英语语言学Lecture 4 Syntax
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax
Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别，〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别，〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。
word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词〔N〕： student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕： like red go形容词〔adj〕： tall lovely red副词〔adv〕： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。
英语语言学讲义Chapter4exercise
英语语言学讲义Chapter4exerciseChapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including thecombination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another followinga simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticalitybelong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate andstands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to forma complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporatedinto the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally calledan e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words areconstantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a caserecipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear onlyin subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in themind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces theembedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.。
语言学 4 Syntax(课堂PPT)
• naughty
boys and girls
naughty boys and girls
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boys and girls naughty boys
• Practice: Analyze the sentence “ They are flying planes.”
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IC Analysis
• Practice: Please analyze the following three sentences by means of IC Analysis:
• The hierarchical structure of sentences can be analyzed by means of IC Analysis.
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• e.g.
IC Analysis
He is from France
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He is from France
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is from France
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•
very /Adv sweet /Adj
Labeled IC Analysis
•
3. His brother stayed at home /S
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His brother /NP stayed at home / VP
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His /Det brother /N stayed / V at home /PP
•
very fast
very sweet
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3. His brother stayed at home
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His brother stayed at home
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His brother stayed at home
Chapter 4 语言学-Syntax
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2. The structural approach
The origin: the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, “father/founder of modern linguistics” The structural approach regards linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure or system.
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The
relations between classes and functions: Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation.
A class item can perform several functions. A function can be fulfilled by several classes.
2
Teaching Focus
Four
representative approaches to syntax: 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
Please
show some examples.
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1.3
Grammatical categories: a class or group of items which fulfills the same or similar functions in a language. e.g.: Number, gender, case: for nouns and pronouns. Tense, aspect, voice: for verbs
语言学 4 Syntax
•
2. These apples are very sweet /S are very sweet / VP are / V very sweet /AP very /Adv sweet /Adj
• These apples /NP • These /Det • apples /N
Labeled IC Analysis
• Labeled bracketing is also applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences.
• [S [NP [AP [Adj Little] ] [N Tom]] [VP [V runs] [ADVP [ADVP [Adv very]] [Adv fast]]]]
Labeled IC Analysis
• • 1. Little Tom runs very fast /S Little Tom /NP runs very fast / VP runs / V very fast /ADVP very /Adv fast /Adv
• Little /Adj Tom /N •
•
What does syntax study?
• For example: Many boys like football. • Syntax studies: • Many boys – noun phrase – subject • like football – verb phrase – predicate • Many – adj. – attribute • football – n. – object
IC Analysis
• Practice: Please analyze the following three sentences by means of IC Analysis: • 1. Little Tom runs very fast. • 2. These apples are very sweet. • 3. His brother stayed at home. • Do they have the same hierarchical structure?
语言学chapter4PPT课件
Conclusion: structure of the sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not vice versa. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
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4.5: A grammar which analyzes
chapter 4 Syntax英语专业语言学PPT
Sentence types
Binary division in terms of structure:
Simple Non-simple
– Complex – Compound
Extension of sentence
Conjoining (Coordination) 并列句 Embedding (Subordination)嵌入句 Recursiveness (Layers of
Most constructions are exocentric.
Prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
IC analysis 直接成分分析法1
Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分 分析法—a descriptive approach
IC Analysis 4
The word groups in a sentence are called its constituents 成分.
Constituents as parts of a bigger word group are called its immediate constituents (ICs).直接成分
Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic Relations 2
The syntagmatic relation is the relation between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all present.
The father of American structuralism — Leonard Bloomfield.
语言学Chapter 4 Syntax参考答案
Chapter 4 Syntax（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A + complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（蓝色为名词的修饰语，褐色为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （褐色为深层结构，蓝色为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.以下不用彩色而用斜体和划底线表示区别：Chapter 4 Syntax《教程》p.64（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A + complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.。
语言学讲义 考研 4 Syntax
Key ① Korean is SOV in its syntax while English
is SVO. ② Korean is agglutinative粘着 in its word formation.Different linguistic elements, each of which exists separately and has a fixed meaning, are joined to form one word. ③ In Korean, a question is formed by using mu □ s- □ l (What-OM) in the middle of a S and a question marker at the end of the S without the inversion or aux-insertion as in English.
What I want to emphasize is this. We should never pretend to know what we don‘t know.
The compound-complex sentence Ellipsis is a common feature in English, but in many
Language types
SVO: English, French, Swahili, Hausa, Thai VSO: Tagalog, Irish, (Classical) Arabic, (Biblical) Hebrew SOV: Turkish, Japanese, Persian, Georgian OVS: Apalai (Brazil), Barasano (Colombia), Panare (Venezuela) OSV: Apurina and Xavante (Brazil) VOS: Cakchiquel (Guatemala), Huave
英语语言学chapter 4 syntax
adavatages and problems of IC analysis • 1. it can explain the ambiguity of some sentences. • A /pretty /young woman.(pretty and young) • A /pretty young/ woman( very young) • 2.can show different communicative values which the sentence may have. • The tiger climbed the tree.
பைடு நூலகம்
• The tiger/ climbed the tree.(what climbed…?) • The tiger climbed/ the tree.(what did the tiger climb?) • The tiger/ climbed /the tree.(what have you got tell me?)
• XP rule The XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement) simlification • X ¯ Theory a. XP (specifier) X ¯ b. X ¯ X (complement) • It is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrases structure rules and may capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world .
4 syntax 语言学导论课件
each part is a constituent.
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Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units.
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1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence 同现
It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
CONSTITUENT is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:
Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
语言学导论-第4章Syntax
Sentence Structure: Syntax
Syntax 句法学
A branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
Complements 补语
Complements can be phrases Providing information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head Attached to the right of the head
Adv.: to denote property of verbs e.g., Jenny left quietly.
Not always reliable: He stands still. love – hate be aware of – know about
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
❖ IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets: ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)). It may also be more easily shown with a tree diagram: Poor John ran away.
❖ Concord: also known as agreement, may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
1. The traditional approach
The classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. 1) Number, gender and case 2) Tense and aspect 3) Concord and government
Chapter 4
Syntax
Syntax
Syntax: The study of the rules governing the
ways words and phrases are combined to form sentences. 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
自考英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
自考英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax自考英语语言学chapter4syntax第4章语法I.本章大纲二、本章重点句法分析是语言学的一个分支，研究语言的内容和结构。
2022、说明；2022，选择1.syntaxasasystemrules句法规则系统当一个内容与说话者头脑中的语法知识一致时，它被认为是语法化的。
1）语言学中，句法学是和语音学，音系学，形态学，语义学等并列平行的次系统，主要是来分析研究语言的句子结构。
句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，这些抽象规则称为句法规则。
根据句法规则，不同的单词组合在一起，产生符合语法性的句子。
句法学的中心是研究句子的结构成分。
2）句子的语法性意味着句子的合成必须符合母语人士头脑中的语法知识。
生成的句子必须符合语法。
3）单词合成句子，单词和句法规则的数量是有限的，但借助抽象的句法规则，可以将单词合成数量无限的句子。
一方面，说话者要想说出或理解符合语法性的句子，必须遵循句法规则；另一方面，说话者运用句法规则，可以表达或理解从未听说过的句子。
4）任何语言的句法规则必须能够描述和解释所有的母语者认为是规范的句子。
2.sentencestructure句子结构主语是指句子中所指的宾语，如人、物、物、地点、概念等。
谓语是指对句子中对主语进行表述或判断的部分。
通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。
谓语要受到人称、数、时态各语气的限制。
2.2句子类型句子的类型，句子可分为简单句、并列句和复合句三大类。
2.2.1简单句asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandsta ndsaloneasitsownsentence.（2021填空）指一个句子中含有一个主语和一个谓语。
ACLauseThattached as object and finiteverb，而ametimes stands structurallyalone则被称为afiniteclause。
《语言学》Chapter4Syntax习题兼答案
《语言学》Chapter4Syntax习题兼答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with itsmeaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, andadjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements beingconjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, anda specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PP d) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。
lecture 4 syntax
Immediate Constituent Analysis (ICA)
Def: the approach to divide the sentence up to its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis. It is a hierarchical analysis showing the different constituents at different structural levels based on the distribution of linguistic forms. It is first explicitly introduced by Leonard Bloomfield in his book “Language” in 1933. The idea that linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions and may themselves also be constructions composed of smaller parts. The technique is to show how small constituents or components in sentences go together to form larger constituents. Subject—predicate Noun phrase—verb phrase The process of analysis continues until no further divisions are possible. The first divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents (ICs), and the final cuts as the ultimate
英语语言学 Chapter 4 syntax(1)
Structuralists believe sentences are not composed of sequences of words in a simple linear, additive fashion. Instead, they are composed of hierarchies of constructions.
Immediate Constituent Analysis
IC Analysis is to simply divide a sentence into its constituent elements without at first knowing what these elements are.
A:John is easy to please. B:John is eager to please.
A:others could please John. B:John sought to please others.
2. This problem comes into even sharper focus when ambiguous sentences are considered. Flying planes can be dangerous. In this sentence, the speaker may be afraid that an airplane will crash into his house or he may be afraid to take over the controls himself.
An independent linguistic form not included by some grammatical marks in any other linguistic form---it is not s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a l a rg e r linguistic form. It is structurally independent l i n g u i s t i c f o r m .
(Lecture Four) syntax
Modifiers
---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.
Sentences (the S rule)
S NP VP
S NP Det A N boy V found VP NP Det the N evidence
Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built categories----the around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head---Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier---Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement---Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads
X’ Theory
XP X’ (Specifier)X’ (Specifier)X’ X(complement)
XP(Phrase level) X’ specifier X(head) complement
Coordination rule
Coordination structures-----the structures that are formed by structures-----the joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc. ----Coordination ----Coordination has four important properties: no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter-4-Syntax
Number
singular plural
Noun
man men
Pronoun
He They
Verb (agreement)
works work
性 (Gender)
❖ Many inflectional languages have three meaning-related gender distinction: masculine, feminine and neuter.
❖ 许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、 阴性、中性。
❖ In English gender contrast can be only observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns which shows the biological gender.
❖ The categories of the noun, include number, gender, case and countability;
❖ 名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性；
❖ The categories of the verb, for example, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc.
❖ 英语中有被动语态，用“分词”表示。主动 态句子中的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或 用“by短语”
❖ Active voice Jim caught the ball.
❖ Passive voice TБайду номын сангаасe ball was caught.
❖ Passive voice with “by-phrase”
❖ SYNTAX is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language , or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 4 Syntax
式(Mood)
Mood involves a choice between indicative , imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic basis of the factuality. “式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动 词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据， 视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。
4.2 Categories
Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.
Grammatical Categories
The term “grammatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes. In TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc.
体(Aspect)
Aspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed. English has two aspect constructions, the perfective and the progressive, realised by “have +ed participle” and “be+-ing participle” respectively.
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2. Syntactic Relations
It refers to the relation between words in a sentence, which can be studied from both vertical and latitudinal perspectives.
Three types: 1)positional relation, 2)relation of substitutability 3)relations of co-occurrence.
How to do it
1. Brackets ( (Poor) (John) ) ( (ran)( away) )
2. Tree diagrams The girl chased the dog.
Features of IC Analysis
Advantages: Through ICA, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities will be revealed.
Problems: First, binary divisions of ICA is not
always possible. Second, there exist technical problems for tree diagrams in ICA. Third, there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis .
1.1 Definition of Syntax
Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
4.1 Syntagmatic Relation
It is a relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc.
Also called horizontal relation or chain relation
Also called vertical relation or choice relation.
4.2 Immediate Constituent Analysis
It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents— word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached
4.1 Paradigmatic Relation
It is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular pleen one element present and the others absent.
Chapter 4 Syntax
Content
I. Introduction to Syntax II. Syntactic relations III. Traditional Approach IV. Structural Approach V. Generative Approach VI. Functional Approach VII. Systemic-functional Approach
4. The Structural Approach
4.1 Syntagmatic & Paradigmatic Relations 组合关系和聚合关系
4.2 Immediate Constituent Analysis 直接成分分析
4.3 Endocentric & Exocentric Constructions 向心结构和离心结构
1.2 Approaches to Syntax
The Traditional Approach The Structural Approach The Generative Approach The Functional Approach The Systematic-functional Approach
3. The Traditional Approach
3.1 Category 范畴 p.96 3.2 Number, Gender and Case
数，性，格 3.2 Tense, Aspect and Mood
时态，体，语气 3.3 Agreement/Concord一致关系
Notional and grammatical ~
4.3 Endocentric & Exocentric Constructions
Endocentric Construction: p.89 1) subordinate ~:NP,VP,AP 2) coordinate ~: and, or,
Exocentric Construction: p.90 includes: basic sentence, PP,
5. The Generative Approach