your conversational(1) The maxim of quantity①②(2) The maxim of quality①②(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.①②③④(】。
语言学英语期末总结
语言学英语期末总结IntroductionLanguage is an essential tool for communication and is a fundamental aspect of human interaction. The study of language, known as linguistics, involves examining the structure, meaning, and function of language in its various forms. Throughout the semester, I have explored several significant topics in the field of linguistics, including phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, as well as sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics. In this final summary, I aim to consolidate my understanding of these areas and reflect on my overall language study experience.Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics deals with the study of speech sounds and how they are produced, while phonology focuses on the sound patterns and systems in a language. I have learned about various features of speech sounds, such as place and manner of articulation. Additionally, I have become familiar with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which is a system used to transcribe speech sounds.MorphologyMorphology refers to the study of word formation and the internal structure of words. I have learned about the different morphemes that make up words, including prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Moreover, I have explored morphological processes, such as inflection, derivation, and compounding. This knowledge has allowed me to understand how words are created and how they can change in different contexts.SyntaxSyntax is the study of the rules governing the structure and arrangement of words in sentences. I have gained a deeper understanding of basic sentence structures, such as subject-verb-object (SVO) and subject-object-verb (SOV). Furthermore, I have learned about phrase structure rules and the hierarchy of constituents within a sentence. This knowledge has helped me analyze and understand the grammatical structure of sentences.SemanticsSemantics is concerned with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. Throughout the semester, I have explored various aspects of semantics, including lexical semantics, compositional semantics, and pragmatics. I have learned about different semantic relationships, such as synonymy, antonymy, and hyponymy. Moreover, I have examined how context influences meaning and how presuppositions and implicatures play a role in communication.SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics examines the relationship between language and society. I have learned about language variation and language change, as well as language attitudes and ideologies. Additionally, I have explored sociolinguistic factors, such as gender, social class, and ethnicity, which can influence language use and variation. This knowledge has highlighted the importance of considering social and cultural factors when studying language.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics explores the psychological processes involved in the production, comprehension, and acquisition of language. Throughout the semester, I have learned about language processing, including how we recognize and access words, and how we understand and produce sentences. Moreover, I have explored theories of language acquisition and the stages of language development in children. This knowledge has deepened my understanding of how language is processed and acquired by individuals. ConclusionThe study of language has provided me with a comprehensive understanding of various linguistic aspects and their significance in communication. From examining speech sounds to analyzing sentence structures and understanding meaning, I have gained a multifaceted perspective on language. Furthermore, sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics have helped me recognize the social and psychological factors that influence language use and acquisition.As I conclude this language study journey, I am filled with appreciation for the complexity and beauty of language. The knowledge and skills I have acquired will undoubtedly continue to benefit me in my personal and professional endeavors. Language is an ever-evolving field, and I look forward to continuing my exploration and further expanding my understanding of this fascinating subject.。
(最新版)新编英语语言学复习知识点整理
第一单元What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology 形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics 应用语言学Phonetics语音学：the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phonetics Phonology音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studies Semantics语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理语言学: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology\Applied linguistics应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOther related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics.Some important distinctions in linguistics。
英语语言学期末复习
语学特征prescriptive-descriptive;synchronic-diachronic; speech-writing;langue-parole(Saussure,sociological); competence-performance(Chomsky,psychological); traditional grammar-modern linguistics语言特征1system;arbitrary;vocal;human-specific2Arbitrariness;productivity;duality;displacement;cultural transmission语言function:descriptive;expressive;socialJakobson:Addresser-emotive;addressee-conative;context-referential;message-poetic;contact-phatic communion;code-metalinguisticHalliday macrofunction:ideational;interpersonal;textual器官:lips;teeth;teeth ridge;hard palate;soft;uvula;tip of tongue;blade;back;vocal cords;pharyngeal cavity;nasal Phonology rules:sequential;assimilation(ir- im-);deletion(sign-signature)词分类open/closed class words词素分类free and bound;allomorphsComplex words:a root+N affixes构词法conversion;derivation;compounds短语结构head+specifier+complementTree structure:a static representation-a dynamic formatThe XP rule(revised):XP→(Specifier)X(Complement*)扩展XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod) Coordination rule :X→X*Con X句The S rule:S→NP VP同义synonyms:dialectal(autumn-fall)stylistic(father-dad)differ in emotive meaning;collocational(搭配)semantically different(amaze-surprise)反义antonymy:gradable(cold-cool-warm)complementary(alive-dead)relational(buy-sell)Context:situational;linguistic句关系X is synonymous with Y;X is inconsistent with Y一正一误;X entails Y(Y包含X)X presupposes Y(Y为前提)X is a contradiction自我矛盾X is semantically anomalous荒谬Searle’s classification of 言外representative阐述directives请指commissives承诺expressives;declaration宣告Principle of conversation(Grice)CP(cooperative principle)the maxim of quantity(过多) quality(假)relation(无关)mannerLeech:face value(1) Both Saussure and chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole ( as) the realization of langue in actual use. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user' s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance ( as) the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Linguistics:the scientific study of language(base on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure)1 Phonetics:is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language2 Phonology:aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication3 Morphology:is concerned with word formation and word structure4 Syntax:is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentencesPhrases:syntactic units that are built around a certain word category5 Semantics:can be simply defined as the study of meaning6 Pragmatics:the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language useAntonymy:word that are opposite in meaning Homonymy:words have different meanings have the same formHyponymy:the sense relation between a more general.more inclusive word and a more specific wordInflectional morphemes:bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify Language:is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationMorpheme:the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionMorph:distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morphemePolysemy:different words have the same or similar meaning,the same one word have more than one meaning Reference:a linguistic form refers to in the real world Sense:is the inherent meaning of a linguistic form,the collection of all its featuresSynonymy:words that are close in meaningSyntactic categories:a fundamental fact about words in all human languagesSpeech act theory(John Austin)a philosophical explanation of the nature os linguistic communication(locutionary act言内,illocutionary act外,perlocutionary act后)(2) Both made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. Both think that what linguists should do is to study the abstract language system rather than the actual use of language and to discover the rules governing the actual use of language(3) While Saussure' s distinction and Chomsky' s are very similar, they differ at least in one aspect That is, Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual。
英语语言学超强总结
英语语言学超强总结语言学总结一、语言与语言学1、语言的区别性特征:Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号与它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间与空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能(不就是很重要)信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程,考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音与音节结构、分布与序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构与构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构,词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义,还有语言中词之上与之下的意义。
如语素与句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学computationallinguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式与描写式:规定式:prescriptive说明事情应该就是怎么样的描写式:descriptive 说明事情本来就是怎么样的共时研究与历时研究:共时:synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时:diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言与言语:语言:langue指语言系统的整体言语:parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力与语言运用:乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力:competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用:performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA(国际音标)就是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3 音位变体allophones4 互补分布complementary distribution5 自由变体free variation6 区别特征distinctive features7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇与派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例:editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例:work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词与词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构与成分construction and constituents :句子不仅就是线性结构liner structure还就是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体,而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分－短语,再把这些短语依次切分,得到下一集直接成分,这样层层切分,直到不能再分4向心结构与离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心:指一个结构中有中心词,例an old man ,中心为man离心:指结构中没有明显的中心词。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammarwhich studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties. It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language. 2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules forpeople to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and th e i r f i n d d i f f e r e n c e s . / p > p > P h o n o l o g y d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o u n d s y s t e m s o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s a n d h o w s o u n d s f u n c t i o n t o d i s t i n g u i s h m e a n i ng . / p > p > A p h o n e t i c i a n w o u l d b e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s c o s s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l n o t c o s d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n i n g . / p > p > 2 . W h a t i s p h o n e ? H o w i s i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m a p h o n e m e ? h o w a r e a l l o p h o n e s r e l a t e d t o a p h o n e m e ? / p > p > P h o n e i s a p h o n e t i c u n i t , i t h a s n o m e a n i n g . / p > p > P h o n e m e i s a p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t w i t h d i s t i n c t i v e v a l u e . / p > p > T h e p h o n e m e / l / c a n b e r e a l i z e d a s d a r k / l - / a n d c l e a r / l / , w h i c h a r e a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e p h o n e m e / l / / p > p > A l l o p h o n e s - - - a c t u a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f a p h o n e m e i n d i f f e r e n t p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t s . / p >。
英语语言学期末复习
Chapter5Semantics1. Definition1.命名论The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and RichardsIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, intheinterpretationof meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaning fromorreducemea ningtoobservablecontexts.Herearetwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandt helinguisticcontext.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.2.Lexicalmeaning:Sense:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectionofallfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized. Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,physicalworld.Itdeals withtherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticwo rldofexperience.3. Main sense relations1.同义词Synonymy Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsa recloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.(1)Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）British Americaautumnfallflatapartment(2)Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style（文体）Old man daddy father male parent(3)Synonyms that different intheiremotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）Accuse VS Charge（accuse…of; charge…with）Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）AmazeVSAstoundItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilar meaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Ball:1. anroundobjectusedingame.2.alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1). Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign.2).Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form.E.g. tear v. /tear n.3). Complete homonyms同形同音Itreferstowordsthatarebothidenticalinsoundandspelling.E.g.tearv./tearn.4.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusive wordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningis calledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms. Superordinate:animalSubordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,It is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.a) gradable:等级反义词old-youngb) complementary：互补反义词male-femalec) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell4.Sentencesenserelations:1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）E.g. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于）E.g. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）E.g.John’s bike needs repairing.John has a bike.5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）E.g. The table has bad intensions.5.Analysisofmeaning1. Componential Analysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义It’s awayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmea ning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedis sectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.E.g.Man=Adult+Male+Animate+Human2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist G.Leech提出)It’s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc.(通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIt’s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentencesinwhichsent enceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1.speech act theory言语行为的理论2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3.Grice an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。
英语语言学概论期末复习
英语语言学概论期末复习English Linguistics Overview Final ReviewIntroduction:1. Phonetics:Phonetics deals with the physical sounds of human speech. It examines speech sounds, their production, transmission, and perception. It includes articulatory phonetics (how sounds are produced), acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted), and auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived).2. Phonology:Phonology focuses on the systematic organization of sounds in a particular language. It studies phonemes—the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning—and phonological rules, which determine how sounds interact in a language. It also explores the distribution of sounds, syllable structures, and phonological processes like assimilation and vowel harmony.3. Morphology:4. Syntax:Syntax explores the structure of sentences and the rulesthat govern their formation. It analyzes the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses to create well-formed sentences.Syntax also investigates sentence constituents, grammatical relations, word order, and sentence types.5. Semantics:6. Pragmatics:7. Sociolinguistics:Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society. It investigates how language varies and changes based on social factors such as gender, age, social class, and geographical location. Sociolinguistics also examines language attitudes, language variation, language contact, and dialectology.8. Psycholinguistics:Conclusion:。
英语语言学概论期末复习
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic ）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness ）与理据性（motivation ）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion ）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification ）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family ）——语族（group ）——语支（branch ）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation ）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating isolating languagelanguage ）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language ）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional inflectional languagelanguage ）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis polysynthesis languagelanguage ）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
英语语言学复习总结
英语语言学复习总结1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words.(2) Productivity/creativityWe can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurring Exception: and bee dancing is used only to indicate foodsources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) DualityLower level----sounds (meaningless)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)Exception: the grouping of the three sounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/ can mean either a kind of fish(crap), or a public place for rest and amusement(park).(4) DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Exception: Yesterday which book did you read?(5) Cultural transmissionLanguage can transmit Culture which the language contains.Exception；an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted.3、word formation(1)CompoundIt refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. icecream, sunrise, paperbag(2) DerivationIt refers to the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.Unconscious, national, nationalize(3) BlendingIt refers to the form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the finalpart of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Smoke + fog = smog 烟雾(4) Abbreviation1)cutting the final part ( or with a slightvariation) advertisement-----ad2) cutting the initial part aeroplane -----plane3) cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly refrigerator ---- fridge(5) Acronym(I)It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. WB : World BankAcronym(II)This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. VAT : value added tax 增殖税(6) Back- formationIt refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the languageEditor ------edit(7) BorrowingLatin: cancer, page, i.e.(that is) e.g.( for example) etc. (et cetera)Chinese: taji, chow mein, kung-fuJapanese: JudoFrench, German, Italian, Spanish(8) InventionSince economic activities are the most important anddynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.4. XP rule1.XP rule: specifier + head + complement2. XP rule: (Specifier)X’X’à X(complement)3. XP rule :(Specifier) X (Complement*)4. XP rule:(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)Complement: (in grammar) that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which thus completes the sentence.Features:one or more complements are permitted(eg. A story about a sentimental girl with purpl e umbrella …) words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CP(e.g. take it; poor as a chuch mouse;the man with hat;right near the fireplace)A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement.(e.g. come to school; go to bed; look through it)Modifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position exampleAP Precedes the head a very careful girlPP Follows the head open with careAdvP Precedes or follows thehead read carefully; carefully read5. 请从Behaviorism 的角度来举例说明其意义：Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”S__Tang Wanyi_____r--------s______Vicky______RWhen Tang Wanyi sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical stimulus, (represented by the capital letters), which gives rise to a verbal response(r) to Vicky. For instance, she might say to Vicky ”I’m thirsty”. What she says results in a verbal stimulus to Vicky (represented by the small letter S). This stimulus, in its turn, leads to a non-verbal response from Vicky, such as picking the apple for her.6. synonymy(同义现象)Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects （地区方言）autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline 地方2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style,（文体风格上不同）kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning（examples in Mandarin)（情感上和评价判断上的不同）合作者/同谋；结果/下场；鼓励/…；领袖/…；赞扬/…团结4) Collocational synonyms（搭配意义上的不同）A group of people; a herd of wolves; a swarm of bees5) Semantically different synonyms(语义不同)surprise/astonish; finish/complete7、locutionary act, illocutionary act，perlocutionary actFor example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning“the weather is clod in here” ;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer “to shut the window” ;Its perlocutionary act is the effect brought about; it can be “the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request”.(作业本)You have left the door wide open① the locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words ”you”, ”have”, ”door”, ”open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean② the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking. i.e. asking someone to close the door.③ The perlocutionary act refers to the effect (result) of the utterance. It can be “the hearer close the door or refuse to comply with the request.8、Four maxims of CP (I)The maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.（先判断在分析，先判断是不是relation从literal meaning是不是同一个主题）Conversational implicature会话含义，言外之意；会话含意In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.填空，definition 判断选择。
英语语言学总结与体会
英语语言学总结与体会英语语言学是研究英语语言的结构、历史、语义、语法及其使用的学科。
在学习英语语言学的过程中，我从中获得了许多收获和体会。
首先，在学习英语语言学的过程中，我深刻理解了语言是一种复杂的系统，它不仅仅是为了交流而存在，还是反映文化、思维方式和社会结构的工具。
通过研究英语的音韵、形态、句法和语义等方面，我认识到语言的规则和结构是如何构成一个完整的系统的。
这使我对语言的使用更加有逻辑性和系统性的认识。
其次，学习英语语言学也使我对英语的历史和变化有了更深入的了解。
通过研究英语的发展历程，我意识到语言是一个活跃的、不断变化的实体。
英语的发展历程中经历了许多变化，从古英语到中古英语再到现代英语，每个阶段都有其独特的语法和词汇特点。
这使我明白了语言是如何受到历史、文化和社会变迁的影响的。
此外，学习英语语言学还让我对语言的语用学有了更深入的理解。
语用学研究的是语言在特定情境下的使用。
通过学习语言在不同语境中的意义和功能，我开始更加注重语境对语言理解和交际的影响。
我认识到语言的意义不仅仅取决于词汇和语法规则，还取决于上下文和语用因素。
最后，学习英语语言学还让我对语言学研究的方法和技巧有了更深刻的认识。
通过学习语言学的研究方法和技巧，我学会了如何进行语言数据的收集和分析，如何运用统计方法进行语言研究。
这些技能和知识使我能够更好地理解和解读语言现象，提高自己的语言分析和研究能力。
总而言之，学习英语语言学是一次丰富的学习体验。
通过学习英语语言学，我不仅提高了对英语语言的理解和运用能力，也增长了对语言和文化的认识。
这将对我未来的学习和工作产生积极的影响。
最新英语语言学复习总结
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2、The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) (1) Arbitrariness----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words.(2) Productivity/creativityWe can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurringException: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) Duality▪Lower level----sounds (meaningless)▪Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)Exception: the grouping of the three sounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/ can mean either a kind of fish(crap), or a public place for rest and amusement(park).(4) DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Exception: Yesterday which book did you read?(5) Cultural transmissionLanguage can transmit Culture which the language contains.Exception；an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted.3、word formation(1)CompoundIt refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. icecream, sunrise, paperbag(2) DerivationIt refers to the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.Unconscious, national, nationalize(3) BlendingIt refers to the form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Smoke + fog = smog 烟雾(4) Abbreviation1)cutting the final part ( or with a slightvariation) advertisement-----ad2) cutting the initial part aeroplane -----plane3) cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly refrigerator ---- fridge(5) Acronym(I)It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. WB : World BankAcronym(II)This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. VAT : value added tax 增殖税(6) Back- formationIt refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the languageEditor ------edit(7) BorrowingLatin: cancer, page, i.e.(that is) e.g.( for example) etc. (et cetera)Chinese: taji, chow mein, kung-fuJapanese: JudoFrench, German, Italian, Spanish(8) InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.4. XP rule1.XP rule: specifier + head + complement2. XP rule: (Specifier)X’X’à X(complement)3. XP rule :(Specifier) X (Complement*)4. XP rule:(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)Complement: (in grammar) that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which thus completes the sentence.Features:Ø one or more complements are permittedØ (eg. A story about a sentimental girl with purple umbrella …)Ø words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CPØ(e.g. take it; poor as a chuch mouse;the man with hat;right near the fireplace)Ø A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement.Ø(e.g. come to school; go to bed; look through it)Modifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position exampleAP Precedes the head a very careful girlPP Follows the head open with careAdvP Precedes or follows thehead read carefully; carefully read5. 请从Behaviorism 的角度来举例说明其意义：Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”S__Tang Wanyi_____r--------s______Vicky______RWhen Tang Wanyi sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical stimulus, (represented by the capital letters), which gives rise to a verbal response(r) to Vicky. For instance, she might say to Vicky ”I’m thirsty”. What she says results in a verbal stimulus to Vicky (represented by the small letter S). This stimulus, in its turn, leads to a non-verbal response from Vicky, such as picking the apple for her.6. synonymy(同义现象)Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects （地区方言）autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline 地方2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style,（文体风格上不同）kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning（examples in Mandarin)（情感上和评价判断上的不同）合作者/同谋；结果/下场；鼓励/…；领袖/…；赞扬/…团结4) Collocational synonyms（搭配意义上的不同）A group of people; a herd of wolves; a swarm of bees5) Semantically different synonyms(语义不同)surprise/astonish; finish/complete7、locutionary act, illocutionary act，perlocutionary actFor example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “the weather is clod in here” ;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer “to shut the window” ;Its perlocutionary act is the effect brought about; it can be “the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request”.(作业本)You have left the door wide open① the locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words ”you”, ”have”, ”door”, ”open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean② the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking. i.e. asking someone to close the door.③ The perlocutionary act refers to the effect (result) of the utterance. It can be “the hearer close the door or refuse to comply with the request.8、Four maxims of CP (I)The maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.（先判断在分析，先判断是不是relation从literal meaning是不是同一个主题）Conversational implicature会话含义，言外之意；会话含意In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.填空，definition 判断选择Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to establishment of phoneticsPhonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processesSyntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.Semantics: it examines how meaning is encoded in language. It is concerned with 1)meanings of the words. 2) levels of language below the word and above itPragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.Sociolinguistics: the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branchPsycholinguistics: relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how…. , how…Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”--------speakingAcoustic phonetics声学语音学；----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.-------soundingAuditory phonetics听觉语音学----f rom the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”--------listeningClassification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: ▪The manner of articulation▪The place of articulationBroad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [l ], [ pit ]Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Semantics----the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.Naming theory’s Limitations1) Applicable to nouns only.2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions.Conclusion on semantic triangleThe symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases); The referent refers to the object in the world of experience; Thought or reference refers to concept.Relations:The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.7. Antonymy(反义现象)Antonymy: refers to the oppositeness of meaning.1. Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Old-young, hot-cold, tall-short2. Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. Alive-dead, male-female, …3. Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two itemsHusband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, employer-employee, give-receive…8. Homonymy（同形异义）Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling.tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, ball(E,F), bank, watch, scale, fast, …Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning.▪“table” may mean:▪1. A piece of furniture▪2. All the people seated at a table▪3.The food that is put on a table▪4. A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.▪5. Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.……X entails Y(蕴含关系)▪X: John married a blond heiress.▪Y: John married a blond.▪X: Marry has been to Beijing.▪Y: Marry has been to China.▪Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.▪If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y（预射关系）▪X: His bike needs repairing.▪Y: He has a bike.▪Paul has given up smoking.▪Paul once smoked.▪If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.The Relatedness between Language and SocietyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.1. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships2. The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)3. Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)4. As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).Predication analysis(III)1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g.*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,…Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …No-place predication: It is hot.I like you(two place)It is hot (no place)…Performatives’Features (Austin’s)“I declare the meeting open.”1. first person, singular subject2. simple present tense3. indicative mood4. active voice5. performative verbs基本上所有的动词都是perfomativesSearle’s Classification of Speech Acts (1969)（判断出是那一种）Assertives/representatives（陈述）---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.I think the film is moving.I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.…I think it is good.Directives（指令）---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!…Sit down, please.Commissives（承诺）---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, such as promise or a threat. e.g.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.If you do not stop fighting, I’ll call the police.I promise to come.Expressives（表达）----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state(feeling and attitudes) about something,such as an aplology, a complaint, to thank someone, to congratulate someone. e.g.I’m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.…You are so wonderful!Declarations（宣告）----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.…I now pronounce you man and wife.Note: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.(1)I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.e.g.(2)In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!Language changeperiods1) 449—1100: Old EnglishBeginning: English-speaking Anglo-Saxon and Jutes invaded into the British IslesThe End: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman Frenc h invadersGlæs; guma; gat----glass ---man ---goat“Beowulf”---England 8century poem,brave warrior2) 1100—1500 Middle EnglishBeginning: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersThe End:“European Renaissance Movement”Latin and French“The Canterbury Tales”----Geoffrey Chaucer (1345-1400)3) 1500—the present Modern EnglishBeginning: “European Renaissance Movement”The End: the presentDiphthongs appears: ai, au, ei, eu, ou, oiBecause of pressing industry overspreading, the spelling forms are determined/less changes.Regional dialectReason: This differentiation is accounted for the lack of communication in the old days when travel was difficult.Female Speech’s Features1. Women are usually more status-conscious than men in theEnglish-speaking world; therefore, their speech closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men.2. The female speakers tend to have a wider range in their intonation.3. Female speech is, on the whole, less assertive and thus sounds to be more polite than male speech.Register: a Speech Variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation (e.g. doctors, lawyers) or the same interests (e.g. stamp collectors, baseball fans).In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:▪field of discourse,▪tenor of discourse,▪mode of discourseField of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)Tenor of discourse:the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)Mode of discourse:the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)Standard Variety:=standard dialect=standard language:the variety of a language which has the highest Status in a community of nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.(文化影响语言，语言影响文化)The inadequacy of behaviorist view1. What they imitate must be based on what the children have already known instead of what is “available” in the environment.2. They imitate words selectively and according to their own understandings of the sounds or patterns.3. how children acquire complex language system.Language acquisition device: LAD the capacity to acquire one’s First language, when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mechanism or apparatus.Universal Grammar: a theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. （了解一下UG）（prototype原型）It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of Parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.According to UG theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, e.g. English, French or German, and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter.Motherese’s Features1. shorter utterances than speech to other adults2. grammatically simple utterances3. few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetition4. clearer pronunciation, sometimes with exaggerated Intonation patterns CommentBehaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects;The innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system;And the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)Vocabulary development1) Under-extension (外延缩小）2) Over-extension（外延延伸）3) Prototype theoryGrammatical development1) Telegraphic speech (2)2) Sentences of three main elements (2.5)Contrastive analysis (CA)the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system. Contrastive analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural Linguistics to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions1. The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language. （language transfer）2. These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.3.Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference1970s, it declined and was replaced by Error Analysis▪Language transfer：the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur.▪* “I am here since Monday.”▪“ I have been here since Monday.”▪Because of the transfer of the French pattern▪Je suis ici depuis lundi▪Negative transfer,负向转移 also known as interference, is the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an Error orinappropriate form in the Target Language. For example, a Frenchlearner of English may produce the incorrect sentence ▪“table, transport,restaurant, surprise”▪Positive transfer,正向转移 is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target languagehave the same form. For example, both French and English have theword ‘table’, which can have the same meaning in both languages.Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,a. Substitution of [t] for [W] and [d] for [T]: threeàtree,thisàdis.b. Sh ortening of long vowels: sheepàship, meetàmitIntralingual errorsThe intralingual errors mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.▪Two types of errors have been well exploited:overgeneralization & cross-associationTrue or False1. In an exciting argument, the speakers could express themselves fluently?2. In an exciting argument, the speakers have grammatical expressions all the time?3. After your listening others’ speech, could you repeat it totally?4. About pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can identify the noun and verb in speaking? (“an apple” is a thing; “run” is an action)5. And also about pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you thi nk they can define the term “noun”?三、pairPrescriptive vs DescriptiveHe love that picture. We see a film yesterday.Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language(tradition grammar)“Give me that cup.” “ Could you bring me that cup?” “ Cup!”Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistics)Synchronic vs diachronicA Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespear’s EnglishSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of timeLangue vs parole (F. de Saussure)Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Langue is the lexical, grammatical, and phonological constitution of a language to be implanted in the native speaker’s mind (or brain) in childhood as the collective product of the speech community envisaged as a supra-individual entity in its own right. In speaking his language the speaker could only operate or perform within this langue; what he actuallyuttered was parole, and the only individual control he could exercise was when to speak and about what to speak.The aim to distinguish them is to abstract langue from parole. The reason to distinguish them is that parole is simply a mass oflinguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation.Langue Parole 1.abstract concrete 2all the members in actual use 3 linguistic competence of the speaker actual phenomena or data oflinguistics (utterance)4 not accessible5 social individual6 essential accidentalconclusion S ocial bond constitutes languageActive use of speakingCompetence and performance (Chomsky)Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.plementary distribution2. Phonemic contrast;3.Minimal pair.Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts. They never occur in the same context.Phonemic contrast----similar sounds, meanwhile can be used to distinguish the two phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Minimal pair----two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one Phoneme) and which also differ in meaning.Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemekindness; international; friendlyroot & affix----- Derivational morphemes(friendlytalks; talking; talked; boy’s; applesstem & affix----- Inflectional morphemes(friends)Lexical meaning---basic notion of meaning。
语言学期末考试复习(英语专业).doc
LinguistsFerdinand de Saussure: Course in General LinguisticsEdward Sapir: Language: An Introduction to the Study of SpeechNoam Chomsky: Syntactic StructuresJohn Lyons: Language and LinguisticsR. H. Robins: General LinguisticsStuart C. Pool: An Introduction to LinguisticsWhat is language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System: Elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary: no close connection between a word and the object it refers to. Vocal: all human languages have sound and speech.Symbolic: Words are associated with objects, actions, ideas, concepts etc. by nothing but convention.Human: language is human specific.Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacementArbitrariness: --The forms of language signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (Saussure)--Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words.--Language has 2 levels of structures: sounds & meanings.-A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.--The units of meanings can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences, (lyons)Creativity:-We can understand and create sentences that we never heard before.--It comes from 2 features: duality & recursiveness (递归性) Displacement: People can use language to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.What is linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.The sounds and the sound system orpatternsMain branches of linguisticsPhonetics （语音学）、Phonology （音系学）- Morphology （形态学）：the structure of wordsSyntax （句法学）：the structure of phrases and sentencesSemantics （语义学）：the meaning of words and sentencesPragmatics （语用学）：the way language is used to communicate Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. Prescriptive 描写式 VS 规定式Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性 VS 历时性Langue vs. Parole 语言 VS 言语Competence and Performance 语言能力&语言运用Etic vs. Emic 非位学（素学）VS 位学 Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveDescriptive: how things arePrescriptive: how things ought to beModern linguistics is mostly descriptive, not prescriptive. Why?--Objective description helps to see the nature of language.--Language changes through time.Svnchronic vs. Diachronic （Saussure ）Synchronic Study: the study of language in a fixed instant, take language as unchanged.Diachronic Study: the study of language through the course of its historyLangue vs. Parole (Saussure)Language: the linguistic competence of the speaker, abstract, stable, systematic Parole: the exact way of speaking, specific and changeableSaussure's purpose to distinguish 'langue' and 'parole': To discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of the study of linguistics.Competence and Performance (Chomsky)Competence: A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to and different from Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?--Similarities: both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Saussure's parole and Chomsky's performance are essentially the same thing.-Differences: Saussure's notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psycholoRical point of view. Thus, langue is quite different from competence.Etic vs. Emic (Pike)Chapter 2Major branches of phonetics：1.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)2.Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)3.Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学)Phone [ ] Phoneme / /The IPAInternational Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888. Consonants and vowelsRP: Received English (BBC English, Oxford English, King's / Queen's English) GA: General AmericanIn what ways consonants differ from vowels?1)Air-stream in Articulation--consonants (24): the flow of air comes out with some obstructions.--vowels (20): the flow of air comes out freely2)Function: --consonants are used to separate the vowels. --vowels are used to help the speech organs to get from one consonant position to the next. Consonants[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricativeVowelsCoarticulation and Phonetic TranscriptionCoarticulation: Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.E.g. map, lambAnticipatory coarticulation 先期协'同发音lambPerseverative coarticulation 后滞协'同发音map[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].Broad transcription [ ] Narrow transcription / / or []Phone and PhonemeA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't, e.g. [tin— [t] [i] [n]A phoneme can be defined as a minimal unit of sound that can distinguish words of different meanings. E.g. [tin] [din] 9 /t/ /d/ 9 tin dinDifferences Between Phone & PhonemeMinimal Pairs: e.g. "pat" "bat”, “pig" "big”Allophone: the phonetic variants of a phoneme, e.g. the 2 allophones of the same phoneme /p/ are [p h] as in pin and [p] in spin.SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal suprasegmentals are: syllable, stress, tone, intonationThe syllable structureoMonosyllabic word: cat, dogPolysyllabic word: festival, transplantOpen syllable: a syllable without coda, bar, tieClosed syllable: a syllable with coda, bard, tiedChapter 3 LexiconWhat is word?Definition: It is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether in spoken or written form.Identification of wordsStability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc Relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word e.g. dis appoint mentA minimum free form (Bloomfield):maximum 9 sentenceminimum 9 wordClassification of words1)Variable vs. Invariable Words:Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. (n. v.) Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.2)Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.3)Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:Closed-class words —grammatical words): New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words (=lexical words): New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4)Word class: known as Parts of Speech (词性)in traditional grammar, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.Some new word class: -Particles (小品词):Infinitive "to",Negative "not”,Subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.-Auxiliaries: do, have-Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.-Pro-form-DeterminersPre-determiners (coverage): all, both, twice, one-fifth, etc.Central- determiners (所指):this, that, every, my, etc.Post-determiners (cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, general ordinals and quantifiers): last, past, many, little, etc.Morpheme and MorphologyMorpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, its meaning will change if further divided. E.g. dis appoint ment (3)Morphology: the study of word-formation (the internal structure of words).A phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology; a morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.(1)Free morphemes & Bound morphemes-Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g.mooncake-Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, unBound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2)Root, affix and stemRoot: the free morpheme inside of the wordE.g. friend as in unfriendlinessAffix: the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.prefix (dis-, un-)suffix (-en, -ify) andlnfix( feet, goose)Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3)Inflectional and Derivational AffixInflectional affixes (all are suffix): number, tense, degree (-er. -est), and case(-s') Derivational affixes: e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Inflection and Word FormationInflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy's ) do not change the grammatical class of the stemsDerivation (a relationship between roots and affixes):lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)Word FormationCompounds: to join two or more separate words to produce a new word. Endocentric & Exocentric compounds向心复合词和离心复合词Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of "a kind of〃E.g. self-control: a kind of control; armchair: a kind ofchairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of "a kind of something"E.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crow; breakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compounds-Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard-Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length -Open: coffee table, washing machine Chapter 4Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)the girl (NP)ate the apple (VP)The girl ate the apple (S)The girl ate the appleIf two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A.Syntactic FunctionNames of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.Subject: "what the sentence is about" (i.e., topic)John was bitten by a dog.u grammatical subject" (John) and 'logical subject" (a dog)Predicator: verb or verbs included in a predicate, it usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.Object:Direct Object and Indirect ObjectMother gave my sister a doll.IO DOThe accusative case （受格）for direct objectThe dative case （与格）for indirect objectObject can become subjectJohn broke the glass. 9 The glass was broken by John.Peter saw Jane. 9 Jane was seen by Peter.Category-Number: singular, dual, pluralIn Englishnouns: dog, dogspronouns and verbs: He laughs: They laugh; this man: these men.-Gender: contrasts as "masculine : feminine : neuter", "animate : inanimate", etc. In English gender only in pronouns and nouns:he: she: itprince: princess author: authoress-Case: teacher: teacher'swith/ to a manJohn kicked Peter: Peter kicked John-Agreement:a pronoun agrees with its antecedent: Whose is this pen? --Oh,Ji's the one I lost.a verb agrees with its subject: Each person has one coin.number between nouns and verbs:This man runs. The bird flies.These men run. These birds fly.Chapter 5 Meaning (semantics)SemanticsDefinition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Geoffrey Leech. Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning 9 DenotationConnotative meaning 、9 Connotation (unstable, vary according to culture)Social meaningAffective meaning > Associative meaningReflected meaningJCollocative meaningThematic meaningDenotation & ConnotationE.g. words with the same denotation, but differ in the connotative meanings: politician (derogatory)statesman (favorable)The Referential TheoryReferential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.Leech's conceptual meaning has 2 sides:Sense (Connotation): the abstract properties of an entity;Reference (Denotation): concrete entities;Concept: the abstract thing, no entity.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. E.g. "but ", “if”, “God”,“dragon”.Sense Relations--Synonymy:buy/purchaseautumn/fall flat/apartmenttube/underground--Antonymy(1) Gradable antonymy (degree)分级反义词good ---------------------- badlong ----------------------- shortbig ------------------------- small(2) Complementary antonymy (Not A = B; not B= A)互补反义词一个个体的两种情况alive : dead odd : evenmale : female pass : failpresent: absent boy : girlinnocent: guilty hit: miss⑶Converse antonymy回转反义词两方两个事物buy : sell teacher: studentlend : borrow above : belowgive : receive before : afterparent: child host: guesthusband : wife employer: employeeChapter 8 Language in Use (Pragmatics)Definition of Pragmatics:The study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers' meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning. Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence MeaningSentence meaning: What does X mean?Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?Contextual Meaning: meaning in contextSpeech Act TheoryJohn Austin (1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words (1962)Speech acts: actions performed via utterancesIllocutionary Act TheoryJohn Searle (1932-)Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels:the locutionnary act 发话行为the illocutionnary act 行事行为the perlocutionnary act取效行为/言后行为E.g.lIt's cold here.Locutionary act: the literal meaning, the sentenceIllocutionary act: a request of the hearer to shut the window.Perlocutionary act: the hearer's shutting the window or his refusal to shut it. E.g.2Conversations between The illocutionary act:husband and wife:H: That's the phone. 9 Not describing something. Just making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.W: I'm in the bathroom.— Not describing her action in the bathroom, just (i) a refusal to comply with the request and (ii) issuing a request of her husband to answer it.H : Okay. 9 Accepting his wife's refusal and accepther request, meaning "all right, \'\\ answer it."Conversational ImplicatureHerbert Paul GricePeople do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.The Cooperative Principle (CP)A speaker can mean a lot more than what he says, most the time the hearer could understand that, then the problem is how the speaker can convey more than what is said and how the hearer can arrive at the speaker's meaning. Grice believed there exists a set of mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances, this is what he called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Grice introduced 4 categories of maxisms:--Maxim of Quality:Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;--Maxim of Quantity: no more, no less--Maxim of Relation: Be relative.--Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous.Pragmatics violates CP. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature. 会话含义E-g.He is made of iron.CP (quality) > He is strong-willed.He (lecturer) is a good cook.CP (relation'The lecturer is no good.Violation of the maxims (Quantity)1.No lessA:昨天上街买了些什么？B:就买了些东西。
英语语言学期末复习1
英语语言学期末复习1期末考试语言学复习范围2：名词解释复习范围language，speech community, bilingualism, semantics, context, locutionary act, language acquisition, phonology, psycholinguistics, langue, phoneme, culture, intercultural communication, linguistics, phonetics, competence，interlanguage, neurolinguistics, sense, morphology3：术语翻译都选自教材最后的glossary；4：简答题复习范围（主要限定在第一章、第五章、第六章、和第十章）1.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?3.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?4.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?5.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?6.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance? Give an example.7.What are the three variables that determine register? Interpret them with an example.8.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?9.What are the major types of synonyms in English?10.What are the five design features of language specified byC. Hockeet to show that human language is essentially differentfrom any animal communication system?11.What are the four major views concerning the study of meaning?12.Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication?13.What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)? List their names and explain them briefly.14.To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experience?15.What is the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) concerning language acquisition?16.Explain the definition：“Linguistics is the scientific study of language”.17.What are suprasegmental features? Use examples to illustrate your points.18.What is grammaticality? Is a grammatically meaningful sentence necessarily a semantically meaningful sentence?19.How are “sentence” and “utterance” and “sentence meaning” and “utterance meaning” related and how d o they differ?20.What distinction, if any, can you draw between bilingualism and diglossia?Ⅰ.For each question, there is only ONE corr ect answer. Choose the one from A, B, C and D.1.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle____A. arbitrariness and creativityB. generalizations and abstractionsC. interpersonal relationshipD. performative functions2. Using language for the sheer joy of using it shows that language has a ____ function.A. recreationalB. metalingualC. informativeD. performative3. According to_____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.A. Roman JacobsonB. Leonard BloomfieldC. Kenneth PikeD. Noam Chomsky4. Whose Cardinal V owel system is still in use?A. A.J. EllisB. A.M. BellC. Daniel JonesD. A. C. Gimson5. Which of the following words involves“nasalization”?A. rapB. readC. roseD. running6. Which of the following words is likely to have stress in sentences?A. aB. andC. toD. sun7. “_______” is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unitin the lexical system of a language.A. WordB. LexemeC. MorphemeD. Vocabulary8. Word Class is known as in traditional grammar as _______.A. ConstructionB. parts of speechC. inflectionD. categories9. Which of the following are NOT prefixes?A. paraB. disC. irD. ion10._________is NOT included in the studies of traditional grammar.A. Classifying words into parts of speechB. Defining the properties of sentencesC. Identifying the functions of wordsD. Recognizing certain categories, like number and tense11. “Concord” has the same meaning as_____A. perfectiveB. progressiveC. agreementD. government12. Which of the following is NOT related to Noam Chomsky?A. Deep StructureB. Surface StructureC. Transformational ComponentD. Theme and Rheme13. The “semantic triangle” was proposed by______A. Plato and AristotleB. Ogden and RichardsC. Chomsky and HalleD. Leech and Palmer14. Which of the following are NOT converse antonyms?A. clever: stupidB. boy: girlC. give: receiveD. teacher: student15. “ I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of ________A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. DualityD. Displacement16. “Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. transformationalD. functional17. According to G.B. Shaw’s ridicule of English orthography, the non-existed word ghoti can be pronounced in the same way as______A. goatB. hotC. fishD. floor18. Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A. voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental stop19. “New elements are not to be inserted into a word even though there are several parts in a word.”This is known as ________A. uninterruptibilityB. stabilityC. extremityD. variability20. Which of the following word class is the closed-class?A preposition B. adverb C. adjective D. noun21. Which of the following are NOT suffixesA. inB. iseC. lyD. ful22. Traditional grammar sees a sentence as _________A. a sequence of morphemesB. a sequence of clausesC. a sequence of wordsD. a sequence of phrases23. _________meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.A. ConnotativeB. DenotativeC. AffectiveD. Reflective24. Which of the following are gradable antonyms?A. good---badB. male----femaleC. alive----deadD. buy-----sell25. The fact that sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages proves the ________of language.A. dualityB. creativityC. arbitrarinessD. displacement26. Which of the following are correct descriptions of Langue and Parole?A. It was Chomsky that distinguished langue from parole.B. It was Martin Joo that distinguished langue from parole.C. Langue constitutes the immediately accessible data.D. The linguist’s proper object is the langue of each community.27. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in ________.A. the manners of articulationB. the places of articulationC. the position of the soft palateD. the obstruction of airstream28. When the different forms, such as tin and din, are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form_______A. allophonesB. a minimal pairC. a maximal pairD. phonemes29. The process of word formation in which a verb, for example, blacken, is formed by adding–en to the adjective black, is called_____A. inflectionB. derivationC. compoundD. backformation30. The sense relation between rose and flower is _________A. synonymB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. homonymy31.Which of the following are NOT instances of blending?A. transistorB. classroomC. boatelD. brunch32. The one that is NOT one of the suprasegmental features is ________A. syllableB. stressC. coarticulationD. intonation33. What the element”-es”indicates is third person singular, present tense, and the element “-ed”past tense, and “-ing”progressive aspect. Since they are the smallest unity of language and meaningful, they are also called_______A. phonemesB. phonesC. allophonesD. morphemes34. The term“_______”in linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparative35. Since early 1990s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar known as the _______theoryA. speech actB. TGC. minimalist programD. principles-and- parametersII Decide whether the following statements are true(T) or false (F) .1.Arbitrariness means you can use languages in any way you like.（F）2.“Radar” is an inven ted word.(F)3.The consonant [x] existed in Old English.(T)4.Today, we normally say that English has two tenses: present and past.(T)5.Leech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.(T)6.Historical linguistics is a synchronic study of language.(F)7. A good method to determine the phonemes in a languageis the Minimal Pairs Test.(T)8.Phonology is concerned with speech production and speech perception.(F)9.Leech uses the term “connotative” in the same sense as that in philosophical discussion.(F)10.Duality is the physical manifestation of the “ infinite use of finite terms”(T)11.The idea of a system of cardinal vowels was first suggested by Danniel Jones.(T)12.Word is the smallest unit of meaning which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.(T)Ⅲ. Fill in each blank with ONE word.1. There are two aspects to meaning: denotation and connotation .2. Phonology is the branch of theoretical linguistics concerned with speech sounds at a higher level than Pholotics i.e. their structure and organization in human languages.3. The fact that a word may have more than one meaning is called___ in semantics.4. There are at least 4 design features of language: Arbitrariness, , __________, and ___________5 Relational antonyms are pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the otherdescribes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed, such as parent and child, teacher and student.6 antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.7. F.de Saussure , founder of modern linguistics, taught linguistics in Geneva University during 1907-1911.His theory has put great influence on semiotics, humanities study and literary studies.8. Lexical semantics is concerned with the meanings of words and the meaning among words; and phrasal or semantics is concerned with the meaning of syntactic units larger than the word.9. Reference theory in semantics holds the viewpoint that there is a___direct__ relation between forms of language and those the relevant language forms refer to.10.Nominalism refers to the idea that there is no conventional relation or link between the words that people choose and the objects that the words refer to. That is to say, language is .11. Complementery antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.12. 荀子（约公元前298～前238）在《正名篇》中说，“名无固宜，约之以命。
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英语语言学一、名词解释第一课共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.第二课音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology iscalled phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occursin the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled…morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that governthe formation of sentences.categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization prope rties, is calleddeep structure or D- structure.structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationshipbetween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a morespecific word.第六课语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence ina real situation of communication, or simply in a context.act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them studyPhonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology: It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a languageSyntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of languageThe important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist Why 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别为什么Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone How is it different from a phoneme how are allophones related to a phonemePhone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or business activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: un-meaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach or languageunhappy: not happy2)prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medically induced abortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain w ith examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The morecommonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5.orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6.part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1. What does pragmatics study How does it differ from traditional semantics答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified What is the illocutionary point of each type答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, . when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, . apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.3. What are the four maxims of the CP Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression.② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.。