英文文献翻译
收藏知乎网友总结的23种英文文献翻译软件,助力文献阅读
01搜狗翻译搜狗翻译的文档翻译功能有三个优点：第一，可以直接上传文档，流程操作简单化，这才是一键翻译哇，我之前只能说是很多键……；第二，在线阅读翻译结果时，系统可实时提供原文与译文的双屏对照，方便对比查看；第三，译文可直接免费下载，方便进一步研读或分享。
02Google Chrome浏览器假设一个情景，你想在PubMed上找到以清华大学为第一单位的施一公教授的文章，那么，可以在Chrome浏览器上，登上PubMed，搜索格式为Yigong Shi Tsinghua University，即可找到其发表的文章。
接着，看上一篇蛮不错的，点击进去看看，然后，还是全英文。
这时候，你可以试下Chrome自带的网页翻译，真的可以秒翻译，将英文翻译为中文，而且还可以快速转换中/英界面。
03Adobe Acrobat笔者在这里给大伙介绍另一款秒翻译PDF文档的神器（笔者使用的Adobe Acrobat Pro DC，至于具体的下载和安装方式，读者可自行百度）。
但是，需要注意一点，这是Adobe Acrobat，而不是Adobe Reader。
在这里，请应许笔者介绍下开发出Adobe Acrobat的公司——Adobe。
Adobe，在软件界绝对是巨头中巨头的存在。
打个比方，我们常用的PS、PR、AE、In、LR等，无一例外都是领域中的顶尖水平，而且都是Adobe家的。
其中，Adobe家中就有一款几位出色的PDF编辑及处理软件——Adobe Acrobat。
（据说PDF作为国际通用的文件存储格式，也是依它而起）OK，进入主题，Adobe Acrobat是长这个样子的。
它可能干嘛呢？PDF 转word、图片合拼为PDF、编辑PDF等等，可以说，与PDF相关的，它都可以搞定。
那如何使用它来帮助我们翻译文献PDF呢？第一步，用它打开文献PDF文件；第二步，点击使用界面上的“文件”，接着点击“另存为”，选择存储格式为“HTML”，如下图；第三步，PDF文档在导出完成后，会得到两个文件，一是将PDF转为HTML格式的网页文件，另一个则是支持网页文件里面的图片（若删，网页里面的图片显示不出来）第四步，找到网页文件，打开方式选择Google Chrome浏览器，接着，结合Chrome浏览器的网页翻译，即可秒翻。
英文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Sodium Polyacrylate:Also known as super-absorbent or “SAP”(super absorbent polymer), Kimberly Clark used to call it SAM (super absorbent material). It is typically used in fine granular form (like table salt). It helps improve capacity for better retention in a disposable diaper, allowing the product to be thinner with improved performance and less usage of pine fluff pulp. The molecular structure of the polyacrylate has sodium carboxylate groups hanging off the main chain. When it comes in contact with water, the sodium detaches itself, leaving only carboxylions. Being negatively charged, these ions repel one another so that the polymer also has cross-links, which effectively leads to a three-dimensional structure. It has hige molecular weight of more than a million; thus, instead of getting dissolved, it solidifies into a gel. The Hydrogen in the water (H-O-H) is trapped by the acrylate due to the atomic bonds associated with the polarity forces between the atoms. Electrolytes in the liquid, such as salt minerals (urine contains 0.9% of minerals), reduce polarity, thereby affecting superabsorbent properties, especially with regard to the superabsorbent capacity for liquid retention. This is the main reason why diapers containing SAP should never be tested with plain water. Linear molecular configurations have less total capacity than non-linear molecules but, on the other hand, retention of liquid in a linear molecule is higher than in a non-linear molecule, due to improved polarity. For a list of SAP suppliers, please use this link: SAP, the superabsorbent can be designed to absorb higher amounts of liquids (with less retention) or very high retentions (but lower capacity). In addition, a surface cross linker can be added to the superabsorbent particle to help it move liquids while it is saturated. This helps avoid formation of "gel blocks", the phenomenon that describes the impossibility of moving liquids once a SAP particle gets saturated.History of Super Absorbent Polymer ChemistryUn til the 1980’s, water absorbing materials were cellulosic or fiber-based products. Choices were tissue paper, cotton, sponge, and fluff pulp. The water retention capacity of these types of materials is only 20 times their weight – at most.In the early 1960s, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was conducting work on materials to improve water conservation in soils. They developed a resin based on the grafting of acrylonitrile polymer onto the backbone of starch molecules (i.e. starch-grafting). The hydrolyzed product of the hydrolysis of this starch-acrylonitrile co-polymer gave water absorption greater than 400 times its weight. Also, the gel did not release liquid water the way that fiber-based absorbents do.The polymer came to be known as “Super Slurper”.The USDA gave the technical know how several USA companies for further development of the basic technology. A wide range of grating combinations were attempted including work with acrylic acid, acrylamide and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).Since Japanese companies were excluded by the USDA, they started independent research using starch, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), acrylic acid, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and isobutylene maleic anhydride (IMA).Early global participants in the development of super absorbent chemistry included Dow Chemical, Hercules, General Mills Chemical, DuPont, National Starch & Chemical, Enka (Akzo), Sanyo Chemical, Sumitomo Chemical, Kao, Nihon Starch and Japan Exlan.In the early 1970s, super absorbent polymer was used commercially for the first time –not for soil amendment applications as originally intended –but for disposable hygienic products. The first product markets were feminine sanitary napkins and adult incontinence products.In 1978, Park Davis (d.b.a. Professional Medical Products) used super absorbent polymers in sanitary napkins.Super absorbent polymer was first used in Europe in a baby diaper in 1982 when Schickendanz and Beghin-Say added the material to the absorbent core. Shortly thereafter, UniCharm introduced super absorbent baby diapers in Japan while Proctor & Gamble and Kimberly-Clark in the USA began to use the material.The development of super absorbent technology and performance has been largely led by demands in the disposable hygiene segment. Strides in absorption performance have allowed the development of the ultra-thin baby diaper which uses a fraction of the materials – particularly fluff pulp – which earlier disposable diapers consumed.Over the years, technology has progressed so that there is little if any starch-grafted super absorbent polymer used in disposable hygienic products. These super absorbents typically are cross-linked acrylic homo-polymers (usually Sodium neutralized).Super absorbents used in soil amendments applications tend to be cross-linked acrylic-acrylamide co-polymers (usually Potassium neutralized).Besides granular super absorbent polymers, ARCO Chemical developed a super absorbent fiber technology in the early 1990s. This technology was eventually sold to Camelot Absorbents. There are super absorbent fibers commercially available today. While significantly more expensive than the granular polymers, the super absorbent fibers offer technical advantages in certain niche markets including cable wrap, medical devices and food packaging.Sodium polyacrylate, also known as waterlock, is a polymer with the chemical formula [-CH2-CH(COONa)-]n widely used in consumer products. It has the ability to absorb as much as 200 to 300 times its mass in water. Acrylate polymers generally are considered to possess an anionic charge. While sodium neutralized polyacrylates are the most common form used in industry, there are also other salts available including potassium, lithium and ammonium.ApplicationsAcrylates and acrylic chemistry have a wide variety of industrial uses that include: ∙Sequestering agents in detergents. (By binding hard water elements such as calcium and magnesium, the surfactants in detergents work more efficiently.) ∙Thickening agents∙Coatings∙Fake snowSuper absorbent polymers. These cross-linked acrylic polymers are referred to as "Super Absorbents" and "Water Crystals", and are used in baby diapers. Copolymerversions are used in agriculture and other specialty absorbent applications. The origins of super absorbent polymer chemistry trace back to the early 1960s when the U.S. Department of Agriculture developed the first super absorbent polymer materials. This chemical is featured in the Maximum Absorbency Garment used by NASA.译文聚丙烯酸钠聚丙烯酸钠，又可以称为超级吸收剂或者又叫高吸水性树脂，凯博利克拉克教授曾经称它为SAM即：超级吸收性物质。
英文文献整篇翻译
英文文献整篇翻译Title: The Impact of Climate Change on BiodiversityClimate change is a pressing issue that has significant impacts on biodiversity worldwide. Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events are altering ecosystems and threatening the survival of many species. The loss of biodiversity not only affects the natural world but also has implications for human societies.One of the major impacts of climate change onbiodiversity is the shifting of habitats. As temperatures rise, many species are forced to move to higher latitudesor elevations in search of suitable conditions. This can disrupt ecosystems and lead to the decline or extinction of species that are unable to adapt to the new conditions.In addition to habitat loss, climate change is also causing changes in the timing of biological events such as flowering, migration, and reproduction. These changes can disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems and lead to mismatches between species that depend on each other for survival.Furthermore, climate change is exacerbating otherthreats to biodiversity such as habitat destruction, pollution, and overexploitation. The combination of these factors is putting immense pressure on many species and pushing them closer to extinction.It is essential that we take action to mitigate the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, protecting and restoring habitats, and implementing conservation measures to safeguard vulnerable species. By addressing the root causes of climate change and protecting biodiversity, we canensure a sustainable future for both the natural world and human societies.气候变化对生物多样性的影响气候变化是一个紧迫的问题，对全球的生物多样性产生重大影响。
英文文献用翻译
Adult【成年人】Aged【老年人】Aged, 80 and over【老年人, 80以上】Catheterization, Central Venous/*instrumentation/methods【*导管插入术, 中心静脉/*仪器/方法】Cost-Benefit Analysis【费用效益分析】Equipment Design【设备设计】Equipment Failure【设备失效】Equipment Safety【设备安全性】Female【女(雌)性】Humans【人类】Infusion Pumps, Implantable/adverse effects/*economics【*输注泵, 植入型/副作用/*经济学】Male【男(雄)性】Middle Aged【中年人】Neoplasms/*drug therapy/pathology【*肿瘤/*药物疗法/病理学】Probability【概率】Prospective Studies【前瞻性研究】Risk Assessment【危险性评估】Sensitivity and Specificity【敏感性与特异性】Treatment Outcome【治疗结果】Vascular Patency【血管未闭】Venous Thrombosis/prevention & control【静脉血栓形成】Adolescent【青少年】Adult【成年人】Aged【老年人】Aged, 80 andover【老年人, 80以上】AntineoplasticAgents/*administration& dosage【*抗肿瘤药】*Catheters,Indwelling/adverseeffects/economics【*导管, 留置/副作用/经济学】Female【女(雌)性】Humans【人类】*Infusion Pumps,Implantable/adverse。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。
英文文献及翻译
Recycling Economics: Higher Costs Are An Illusion Hidden CostsM.A.CokeMany people are surprised when they discover their community may pay more for a curbside recycling program than for regular trash pickup. They ask why - in some cases - they must pay more to give their recyclables to someone who will sell them? This leads many people to believe that recycling is not economical. One reason recycling appears to be uneconomical is that some people already pay a higher cost for trash disposal than they realize. Some local governments pay fees to hauling companies, transfer stations, or landfills out of local tax revenue. That lowers the direct cost to residents and businesses, making the regular trash pickup appear to be less expensive than it really is. But when recycling programs begin, residents usually directly pay the full cost of recycling. This can distort the cost comparisons between the recycling program and disposing of trash at landfills. Depletion Costs Recycling also is economical because costs associated with future disposal are avoided. One of these avoided costs is for landfill depletion. Landfills have limited space, and so can receive a limited amount of trash. When it is full, it must be replaced by another landfill that is generally more expensive to operate and maintain. This is due to higher costs of complying with environmental regulations, higher expenses in siting a new location, buying or allocating land, constructing the landfill, operational expenses, and long-term maintenance costs after the landfill is closed. Additionally, the new landfill may be further away than the old landfill, increasing transportation costs. Generally, a new landfill costs more than an older one. Paying the higher cost at a new landfill is avoided by keeping the older landfill open longer. Recycling and other waste-reducing methods keep the older landfill open longer. Because these avoided costs are not seen when people pay the bills, they do not usually think of the savings recycling produces. Environmental Costs Recycling is economical in several ways related to manufacturing processes. Recycling cuts down on waste produced by processing raw materials into usable forms. For example, recycling aluminum reduces mining wastes, processing wastes, and emissions produced by extracting the aluminum from the ore. Recycling usually requires less refining than raw materials. For example, it takes much less energy to melt down an aluminum can to make another aluminum can than to process the raw materials to make a can. This cuts down on chances for environmental damage and conserves our natural resources. With any product, the costs of cleaning up wastes and limitingemissions usually are passed on to consumers who purchase the product. But sometimes damage to the environment is not realized for years, is difficult to attribute to certain industries, or is caused by a combination of many industries. Acid rain is one example of this type of environmental damage. The costs of dealing with this pollution are hard to assess, but are paid for by everyone in efforts to improve the environment.Energy SavingsManufacturing products from recycled material also can save energy. The energy required to produce one aluminum can is equal to the energy embodied in the amount of gasoline it takes to fill the can half full.While recycling saves energy, that does not always mean that industries save money by using recycled materials. Labor costs for recycled products are often higher than those used in processing virgin material. Materials recovered from curbside collection, drop-off centers, and material recovery facilities must be separated, cleaned, and processed.Making a product from recycled material may require new or retrofitted equipment and other capital expenditures while virgin material supplies and equipment needed to produce most goods already exist.But since recycling saves energy, it also cuts down on pollution emitted by utilities and the companies themselves. When energy is used, the price of the resulting pollution is passed on to all energy consumers in their utility bills. Due to the new clean air law, utility companies must comply with tougher standards in reducing pollutants they release while producing energy. The cost of compliance is usually passed on to each energy consumer.If energy use is reduced by methods such as recycling, less pollution is produced. That reduces everyone's cost in terms of paying to reduce pollution and in limiting damage to natural resources.Once the long-term costs and advantages are weighed, recycling does make economic sense. Using resources wisely is always economical..循环经济学:较高的成本是一个错觉隐藏的费用M.A.Coke许多人都很惊讶当他们发现他们的社区可能多支付一个路边废物回收程序要比普通垃圾的猎物。
英文文献及翻译
Geotextile reinforced by soft soil1. IntroductionGeotextile known, it has high tensile strength, durability, corrosion resistance, texture, flexibility, combined with good sand, to form reinforced composite foundation, effectively increase the shear strength , tensile properties, and enhance the integrity and continuity of soil. Strengthening mechanism for the early 60's in the 20th century, Henri Vidal on the use of triaxial tests found a small amount of fiber in the sand, the soil shear strength can improve the image of more than 4 times in recent years, China's rock Laboratory workers also proved in the reinforced sand can effectively improve the soil's bearing capacity, reduce the vertical ground settlement, effectively overcome the poor soil and continuity of overall poor performance. As with the above properties of reinforced soil and the characteristics of its low price, so the project has broad application prospects.2.1 Project OverviewThe proposed retaining wall using rubble retaining wall of gravity, the wall is 6 meters high, the bearing capacity of foundation soil required to 250kPa, while the basement geology from the top down as follows: ①clay to a thickness of 0.7 to 2 meters saturated, soft plastic; ② muddy soil, about 22 - 24 meters thick, saturated, mainly plastic flow, local soft plastic; ③ sand layer to a thickness of 5 to 10 meters, containing silty soil and organic matter, saturated, slightly wet; ④ gravel layer, the thickness of the uneven distribution points, about 0 to 2.2 meters, slightly dense; ⑤ weathered sandstone. Including clay and silty soil bearing capacity is 70kPa, obviously do foundation reinforcement.2.2 Enhanced Treatment of reinforced foundation cushion Reinforcement replacement method can be used for sand and gravel used forsoil treatment, but due to loose bedding, based on past experience, witha gravel mat to treat a large settlement of the foundation always exist, even the characteristics of poor, often resulting in cracks in the superstructure, differential settlement of the image, this works for6-meter-high rubble retaining walls, height and large, and because the walls are 3 meters high wall, if there is differential settlement of retaining walls, cracks, will result in more serious consequences and thus should be used on the cushion reinforcement through economic and technical analysis, decide on the sand and gravel stratum were reinforced hardening. Reinforcement treatment method: first the design elevation and the basement excavation to 200mm thick layer of gravel bedding, and then capped with a layer of geotextile, and then in the thick sand and gravel on the 200, after leveling with the yellow sand using roller compaction; second with loaded bags of sand and gravel laying of geotextile, the gap filled with slag, geotextile bags capped 100 thick gravel, roller compaction. Its on repeat laying geotextile → → compacted gravel, until the design thickness of the cushion, the bridge is 1 m thick cushion, a total of 4 layers of geotextile, two bags of sand.This method works fast, simple machine, investment, after years of use, that reinforce good effect, building and construction units are satisfied.3 ExperienceTo achieve the reinforced soil reinforcement effect, must be reinforced earth construction technology, construction strict quality control: 1, geotextile should increase the initial pre-stress, and its end should be a reliable anchor to play the tensile strength of geotextile, anchoring more firmly, more capacity to improve, the foundation of the stress distribution more uniform, geotextile side Ministry of fixed length by laying end to ensure the fold, the folded end wrapped sand to increase its bond strength to ensure that the use will not be pulled out duringthe period.Second, the construction process have a significant effect on the reinforcement effect, the construction should be as soon as possible so that geotextile in tension, tensile strength geotextile can be played only when the deformation, so do not allow construction of geotextile crease occurs, the earth Fabric tension leveling as much as possible. Geotextile in order to have enough by the early Dutch strain, according to the following procedure works: ① laying geotextile; ② leveled the tension at both ends; both ends of the folded package gravel and sand filling at both ends; ③ center fill sand; ④ 2 higher end of sand; ⑤ Finally, the center of sand filling. Click here to enable the construction method of forming corrugated geotextile being stretched as soon as possible, to play a role in the early loaded.Third, the construction of geotextile-reinforced cushion should the level of shop using geotextile geotextile and laying of gravel bags cushion the turn to play bag cushion integrated turn out good, flexural rigidity, and dispersion of good and peace bedding layer of the overall continuity of good advantages.4 ConclusionGeotextile reinforced by soft soil is an effective, economical, safe, reliable, simple method, but the literature describes only qualitative, experience more components, yet the lack of rigorous The theoretical formula, reliable test data to be adequate, these are yet to be theoretical workers and the general engineering and technical personnel continue to explore.土工织物加筋垫层加固软土地基1. 引言土工织物又称土工聚合物，它具有高抗拉强度，耐久性、耐腐蚀性，质地柔韧，能与砂土很好地结合，组合成加筋土复合地基，有效地提高土的抗剪强度、抗拉性能，增强土体的整体性和连续性。
八大英文文献翻译神器
你值得拥有的八大英文文献翻译神器不管是做科研还是写SCI论文，开始都需要阅读大量的文献，做课题至少查阅600篇，粗看300篇，细看100篇，研读50篇，在看到一叠叠论文后，由于语言问题，往往会觉得无从下手，下面分享几款常用的文献翻译神器。
1、谷歌浏览器翻译优点：页面简洁，使用方便，随开随用，多种语言随时切换，只要有网就能翻译。
缺点：功能比较单一，排版比较乱，界面不是很美观。
2、SCI Translate9.0目前有9.0普通版以及VIP版，VIP版内置Google 人工智能云翻译引擎，翻译精准度很强；没有广告。
3、LinggleLinggle是一个可用来进行英语语法、句子写作的工具，可为学习者提供更准确的英文写作建议。
4、NetSpeakNetSpeak是一个提供免费线上单词、词组、语句翻译的工具，其特点是可以在线搜索和比较各种英文词汇、短句、语法、单词解释等内容，并且可以统计出这个用语的变化形态，还可以分析使用频率和情境，堪比谷歌翻译。
5、CNKI翻译CNKI翻译助手是一款专业的学术翻译工具，由“中国知网”开发制作，汇集了从CNKI系列数据库中挖掘的大量常用词汇、专业术语、成语俚语及双语例句等，形成海量中英在线词典和双语平行语料库。
6、LingoesLingoes是一款简明易用的词典与文本翻译软件，支持全球超过80多种语言的词典查询、全文翻译、屏幕取词、划词翻译、例句搜索、网络释义和真人语音朗读功能。
7、有道词典有道词典是个神器，尤其是查词、划词、取词的方面特别突出，词库中有所有专业用语的补充包，可以让你瞬间翻译出各种专业的英文单词，从复杂的有机化合物，到稀奇古怪的动物名，哪里不会点哪里。
8、Copy Translator比较适用于即时翻译，内置了谷歌翻译、百度翻译、有道翻译、搜狗翻译、彩云翻译和腾讯翻译几种不同的翻译引擎，随意切换，总有一个适合你。
激励机制英文文献及翻译
英文文献及翻译1. One of the p ri nciple s: i nce ntives to vary fro m perso n to pe rso n Because o f the differe nt needs of diffe re nt s ta ff, the refo re, the same i nce nti ve effec ts of po lic y inc e nti ves will pla y a differe nt. Eve n wi th a s ta ff, at differe nt ti mes or circ ums ta nces, wi ll ha ve diffe re nt needs. Beca use of i nce nti ves depe ndi ng o n the internal and the s ubjec ti ve fee li ngs of the sta ff a re, there fo re, i nce ntive to va ry from perso n to pers o n.In the fo rmula tio n a nd imp le me ntatio n of i nce nti ve po licies, we must firs t i nves tiga te ea c h e mp lo yee clearly wha t is rea llyreq uired. Req uired to orga ni ze, cla ssify, a nd the n to formulate appropria te policies to he lp mo ti vate e mplo yees to me et these needs.2. Two pri ncip les: app rop riate ince nti vesAppropria te i nce nti ves a nd pe na lties wi ll no t affec t the i nce nti ve effe ct, whi le i nc reasi ng the cos t of i nce ntives. A ward o ve rweig ht emplo yees wo uld ha ve to meet the mood of p ride a nd lost the desire to further e nha nce their o wn; re wa rd ince nti ves too lig ht wi ll no t a c hie ve the effec t, o r s o e mplo yees do not ha ve a se nse of atte ntio n. Hea vy pe na lties a re unfair to make emp lo ye es, o r loss of the comp a ny's ide nti ty, o r e ve n s lo w down o r da mage arisi ngfro m the emo tio ns; le nie nc y erro r will undere stimate theserio us ness o f the sta ff, whic h will prob ably make the sa me mistake.3. The p rinciple of three: fairnessThe fai rness of the ma nage me nt s ta ff are a very importa nt principle, e mp lo yees are a ny unfair trea tme nt wi ll a ffe ct his mood and wo rk e fficienc y, a nd e ffecti ve ness o f the i mpact o f i nce ntives. Emplo ye es to obtai n the sa me sco re, we mus t recei ve the sa me le ve l o f ince nti ve s; the sa me toke n, emp lo ye es c ommitted the same e rror, b ut also s ho uld be s ub jec t to the sa me le ve l o fpunis hme nt. If yo u ca n no t do this, ma nage rs wo uld pre fe r no t to rewa rd or p unis hme nt.Ma nagers dea l wi th emp lo yees a t iss ue, mus t ha ve a fair mi nd, sho uld no t ha ve a ny p rejudices a nd p refe re nce s. Altho ug h so me staff ma y a llow yo u to e njo y, some yo u do not e njo y, b ut at work, must be trea ted eq ually a nd s ho uld not ha ve a ny o f the wo rds a nd acts of i njustice.1. S timulate the tra nsfe r o f sta ff fro m the res ults o f eq ua l to eq ual opportuni ties a nd s trive to crea te a le ve l pla yi ng field.For e xa mp le, Wu S hi ho ng at IB M from a clea n s tart wi th the people, s tep b y step to the sa les c lerk to the district perso n i n cha rge, Ge nera l Ma nage r o f Chi na, wha t a re the reaso ns for this? In addi tion to i ndi vidual effo rts, b ut a lso said tha t IB M s ho uld be a good co rpora te c ulture to a stage o f d e velopme nt, that is,eve ryo ne has unlimited oppo rtuni ties fo r de velop me nt, as lo ng a s there is capacity there will be space fo r the de ve lopme nt ofself-imp le me nta tio n, whic h is to do a lot o f co mpa nies are not, this syste m will undo ub ted ly ins pire a g reat role o f the s taff.2. Inspire the best time to grasp.- Take s aim a t p re-orde r i nce nti ve the mis sion to ad va nceince nti ves.- Ha ve Diffic ulties e mp lo yees, desire to ha ve s tro ng de ma nd, to give the ca re a nd time ly e nco urageme nt.3. Wa nt a fai r a nd acc ura te i nce nti ve, re ward- So und, perfec t pe rforma nce appraisa l s ys tem to e ns ure appropria te assess me nt sc ale, fair a nd re aso nab le.- Ha ve to o ve rco me the re is thi nni ng of the huma n pro-wind.- In re fere nc e sa la ry, p romo tio ns, a wa rds, e tc.评优i nvo lve thevi tal i nte res ts of emp lo yees o n ho t i s s ues i n order to be fai r.4. The imp le me nta tio n of Emp lo yee Sto ck Owners hip P la n.Worke rs a nd e mp lo yees i n o rder to do uble the c apacity o finves tors, mo re co nce rned a bo ut the o utco me of b usi nessoperatio ns a nd imp ro ve the i nitiati ve.Modern huma n reso urces ma nag eme nt e xperie nce a nd re searc h sho ws that emp lo ye es a re involved i n mode rn ma nage me ntreq uire me nts a nd aspira tio ns, a nd c rea te a nd p ro videopportuni ties fo r all emplo yees is to mobi li ze the m to pa rticipa te in the ma nage me nt o f a n e ffecti ve wa y to e nthusiasm. There is no doub t tha t very few peop le participate d i n the disc ussio ns o f the act a nd i ts o wn witho ut i nce nti ves. There fore, to a llow tradeunio ns to participate i n the ma nage me nt o f p rope rly, ca n mo ti vate work ers, b ut a lso the s ucce ss of the e nterp rise to ob tain va luab le kno wledge. Thro ug h participatio n, the fo rmatio n of trade unio nson the e nterprise a s e nse of be lo ngi ng, ide nti ty, se lf-e stee m a nd can further mee t the ne eds o f s elf-rea li zatio n. Se t up a nd impro ve emplo yee p articipatio n i n ma nageme nt, the ra tio nali za tio n of the proposed s ys tem a nd the E mplo yee S tock Owne rs hip a ndstre ng the ni ng leaders hip a t a ll le ve ls a nd the e xc ha nge of communica tio n a nd e nha nce the a ware ne ss o f staff to participate in o wne rs hip.5. Ho no r i nce nti veStaff a ttitude a nd co ntrib ution o f labo r to ho nor rewa rds, s uc h as recog nitio n of the mee ting, iss ued certifica te, ho nor ro ll, i n the compa ny's i nterna l a nd e xte rna l p ublicity o n the media repo rts, ho me visi ts co ndo le nces, vi sit sig htseei ng, co nva lesce nce,trai ni ng o ut o f trai ni ng, ac cess to recomme nd ho nor socie ty, selec ted sta rs mode l, s uc h as clas s.6. Co nce rned abo ut the ince nti vesThe staff co ncerned abo ut work a nd li fe, s uc h as the sta ff se t up the birthda y tab le, birthda y ca rds, ge nera l ma nage r of the iss ue of staff, c are s taff or diffic ult a nd p rese nted a sma ll gi ft s ympathy. 7. Co mpeti ti veThe pro mo tion o f e nte rprise amo ng e mp lo yees, de partme nts compete o n a n eq ua l foo ting be twee n the ord erly a nd the s urvi val of the fi ttes t.8. The mate rial i nce nti vesIncrea se their wages, we lfa re, i ns ura nce, b o nuses, i nce nti veho use s, daily ne cessities, wage s p romo tio n.9. Informatio n i nce ntivesEnterp rises to communica te o fte n, i nformatio n amo ng e mplo yees, the idea of co mmunica tio n, i nfo rma tio n s uc h as co nfere nc es, field relea se, e nterp rises repo rte d that the repo rti ng s ys tem, the associatio n ma nage r to re cei ve the s ys tem da te.附录二：翻译1. 原则之一：激励要因人而异由于不同员工的需求不同，所以，相同的激励政策起到的激励效果也会不尽相同。
英文文献翻译格式
英文文献翻译格式
英文文献翻译格式通常包括以下几个方面:
1. 文献信息：在翻译文献之前，首先要提供文献的基本信息，包括作者、标题、期刊/书名、出版日期等。
通常按照以下格式进行排列：
[作者姓氏]，[作者名字]. [文章标题]. [期刊/书名]. [出版日期].
2. 翻译译者：如果是自己翻译的文献，应该标明自己是译者。
可以在文献信息的末尾加上"Translated by: [译者姓名]"或者"Translation by: [译者姓名]"。
3. 段落翻译：在翻译文献的内容时，可以将原文按照段落进行翻译，并使用缩进或者空行进行分隔。
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可以使用段落符号或者引用标记来引用内容。
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6. 标题翻译：如果文献中包含标题或子标题，应该将其翻译成对应的中文。
可以将翻译后的标题用加粗、斜体、下划线等格
式进行标记，以便读者区分。
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可以在插图下方或者旁边加上对应的中文说明，以方便读者理解。
总体而言，英文文献翻译格式应该清晰明了，准确无误地传达原文的信息。
要注重原文内容的准确性，并注意译文的语法、词汇、结构等方面的准确性和流畅度。
英文文献翻译
外文翻译（原文）Catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of azo dye (Congo red) using modified Y zeolite as catalystAbstractThe present study explores the degradation of azo dye (Congo red) by catalytic wet peroxide oxidation using Fe exchanged commercial Y zeolite as a catalyst. The effects of various operating parameters like temperature, initial pH, hydrogen peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on the removal of dye,color and COD from an aqueous solution were studied at atmospheric pressure. The percent removals of dye, color and COD at optimum pH07, 90◦C using 0.6 ml H 2 O2/350 ml solution and 1 g/l catalyst was 97% (in 4 h), 100% (in 45 min) and 58% (in 4 h), respectively. The % dye removal has been found to be less in comparison to % color removal at all conditions, e.g. dye removal in 45 min and at above conditions was 82%, whereas the color removal was 100%. The results indicate that the Fe exchanged Y zeolite is a promising catalyst for dye removal. Fe exchanged catalyst is characterized using XRD, SEM/EDAX, surface area analyzer and FTIR. Though the dye, color and COD removals were maximum at pH02 but as the leaching of Fe from the catalyst was more in acidic pH range, pH0 7 was taken as operating pH due to almost comparable removals as of pH0 2 and no leaching of Fe ions.© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1. IntroductionReactive azo dyes from textile and dyeing industries pose grave environmental problem. An estimate shows that textiles account for 14% of India’s industrial production and around 27% of its export earnings[1]. Production during 2006 registered a growth of about 3.5% at 29,500 tonnes and the textile industry accounts for the largest consumption of dyestuffs at nearly 80% [2]. The waste containing these azo dyes is non-degradable. The process of dyeing is a combination of bleaching and coloring, which generates huge quantities of wastewaters causing environmental problems. The effluents from these industries consist of large quantities of sodium, chloride, sulphate, hardness, carcinogenic dye ingredients and total dissolved solids with very high BOD and COD values over 1500 mg/l and over 5000 mg/l, respectively [3]. Various methods have been used for dye removal like adsorption, coagulation, electrocoagulation, Fenton’s reagent and combination of these processes. Though these treatment processes are efficient in dye removal, they generate adsorbed waste/sludge, etc. which further causes a secondary pollution. In wet oxidation the sludge is disposed off to a great extent by oxidizing the organic pollutant. Catalytic wet oxidation method (CWAO and CWPO) is gaining more popularity. CWPO process using H2O2, in particular has advantages like better oxidation ability thanusing oxygen,as the former is carried out at lower pressure (atmospheric pres-sure).WAO usually acts under high temperatures (200–325◦C)and pressure (50–150 bar). A comparable oxidation efficiency is obtained at a less temperature of 100–120◦C when using hydrogen peroxide as the oxi dizing agent instead of oxygen [4].WAO is capital intensive whereas WPO needs limited capital but generates little higher running costs [4].Rivas et al.[5] showed that the addition of H2O2(as a source of free radicals) enhanced wet air oxidation of phenol, a highly non-degradable substance and found that the combined addition of H2O2 and a bivalent metal (i.e. Cu, Co or Mn) enhanced the rate of phenol removal. Various oxidation catalysts have been studied for the removal of different compounds like phenol, benzoic acid, dyes, etc. by CWPO process. Catalysts like Fe2O3/CeO2and WO3/CeO2 in the removal of phenolic solution, (Al–Fe) pillared clay named FAZA in the removal of 4-hydroxy benzoic acid, mixed (Al–Fe) pillared clays in the removal of organic compounds have been used[6–8] .Removal of dyes by CWPO process is gaining importance in recent times with a large number of catalysts. Kim and Lee [9] used Cu/Al2O3 and copper plate in treatment of dye house effluents. Liu and Sun [10] removed acid orange 52, acid orange 7 and reactive black 5 using CeO2doped Fe2O3/ -Al2O3 from dye waste water. Kim and Lee [11] reported the treatment of reactive dye solutions by using Al–Cu pillared clays as catalyst.Among these catalysts, modified zeolites are preferred for improved efficiency, lower by-product formation and less severe experimental conditions (temperatures and pressures). Theimproved efficiency of the catalyst is ascribed to its structure and large surface area with the ability of forming complex compounds. Zeolites can be ion exchanged using transition metal ions like Fe,Cu, Mn and others like Ca, Ba, etc. Zeolites are negatively charged because of the substitution of Si(IV) by Al(III) in the tetrahedral accounts for a negative charge of the structure and hence the Si/Al ratio determines the properties of zeolites like ion exchange capacity [12] . These metal ions neutralizethe negative charge on zeolites and their position, size and number determine the properties of zeolite. These metal ions are fixed to the rigid zeolite framework which prevents leaching and precipitation in various reactions[13–21] .In this work, catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of Congo red azo dye using Fe exchanged Y zeolite has been presented. Effect of variables like temperature, initial pH, peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on catalytic wet peroxide oxidation were examined and the optimum conditions evaluated.2.Materials and methods2.1. ChemicalsHydrogen peroxide (30% analytical grade), manganese dioxide,sodium hydroxide pellets (AR) and hydrochloric acid were obtained from RFCL limited (Mumbai), India. Congo red was obtained from Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd. (Mumbai) and were obtained from RFCL limited (Mumbai), India.Commercial Na–Y zeolite was obtained from Sud chemie Pvt.Ltd. (Baroda), India. Commercial catalyst was iron exchanged with excess 1 M Fe(NO3)3 at 80◦C for 6 h. The process was repeated three times and the sample was thoroughly washed with distilled water and dried in oven in air at60◦C for 10-12 h. The amount of iron exchanged was 1.53 wt% estimated by A.A.S.2.2. Apparatus and procedureThe experimental studies were carried out in a 0.5 l three-necked glass reactor equipped with a magnetic stirrer with heater and a total reflux (Fig. 13). Water containing Congo red dye was transferred to the three-necked glass reactor. Thereafter, the catalyst was added to the solution. The temperature of the reaction mixture was raised using heater to the desired value and maintained by a P.I.D. temperature controller, which was fitted in one of the necks through the thermocouple. The raising of the temperature of the reaction mixture to 90◦C from ambient took about 30 min.The total reflux prevents any loss of vapor and magnetic stirrer to agitate the mixture. Hydrogen peroxide was added, the runs were conducted at 90◦C and the samples were taken at periodic intervals. The samples after collection were raised to pH-11 by adding 0.1N NaOH (so that no further reaction takes place) and the residual hydrogen peroxide was removed by adding MnO2 which catalyzed the decomposition of peroxide to water and oxygen. The samples were allowed to settle for overnight or one day (or centrifuged) and filtered. The supernatant was tested for color and COD. After the completion of the run, the mixture was allowed to cool and settle overnight.2.3. CharacterizationThe determination of structure of the heterogeneous catalyst was done by X-ray diffractometer (Bruker AXS, Diffraktometer D8,Germany). The catalyst structure was confirm ed by using Cu Kα as a source and Ni as a filter. Goniometer speed was kept at 1cm/min and the chart speed was 1 cm/min. The range of scanning angle(2θ) was kept at 3–60◦. The intensity peaks indicate the values of2θ , where Bragg’s law is applicable. The formation of compounds was tested by comparing the XRD patternusing JCPDS files (1971).The determination of images and composition of catalyst were done by SEM/EDAX QUANTA 200 FEG. Scanning for zeolite samples was taken at various magnifications and voltage to account for the crystal structure and size. From EDAX, the composition of the elements in weight percentage and atomic percentage were obtained along with the spectra for overall compositions and particular local area compositions. BET surface area of the samples was analyzed by Micromeritics CHEMISORB 2720. The FTIR spectra of the catalyst was recorded on a FTIR Spectrometer (Thermo Nicolet, USA, Software used: NEXUS) in the 4000–480 cm−1wave number range using KBr pellets. The internal tetrahedra and external linkage of the zeolites formed are identified and confirmed by FTIR. The IR spectra data in Table 2 is taken from literature[22] .2.4. AnalysisThe amount of the dye present in the solution was analyzed by direct reading TVS 25 (A) Visible Spectrophotometer. The visible range absorbance at the characteristic wavelength of the sample at 497 nm was recorded to follow the progress of decolorization during wet peroxide oxidation.The COD of the dye solution was estimated by the Standard Dichromator Closed Reflux Method (APHA-1989) using a COD analyzer (Aqualytic, Germany). The color in Pt–Co unit was estimated using a color meter (Hanna HI93727, Hanna Instruments, Singapore) at 470 nm and the pH was measured using a Thermo Orion, USA make pH meter. The treated dye solutions were centrifuged (Model R24, Remi Instruments Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India) to obtain the supernatant free of solid MnO2.A.A.S (Avanta GBC, Australia) was used to find the amount of iron exchanged and leached.3. Results and discussionDue to the iron present after the exchange process, the Y peaks diminished along with the rise in Fe peaks. Similar phenomena has also been observed by Yee and Yaacob [23] who obtained zeolite iron oxide by adding NaOH and H2O2(drop wise) at 60◦C to Na–Y zeolite. XRD pattern ( Fig. 2) showed diminishing zeolite peaks along with evolution of peaks corresponding to y-Fe2O3 with increasing NaOH concentration. The IR assignments from FTIR (Fig. 3) remain satisfied even after iron exchanging. The EDAX data (Table 1) show clearly an increase in the value of Fe conc. after ion exchange of Y-zeolite. The BET surface area (Table 1) has been found to decrease from 433 to 423 m2/g after Fe exchange. SEM image is shown in Fig. 1 . Table 2 presents FTIR specifications of zeolites (common to all zeolites).The effect of temperature, initial pH, hydrogen peroxide concentration and catalyst loading on catalytic wet peroxide oxidation of azo dye Congo red were investigated in detail.Fig. 1. SEM image of Fe-exchanged Y zeolite.Fig. 2. XRD of commercial and Fe-exchanged commercial Y zeolite.BET surface area (commercial Na–Y): 433.4 m2/g.BET surface area (Fe exchanged commercial Na–Y): 423 m2/g.Table 2Zeolite IR assignments (common for all zeolites) from FTIR.3.1. Effect of temperature on dye, color and COD removalThe temperatures during the experiments were varied from50◦Cto100◦C. A maximum conversion of dye of 99.1% was observed at 100◦C in 4 h (and 97% at 90◦C). The dye rem ovals at 80◦C, 70◦C, 60◦C and 50◦C and at 4 h are 56%, 52%, 42% and 30%,respectively. Fig. 4 shows that at a particular temperature, the dye concentration gradually decreases with time. The initial red color of the dye solution decreased into brown color in due course and finally the brown color disappeared into a colorless solution. Dye concentration decreases at faster rates with temperatures for initial 30 min and thereafter it decreases from 1 h to 2 h. The initial concentrations of dye did not change after a brief contact period of dye solution with the Fe-exchanged zeolite catalyst (before CWPO)confirming that there is negligible adsorption of the dye by the catalyst.Fig. 5 shows the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and temperature. The maximum color removal (100%) is obtained at 100◦C in 30 min and also at 90◦C in 45 min. At a particular temperature, the color continuously decreases with time atFig. 3. FTIR of Fe-exchanged Y zeolite.Fig. 4. % dye removal as function of temperature.faster rate in first few minutes until a certain point ( t = 45 min) and then remaining almost unchanged. At 50◦C, the color removal is very low, whereas at 60◦C, there is a sudden shift towards its greater removal. The color removal is much higher at higher temperatures(70–100◦C).Fig. 6 depicts the results obtained for %COD removal as a function of time and temperature. A maximum COD removal of 66% was obtained at 100◦C (at 4 h) followed by 58% at 90◦C (at 4 h). Until60◦C, the rate of COD removal is less and during 70–100◦C, the rate is much faster.3.2. Effect of initial pH on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of initial pH on dye (Congo red) removal was studied at different pH (pH0 2, 4, 7, 8, 9 and 11) without any adjustment of pH during the experiments. A maximum conversion of 99% was obtained at pH0 2 followed by 97% at pH0 7. The dye removal at pH0 4, 8, 9 and 11 were 94%, 29%, 5% and 0.6%, respectively. All the runs were conducted for 4 h duration. The color of the solution is violet blue at pH0 2 (a colloidal solution) and greenish blue at pH0 4 (colloidal solution). In neutral and basic pH0(7, 8, 9 and 11) range, color of the solution did not change during treatment and was same as original solution, i.e. red color. Fe cations can leach out from zeolite structure into the solution causing secondary pollution. Leaching of Fe cations out of zeolitesFig. 5. % color removal as function of temperature.Fig. 6. %COD removal as function of temperature.Fig. 7. % color removal as function of pH0depends strongly on pH of the solution. The leaching of iron ions was enhanced at low pH values [24,25] . In order to determine dissolved Fe concentration, final pH values of the solutions were analyzed by A.A.S. At initial pH0 2 and 4, Fe detected in the solution was 7.8 ppm and 3.9 ppm, respectively. At pH0 7 and in alkaline range, there wasFig. 8. %COD removal as function of pH0.Fig. 9. % color removal as function of peroxide concentration.Fig. 10. %COD removal as function of peroxide concentration.almost no leaching. pH0 7, therefore, was chosen to be optimum pH for future experiments. The final pH values pH f after the reaction corresponding to pH0 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 and 11 were 2.1, 4.2, 7.2, 7.7 and 8.7, respectively. This show that the pH f tend to reach to neutral pH for all starting pH values.Fig. 7 presents the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and pH0. A maximum color removal of 100% was obtained at pH0 2 (in 10 min) and also at pH0 7 (in 45 min). The color removal at a particular pH0 decreases at a faster rateinitially (0–1 h) and thereafter it has a slower rate. The lowest removal was observed at pH0 11 with almost no removal.Fig. 11. % color removal as function of catalyst loading.Fig. 12. %COD removal as function of catalyst loading.The results obtained for COD removal as a function of time and pH0 are shown in Fig. 8 . A maximum COD removal of 69% was obtained at pH0 2 in 4 h followed by 63% at pH0 4 and 58% at pH0 7in4h.Fig. 8 shows maximum decrease in COD value in the initial 30 mines at all pH0. The decrease in COD is not appreciable thereafter. The COD removal is more in acidic range with a maximum removal of 69%, moderate in neutral region and least in basic region.3.3. Effect of peroxide concentration on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of H2O2 concentration on dye removal was investigated at different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (in the range 0–6 ml). A maximum removal of 99.02% was obtained at H2O2 concentration of 3 ml per 350 ml of solution, followed by 98.3% at 1ml and 97% at 0.6 ml. The dye removal at H2O2concentrations of 6 ml,0.3 ml and 0 ml (and at 4 h) were 94%, 82% and 8%, respectively. The dye removal rate at 90◦C temperature is gradual at all conc entrations of peroxide. At peroxide concentration of 0 ml, there is very little removal of dye, hardly 8%. Hence, it can be inferred that catalytic thermolysis (a process of effluent treatment by heating the effluent with/without catalyst) is not active and cannot be applied for dye removal.At the beginning of the reaction, the OH•radicals which are produced additionally when peroxide concentration is increased,speeds up the azo dye degradation. After a particular peroxide concentration, on further increase of the peroxide, the dye removal isFig. 13. Schematic diagram of the reactor.not increased. This may be because of the presence of excess peroxide concentration, hydroperoxyl radicals (HO2•) are produced from hydroxyl radicals that are already formed. The hydroperoxyl radicals do not contribute to the oxidative degradation of the organic substrate and are much less reactive. The degradation of the organic substrate occurs only by reaction with HO•[26] .The % color removal at a particular peroxide concentration increases at a faster rate in the initial 45 min and then at slower rates afterwards (Fig. 9). As H2O2 concentration increases, the rate of removal is much faster, reaching 100% in 45 minusing 6 ml H2O2 per 350 ml solution, whereas it is 100% in 1 h for both 0.3 ml and3ml.Fig. 10 shows the results obtained for COD removal as a function of time and H2O2 concentration. The maximum COD removal, 63% is obtained for H2O2 conc. 3 ml at 90◦C, pH0 7 and 2 h duration.3.4. Effect of catalyst loading on dye, color and COD removalThe influence of catalyst concentration on dye removal was investigated at different concentrations (in the range 0.5–1.5 g/l). A maximum dye removal of 98.6% was observed at 1.5 g/l followed by 98.3% at 1 g/l and 87.3% at 0.5 g/l in 4 h duration. The % dye removal without catalyst was very low with only 36% dye removal in 4 h. By comparing the results for the dye removal without catalyst and1.5 g/l catalyst, the removal for 1.5 g/l is approximately three times to that of without catalyst. The rate of removal is also more for higher concentrations of catalyst and increases with it.Fig. 11 shows the results obtained for color removal as a function of time and catalyst concentration. The maximum color removal of 100% was obtained using 1.5 g/l catalyst conc. in 1.5 h and also using 1 g/l catalyst in 3 h.Fig. 12 presents the results obtained for %COD removal as a function of time and catalyst concentration. A maximum COD removal of 58% was obtained at catalyst conc. 1 g/l, 51.8% at 1.5 g/l and 50.5% at 0.5 g/l in 4 h. Without catalyst, the COD removal was only 35%.4. ConclusionsThe % removals of dye, color and COD by catalytic wet peroxide oxidation obtained at 100◦C, 4 h duration using 0.6 ml H2O2/350 ml solution, 1 g/l Fe–Y catalyst and pH0 7 were 99.1%, 100% (30 min)and 66%, respectively. As at 100◦C the solution has tendency to vaporize during the operation, 90◦C was taken as operating temperature. The corresponding % removals at 90◦C were 97% dy e, 100%color (in 45 min) and 58% COD. Acidic range gave higher % removals in comparison to neutral and alkaline range. At pH0 2, the dye, color and COD removals of 99%,100% (in 10 min) and 69% were observed after 4 h duration. As at pH0 2, the leaching of Fe ions from Y zeolite catalyst is predominant,pH0 7 was taken as operating pH. Fe concentration of 7.8 ppm was observed in the solution at pH0 2. The values of removals, however,are comparable to pH0 2, with dye removal of 97%, color removal of100% (in 45 min) and COD removal of 58% in 4 h.The H2O2concentration was found to be optimum at 3 ml/350 ml solution giving dye, color and COD removals of 99%,100% (in 1 h) and 63%, respectively.The study on the effect of catalyst loading revealed 1.5 g/l as best among the catalyst concentrations studied. The results with 1 g/l and 1.5 g/l catalyst concentration were almost comparable.外文翻译（译文）使用改性Y沸石为催化剂湿式催化过氧化氢氧化偶氮染料(刚果红)摘要本研究主要探讨了使用改性Y沸石固载铁离子作为催化剂湿式催化过氧化氢氧化降解偶氮染料(刚果红)。
英文文献小短文(原文加汉语翻译)
A fern that hyperaccumulates arsenic(这是题目，百度一下就能找到原文好，原文还有表格，我没有翻译)A hardy, versatile, fast-growing plant helps to remove arsenic from contaminated soilsContamination of soils with arsenic,which is both toxic and carcinogenic, is widespread1. We have discovered that the fern Pteris vittata (brake fern) is extremely efficient in extracting arsenic from soils and translocating it into its above-ground biomass. This plant —which, to our knowledge, is the first known arsenic hyperaccumulator as well as the first fern found to function as a hyperaccumulator— has many attributes that recommend it for use in the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils.We found brake fern growing on a site in Central Florida contaminated with chromated copper arsenate (Fig. 1a). We analysed the fronds of plants growing at the site for total arsenic by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy. Of 14 plant species studied, only brake fern contained large amounts of arsenic (As;3,280–4,980 p.p.m.). We collected additional samples of the plant and soil from the contaminated site (18.8–1,603 p.p.m. As) and from an uncontaminated site (0.47–7.56 p.p.m. As). Brake fern extracted arsenic efficiently from these soils into its fronds: plants growing in the contaminated site contained 1,442–7,526p.p.m. Arsenic and those from the uncontaminated site contained 11.8–64.0 p.p.m. These values are much higher than those typical for plants growing in normal soil, which contain less than 3.6 p.p.m. of arsenic3.As well as being tolerant of soils containing as much as 1,500 p.p.m. arsenic, brake fern can take up large amounts of arsenic into its fronds in a short time (Table 1). Arsenic concentration in fern fronds growing in soil spiked with 1,500 p.p.m. Arsenic increased from 29.4 to 15,861 p.p.m. in two weeks. Furthermore, in the same period, ferns growing in soil containing just 6 p.p.m. arsenic accumulated 755 p.p.m. Of arsenic in their fronds, a 126-fold enrichment. Arsenic concentrations in brake fern roots were less than 303 p.p.m., whereas those in the fronds reached 7,234 p.p.m.Addition of 100 p.p.m. Arsenic significantly stimulated fern growth, resulting in a 40% increase in biomass compared with the control (data not shown).After 20 weeks of growth, the plant was extracted using a solution of 1:1 methanol:water to speciate arsenic with high-performance liquid chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Almostall arsenic was present as relatively toxic inorganic forms, with little detectable organoarsenic species4. The concentration of As(III) was greater in the fronds (47–80%) than in the roots (8.3%), indicating that As(V) was converted to As(III) during translocation from roots to fronds.As well as removing arsenic from soils containing different concentrations of arsenic (Table 1), brake fern also removed arsenic from soils containing different arsenic species (Fig. 1c). Again, up to 93% of the arsenic was concentrated in the fronds. Although both FeAsO4 and AlAsO4 are relatively insoluble in soils1, brake fern hyperaccumulated arsenic derived from these compounds into its fronds (136–315 p.p.m.)at levels 3–6 times greater than soil arsenic.Brake fern is mesophytic and is widely cultivated and naturalized in many areas with a mild climate. In the United States, it grows in the southeast and in southern California5. The fern is versatile and hardy, and prefers sunny (unusual for a fern) and alkaline environments (where arsenic is more available). It has considerable biomass, and is fast growing, easy to propagate,and perennial.We believe this is the first report of significant arsenic hyperaccumulationby an unmanipulated plant. Brake fern has great potential to remediate arsenic-contaminated soils cheaply and could also aid studies of arsenic uptake, translocation, speciation, distribution and detoxification in plants. *Soil and Water Science Department, University ofFlorida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-0290, USAe-mail: lqma@†Cooperative Extension Service, University ofGeorgia, Terrell County, PO Box 271, Dawson,Georgia 31742, USA‡Department of Chemistry & SoutheastEnvironmental Research Center, FloridaInternational University, Miami, Florida 33199,1. Nriagu, J. O. (ed.) Arsenic in the Environment Part 1: Cyclingand Characterization (Wiley, New York, 1994).2. Brooks, R. R. (ed.) Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998).3. Kabata-Pendias, A. & Pendias, H. in Trace Elements in Soils and Plants 203–209 (CRC, Boca Raton, 1991).4. Koch, I., Wang, L., Ollson, C. A., Cullen, W. R. & Reimer, K. J. Envir. Sci. Technol. 34, 22–26 (2000).5. Jones, D. L. Encyclopaedia of Ferns (Lothian, Melbourne, 1987).积累砷的蕨类植物耐寒，多功能，生长快速的植物，有助于从污染土壤去除砷有毒和致癌的土壤砷污染是非常广泛的。
文献翻译(英文)
Latest Developments in Belt Conveyor TechnologyM. A. AlspaughOverland Conveyor Co., Inc.Presented at MINExpo 2004Las Vegas, NV, USA September 27, 2004 AbstractBulk material transportation requirements have continued to press the belt conveyor industry to carry higher tonnages over longer distances and more diverse routes. In order keep up, significant technology advances have been required in the field of system design, analysis and numerical simulation. The application of traditional components in non-traditional applications requiring horizontal curves and intermediate drives have changed and expanded belt conveyor possibilities. Examples of complex conveying applications along with the numerical tools required to insure reliability and availability will be reviewed. IntroductionAlthough the title of this presentation indicates “new” developments in belt conveyor technology will be presented, most of the ideas and methods offered here have been around for some time. We doubt any single piece of equipment or idea presented will be “new” to many of you. What is “new” are the significant and complex systems being built with mostly mature components. What is also “new” are the system design tools and methods used to put these components together into unique conveyance systems designed to solve ever expanding bulk material handling needs. And what is also “new” is the increasing ability to produce accurate Energy Efficiency computer simulations of system performance prior to the first system test (commissioning).As such, the main focus of this presentation will be the latest developments in complex system design essential to properly engineer and optimize today’s long distance conveyance requirements.The four specific topics covered will be:●Idler Resistance●Energy Efficiency●Distributed Power●Analysis and SimulationEnergy EfficiencyMinimizing overall power consumption is a critical aspect of any project and belt conveyors are no different. Although belt conveyors have always been an efficient means of transporting large tonnages as compared to other transport methods, there are still various methods to reduce power requirements onoverland conveyors. The main resistances of a belt conveyor are made up of:●Idler Resistance●Rubber indentation due to idler support●Material/Belt flexure due to sag being idlers●AlignmentThese resistances plus miscellaneous secondary resistances and forces to over come gravity (lift) make up the required power to move the material.The specifics of power calculation is beyond the scope of this paper but it is important to note that significant research has been done on all four areas of idlers, rubber indentation, alignment and material/belt flexure over the last few years. And although not everyone is in agreement as to how to handle each specific area, it is generally well accepted that attention to these main resistances is necessary and important to overall project economics.At the 2004 SME annual meeting, Walter Kung of MAN Takraf presented a paper titled “The Henderson Coarse Ore Conveying System- A Review of Commissioning, Start-up and Operation”2. This project was commissioned in December 1999 and consisted of a 24 km (3 flight) overland conveying system to replace the underground mine to mill rail haulage system.The longest conveyor in this system (PC2) was 16.28 km in length with 475m of lift. The most important system fact was that 50% of the operating power (~4000 kW at 1783 mtph and 4.6 m/s) was required to turn an empty belt therefore power efficiency was critical. Very close attention was focused on the idlers, belt cover rubber and alignment. One way to document relative differences in efficiency is to use the DIN 22101 standard definition of “equivalent friction factor- f” as a way to compare the total of the main resistances. In the past, a typical DIN fused for design of a conveyor like this might be around 0.016. MAN Takraf was estimating their attention to power would allow them to realize an f of 0.011, a reduction of over 30%. This reduction contributed a significant saving in capital cost of the equipment. The actual measured results over 6 operating shifts after commissioning showed the value to be 0.0075, or even 30% lower than expected. Mr. Kung stated this reduction from expected to result in an additional US$100, 000 savings per year in electricity costs alone.Route OptimizationFigure 5- Tiangin ChinaHorizontal AdaptabilityOf course the most efficient way to transport material from one point to the next is as directly as possible. But as we continue to transport longer distances by conveyor, the possibility of conveying in a straight line is less and less likely as many natural and man-made obstacles exist. The first horizontally curved conveyors were installed many years ago, but today it seems just about every overland conveyor being installed has at least one horizontal change in direction. And today’s technology allows designers to accommodate these curves relativelyeasily.Figures 1 shows an overland conveyor transporting coal from the stockpile to the shiploader at the Tianjin China Port Authority installed this year. Designed by E.J. O’Donovan &Associates and built by Continental Conveyor Ltd of Australia, this 9 km overland carries 6000 mtph with 4x1500 kW drives installed.Figure 1- Tiangin China Plan ViewTunnelingAnother industry that would not be able to use belt conveyors without the ability to negotiate horizontal curves is construction tunneling. Tunnels are being bore around the world for infrastructure such as waste water and transportation. The most efficient method of removing tunnel muck is by connecting an advancing conveyor to the tail of the tunnel boring machine. But these tunnels are seldom if ever straight.Pipe ConveyorsAnd if conventional conveyors cannot negotiate the required radii, other variations of belt conveyor such as the Pipe Conveyor might be used. a pipe conveyor consists of a rubber conveyor belt rolled into a pipe shape with idler rolls. This fundamental design causes the transported material to be totaled enclosed by the belt which directly creates all the advantages.The idlers constrain the belt on all sides allowing much tighter curves to be negotiated in any direction. The curves can be horizontal, vertical or combinations of both. A conventional conveyor has only gravity and friction between the belt and idlers to keep it within the conveyance path. Another benefit of pipe conveyor is dust and/or spillage can be reduced because the material is completely enclosed.Metso Rope ConveyorAnother variation from conventional is the Metso Rope Conveyor (MRC) more commonly known as Cable Belt. This product is known for long distance conveying and it claims the longest single flight conveyor in the world at Worsley Alumina in Australia at 30.4 km. With Cable Belt, the driving tensions (ropes) and the carryingmedium (belt) are separated (Figure 13).Figure 2- MRC- Straight SectionThis separation of the tension carrying member allows positive tracking of the ropes (Figure 14) which allow very small radius horizontal curves to be adopted that defeat the traditional design parameters based on tension and topography.Figure 3MRC vs. Conventional Conveyor in Horizontal CurveVertical AdaptabilitySometimes material needs to be raised or lowered and the conventional conveyor is limited to incline angles around 16-18 degrees. But again non-traditional variations of belt conveyors have been quite successful at increased anglesas well as straight up.High Angle Conveyor (HAC.)The first example manufactured by Continental Conveyor & Equipment Co. uses conventional conveyor components in a non-conventional way (Figure 4). The concept is known as a sandwich conveyor as the material is carried between two belts.Figure 4Pocketlift.The second example shows a non-traditional belt construction which can be used to convey vertically (Figure 5). This Metso Pocketlift. belt was installed by Frontier Kemper Constructors at the Pattiki 2 Mine of White County Coal in 2001 . It currently lifts 1,818 mtph of run-of-mine coal up 273 m (895 ft). 5Figure 5Distributed PowerOne of the most interesting developments in technology in the recent past has been the distribution of power along the conveyor path. Is has not been uncommon to see drives positioned at the head and tail ends of long conveyors and let the tail drive do the work of pulling the belt back along the return run of the conveyor. But now that idea has expanded to allow designers to position drive power wherever it is most needed.The idea of distributing power in multiple locations on a belt conveyor has been around for a long time. The first application in the USA was installed at Kaiser Coal in 1974. It was shortly thereafter that underground coal mining began consolidating and longwall mines began to realize tremendous growth in output.Mining equipment efficiencies and capabilities were improving dramatically. Miners were looking for ways to increase the size of mining blocks in order to decrease the percentage of idle time needed to move the large mining equipment from block to block. Face widths and panel lengths were increasing.When panel lengths were increased, conveyance concerns began to appear. The power and belt strengths needed for these lengths approaching 4 -5 km were much larger than had ever been used underground before. Problems included the large size of high power drives not to mention being able to handle and move them around. And, although belting technology could handle the increased strength requirements, it meant moving to steel reinforced belting that was much heavier and harder to handle and more importantly, required vulcanized splicing. Since longwall panel conveyors are constantly advancing and retreating (getting longer and shorter), miners are always adding or removing rolls of belting from the system. Moreover, since vulcanized splicing takes several times longer to facilitate, lost production time due to belt moves over the course of a complete panel during development and mining would be extreme. Now the need surpassed the risk and the application of intermediate drives to limit belt tensions and allow the use of fabric belting on long center applications was actively pursued.Today, intermediate drive technology is very well accepted and widely used in underground coal mining. Many mines around the world have incorporated it into their current and future mine plans to increase the efficiency of their overall mining operations.The tension diagram in Figure 20 shows the simple principal and most significant benefit of intermediate belt conveyor drives. This flat, head driven conveyor has a simple belt tension distribution as shown in black. Although the average belt tension during each cycle is only about 40% of the peak value, all the belting must be sized for the maximum. The large drop in the black line at the head pulley represents the total torque or power required to run the conveyor.By splitting the power into two locations (red line), the maximum belt tension is reduced by almost 40% while the total power requirement remains virtually the same. A much smaller belt can be used and smaller individual power units can be used. To extend the example further, a second intermediate drive is added (green line) and the peak belt tension drops further.The tunneling industry was also quick to adopt this technology and even take it to higher levels of complexity and sophistication. But the main need in tunneling was the necessity of using very tight horizontal curves.By applying intermediate drives (Figure 6) to an application such as the Baumgartner Tunnel, belt tensions can be controlled in the horizontal curves by strategically placing drives in critical locations thereby allowing the belt to turn small curves.Figure 20In Figure 7, the hatched areas in green represent the location of curved structure. The blue line represents carry side belt tensions and the pink line represents return side belt tensions. Notice belt tensions in both the carry and return sides are minimized in the curves, particularly the tightest 750m radius.Figure 7Although aboveground overland conveyors have not used this technology extensively to date, applications are now starting to be developed due to horizontal curve requirements. Figure 8 shows a South American, 8.5km hard rock application which requires an intermediate drive to accommodate the four relatively tight 2000m radii from the midpoint to discharge.Figure 8- Plan ViewFigure 9 shows a comparison of belt tensions in the curved areas with and without distributed power.The benefit of distributed power is also being used on the MRC Cable Belt. However, since the tension carrying ropes are separate from the load carrying belt, installing intermediate drives is even easier as the material never has to leave the carry belt surface. The tension carrying ropes are separated from the belt long enough to wrap around drive sheaves and the carry belt is set back on the ropes to continue on .Figure 9- Tension DiagramAnalysis and SimulationMany will argue the major reason for our ability to build complex conveyors as described above is advancements in the analysis and simulation tools available to the designer. A component manufacturer can usually test his product to insureit meets the specification; however the system engineer can seldom test the finished system until it is completed on site. Therefore computational methods and tools are absolutely critical to simulate the interactions of various diverse disciplines and components.Dynamic Starting and StoppingWhen performing starting and stopping calculations per CEMA or DIN 22101 (static analysis), it is assumed all masses are accelerated at the same time and rate; in other words the belt is a rigid body (non-elastic). In reality, drive torque transmitted to the belt via the drive pulley creates a stress wave which starts the belt moving gradually as the wave propagates along the belt. Stress variations along the belt (and therefore elastic stretch of the belt) are caused by these longitudinal waves dampened by resistances to motion as described above. 7 Many publications since 1959 have documented that neglecting belt elasticity in high capacity and/or long length conveyors during stopping and starting can lead to incorrect selection of the belting, drives, take-up, etc. Failure to include transient response to elasticity can result in inaccurate prediction of:●Maximum belt stresses●Maximum forces on pulleys●Minimum belt stresses and material spillage●Take-up force requirements●Take-up travel and speed requirements●Drive slip●Breakaway torque●Holdback torque●Load sharing between multiple drives●Material stability on an inclineIt is, therefore, important a mathematical model of the belt conveyor that takes belt elasticity into account during stopping and starting be considered in these critical, long applications.A model of the complete conveyor system can be achieved by dividing the conveyor into a series of finite elements. Each element has a mass and rheological spring as illustrated in Figure 10.Figure 10Many methods of analyzing a belt’s physical behavior as a rheological spring have been studied and various techniques have been used. An appropriate model needs to address:1. Elastic modulus of the belt longitudinal tensile member2. Resistances to motion which are velocity dependent (i.e. idlers)3. Viscoelastic losses due to rubber-idler indentation4. Apparent belt modulus changes due to belt sag between idlersSince the mathematics necessary to solve these dynamic problems are very complex, it is not the goal of this presentation to detail the theoretical basis of dynamic analysis. Rather, the purpose is to stress that as belt lengths increase and as horizontal curves and distributed power becomes more common, the importance of dynamic analysis taking belt elasticity into account is vital to properly develop control algorithms during both stopping and starting.Mass Flow at Transfer PointsOne of the reasons for using intermediate drives and running single flight conveyors longer and longer is to eliminate transfer points. Many of the most difficult problems associated with belt conveyors center around loading and unloading. The transfer chute is often sited as the highest maintenance area of the conveyor and many significant production risks are centered here.●Plugging●Belt and Chute Damage and Abrasion●Material Degradation●Dust●Off Center Loading/SpillageIn the past, no analytical tools have been available to the design engineer so trial-and-error and experience were the only design methods available. Today, numerical simulation methods exist which allow designers to “test” their design prior to fabrication.Numerical simulation is the discipline of designing a model of an actual physical system, executing the model on a computer, and analyzing the results. Simulation embodies the principle of “learning by doing''. To understand reality and all of its complexity, we build artificial objects in the computer and dynamically watch the interactions.The Discrete Element Method (DEM) is a family of numerical modeling techniques and equations specifically designed to solve problems in engineering and applied science that exhibit gross discontinuous mechanical behavior such as bulk material flow. It should be noted that problems dominated by discontinuum behavior cannot be simulated with conventional continuum based computer modeling methods such as finite element analysis, finite difference procedures and/or even computational fluid dynamics (CFD).The DEM explicitly models the dynamic motion and mechanical interactions of each body or particle in the physical problem throughout a simulation and provides a detailed description of the positions, velocities, and forces acting on each body and/or particle at discrete points in time during the analysis. 8 In the analysis, particles are modeled as shaped bodies. The bodies can interact with each other, with transfer boundary surfaces and with moving rubber conveyor belt surfaces. The contact/impact phenomena between the interacting bodies are modeled with a contact force law which has components defined in thenormal and shear directions as well as rotation. The normal contact force component is generated with a linear elastic restoring component and a viscous damping term to simulate the energy loss in a normal collision. The linear elastic component is modeled with a spring whose coefficient is based upon the normal stiffness of the contact bodies and the normal viscous damper coefficient is defined in terms of an equivalent coefficient of restitution .Figure 11 shows particles falling through a transfer chute. The colors of the particles in the visualization represent their velocity. The RED color is zero velocity while BLUE is the highest velocity. Perhaps the greatest benefit that can be derived form the use of these tools is the feeling an experienced engineer can develop by visualizing performance prior to building. From this feel, the designer can arrange the components in order to eliminate unwanted behavior.Other quantitative data can also be captured including impact and shear forces (wear) on the belt or chute walls.Figure 11FutureBigger Belt ConveyorsThis paper referenced Henderson PC2 which is one of the longest single flight conventional conveyors in the world at 16.26 km. But a 19.1 km conveyor is under construction in the USA now, and a 23.5 km flight is being designed in Australia. Other conveyors 30-40 km long are being discussed in other parts of the world.Belt manufacturers have developed low rolling resistance rubber with claimsof 10-15% power savings as methods to quantify indentation have become known. Together with improved installation methods and alignment, significant power efficiencies are possible.Underground coal mines and tunneling contractors will continue to use the proven concept of distributed power to their best advantage, but now at least two of the longer surface conveyors in development will be installing intermediate drives in 2005.In Germany, RWE Rheinbraun operates coal conveyors with 30,000 tph capacities and other surface coal mines have plans to soon be approaching these loads. With capacity increases, comes increases in belt speed; again demanding better installation, manufacturing tolerances and understanding of resistances and power.Each time we go longer, higher, wider or faster, we stretch the limits of our analytical tools to predict system performance. And because each conveyor is unique, the only way we have to predict performance is our numerical analysis and simulation tools. Therefore it is imperative we continue to improve our design tools as our goals get bigger.References[1]“Belt Conveyors for Bulk Materials”, Conveyor Equipment Manufacturers Association, 5th Edition, 1997[2]Kung, Walter, “The Henderson Coarse Ore Conveying System-A Review of Commissioning, Start-up, and Operation”, Bulk Material Handling by Belt Conveyor 5, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., 2004[3]Goodnough, Ryne, “In-Pit Conveying at the Wyodak Mine- Gillette, Wyoming” , Bulk Material Handling by Belt Conveyor 5, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., 2004[4]Neubecker, I., “An Overland Pipe Conveyor with 22 Horizontal and 45 Vertical Curves Connecting Coal Mine with Rail Load Out”, Bulk Solids Handling, V ol. 17 (1997), No 4[5]Crewdson, Steve, “Vertical Belt System at Pattiki 2 Mine”, Bulk Material Handling by Belt Conveyor 5, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., 2004.[6]Alspaugh, Mark, “The Evolution of Intermediate Driven Belt Conveyor Technology”, Bulk Solids Handling”, V ol. 23 (2003) No.3[7]O’Donovan, E.J., “Dynamic Analysis- Benefits for all C onveyors”, Conveyor Belt Engineering for the Coal and Mineral Mining Industries, Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., 1993.[8]Dewicki, Grzegorz, “Bulk Material Handling and Processing- Numerical Techniques and Simulation of Granular Mate rial”, Bulk Solids Handling”, V ol. 23 (2003) No.2 .。
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Bank risks, capital and loansupply: evidence fromSierra LeoneEric Osei-Assibey and Baimba Augustine BockarieDepartment of Economics, University of Ghana, Legon, GhanaAbstractPurpose–The study aims to investigate the factors that influence banks' loan supply in Sierra Leone. More specifically, it seeks to look into the effects of risk premium, leverage ratio and credit risk on banks'loan supply in Sierra Leone.Design/methodology/approach–Using annual bank level data on an unbalanced panel of 13 commercial banks data observed over a period of ten years (2002 to 2011), the study employs time and bank-specific fixed effects model for estimation.Findings –The findings indicate that risk premium, the share of non-performing loans in the banks'loan portfolio, tier 1 capital ratio (leverage ratio) and local currency deposit levels positively and significantly affect the share of loan supply to the private sector in banks' earning assets. On the other hand, advances to local currency deposit ratio and bank size have significant negative effects on the share of loans in banks assets. The study also finds bank type and the growth rate of real GDP (a proxy for economic activity) to be important determinants of the share of loans in banks' earning assets.Practical implications–The study recommends that the monetary authorities, banking practitioners and the government should pay keen attention to the key risk factors such as non-performing loans and risk premium in the operation of the banking sector to boost commercial banks' loan supply.Originality/value–Sierra Leone's banking sector presents a unique opportunity to study bank loan supply in relation to bank-specific features in the context of post-war financial reconstruction. Keywords Bank risks, Portfolio allocations, Bank assets, Banks, Banking, Sierra Leone.Paper type Research paper1. IntroductionThe influx of banks into the Sierra Leonean economy has been a subject of public discussions. The general concern is that given the relatively small size of the Sierra Leone Financial Market, there are too many banks to contend with. Whilst the Bank of Sierra Leone (2009) reinforces this concern, the International Monetary Funds (IMF, 2010) suggests that the low level of intermediation in Sierra Leone may be indicative of limited competition in the banking sector. But from available data, the increased number of banks –mostly of foreign origin and ownership has intensified competition in the system. Market shares are being lost by the three big players, interest margins are becoming thinner and foreign exchange rate spreads are being eroded. However, client deposits continue to increase and the well managed banks continue to be highly profitable. Additionally, despite the expansion in the Sierra Leone banking industry, there is still a dearth of bank credit to the private sector. A strict line could therefore be drawn between bankcredit availability and accessibility in this market, as the banks'balance sheets show high liquidity of the banks.The country continues to be characterised by an underdeveloped financial market which constrains financial resource allocation in an efficient manner and hence, holding economic growth backward (The World Bank, 2010). Understandably, given the difficult conditions in the Sierra Leonean financial market, the banking sector has fallen short of its traditional role of credit allocation to private sector in order to boost growth and development. Thus, the banking system's support to the private sector through credit allocation remains weak. From 1984 to 1987 for example, the Domestic Money Banks' claims on the private sector as a percentage of their claims on government were only 63.78, 32.81, 66.58 and 74.62 percent, respectively, (IMF, 2009).Between 2001 and 2009, the same figure averaged at 56 percent, with 2007, 2008 and 2009 individually recording 61, 66 and 86 percent, respectively. Between 2000 and 2007, the banks'non-performing loans (NPLs) as a percentage of gross loans averaged 22.11 percent (The World Bank, 2010).The lack of interest by commercial banks in providing loans and advances in the country is not due to liquidity considerations as this sector is seemingly liquid based on the fact that their total deposits nearly double their loan portfolio (Bank of Sierra Leone, 2010). Rather than lending to the perceived risky sector (the private sector), they prefer to invest in government securities such as treasury bills and treasury bearer bonds which earn varying returns and which are also riskless. The banks'holdings of riskless assets (government securities) form a huge proportion of their total financial assets (47.5 percent) (Bank of Sierra Leone, 2010). Access to finance outside the capital city –Freetown, by small and medium scale enterprises and the agricultural sector continues to be grossly inadequate.The unwillingness of banks to lend to the private sector can be caused by several reasons, among which are the increased capital adequacy requirements imposed by banking regulators; impaired debt-servicing capacity by clients, especially small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs), and risks of a further decline in collateral value. These make the interest rate on loans not to serve as the main determinant of bank credit approval. NPLs have been viewed to constitute one of themost important factors causing reluctance for banks to provide credit to the private sector. In a high NPL condition, banks increasingly tend to carry out internal consolidation to improve the asset quality rather than allotting credit. Although the NPL has witnessed a sharp decline since 2002, when it stood at 48 percent of gross loans and advances, it has been fluctuating and appears to be on the increase. Unavailability of credit to finance firms' working capitals and investments might trigger the second round business failure which in turn exacerbates the quality of bank loans, resulting in an endless vicious cycle of credit crunch. Krueger and Tornell (1999) attribute the credit crunch in Mexico after the 1995 crisis partially to the bad loans. They point out that banks were burdened with credits of negative real value, thereby reducing the capacity of the banks in providing fresh fund for new projects.One of the preconditions for achieving the strategic priorities of the Second PovertyReduction Strategy Paper (PRSP II) is growing the private sector through increased access to investible funds. This cannot be accomplished with the banks' failure to adequately direct the much needed credit to the private sector. The issue therefore is what factors are impacting on bank loan supply to the private sector. More specifically, the present study seeks to determine the impact of credit risk such as high NPLs and capital (measured by leverage ratio) on bank loan supply in Sierra Leone.Moreover, the study explores bank specific characteristics such as ownership structure, assets and size as well as the state of economic activities on loan supply.2. Conditions of the banking industry in Sierra Leone: pre and post war periodsSierra Leone's brutal and protracted civil war (1991-2002) destroyed infrastructure and truncated political, social, and economic development, including disrupting the banking sector in a fundamental way. This resulted in widespread damage to the branch network and banking infrastructure as well as financial loss and loss of customer goodwill and confidence.Moreover, economic difficulties especially in the second half of the 1980s significantly hampered productivity which culminated into an unhealthy business environment. Business failures had devastating consequences on commercial banks'loan portfolios. The quality of banking services became watered down with portfolio contamination becoming very conspicuous.A good number of the existing banks were concealing their losses. The practice of using “good money”(new loans) to finance “bad money”(doubtful loans or contaminated portfolio) to avoid providing for bad and doubtful debts had become a common thing. This practice is otherwise known as ever-greening. The resultant effect was a gradual disintermediation and severe liquidity problems in the early 1990s.It is important to note however that the country has made substantial progress in transitioning from a post-conflict nation to a developing democracy that has made notable economic gains. Immediately after the war, the government took immediate steps to reform and strengthened the financial system.Anew regulations and legislation were introduced, including the updating of the Bank of Sierra Leone Act 2000 and bringing the legislation in line with other Central Bank legislations in West Africa. The reforms also opened up the banking industry of the country, resulting in a large influx of foreign banks. This has generally culminated in the financial market in Sierra Leone being highly dominated by the banking sector, controlling 75 percent of the total financial sector assets (Bank of Sierra Leone, 2009).However, the influx of banks into the Sierra Leonean economy has been a subject of public concerns. The general concern is that given the relatively small size of the Sierra Leone Financial Market, there are too many banks to contend with. Whilst the Bank of Sierra Leone (2009) reinforces this concern, the IMF (2010) suggests that the low level of intermediation in Sierra Leone may be indicative of limited competition in the banking sector. But from available data, the increased number of banks –mostly of foreign origin and ownership has intensified competition in the system. Market shares are being lost by the three big players, interest margins are becoming thinner and foreign exchange rate spreads are being eroded. However, client deposits continue to increase and the well managed banks continue to be highly profitable.In 2005, there were only seven commercial banks operating in the market (three local and four foreign banks) with a branch network of 31. Out of the 31 branches, the three local banks accounted for 68 percent. By 2010, the number of commercial banks had increased to 13 (three local and ten foreign), with a branch network of 80 (local banks accounting for 39 percent of it). As at December 2011, additional six branches were opened, making a total of 86 branches (local banks accounting for 40 percent of it). Despite this phenomenal expansion, the market remains shallow, with not much active interbank market. Greuning and Bratanovic (2009) clearly put it that in an underdeveloped financial market where liquidity of financial instruments dependsexclusively on their maturities rather than on the ability to sell them, banks tend to hold a relatively high volume of liquid assets.The average total assets of the Sierra Leone banking system is US$38 million while the three largest players account for about half of the market share. This proportion had witnessed a persistent drop from the level of 90 percent in 1999 to 88 percent in 2004 and 86 percent recorded in 2005, owing to the influx of foreign banks (Bank of Sierra Leone, 2009). The system happens to be sound with average capital in excess of average total assets by 17 percent. Nonetheless, despite the expansion in the Sierra Leone banking industry, there is still a dearth of bank credit to the private sector. A strict line could therefore be drawn between bank credit availability and accessibility in this market, as the banks' balance sheets show high liquidity of the banks. According to The World Bank (2012) report, the volume of loans to the private sector has been fluctuating since 2009. After increasing from US$21 million in 2009, to US$69 million dollars in 2010, it dropped sharply to US$39.8 million in 2011.3. Literature reviewThere is wealth of literature providing both theoretical and empirical evidence on the link between bank loan supply to the private sector and a host of predetermined variables, including bank risk measures and capital adequacy. While some authors pay much attention to relationship banking (Kane and Malkiel, 1965), others have focused on four major institution-specific characteristics that are likely to influence traditional lending activities: liquidity, capital,market value and securitization intensity (Montgomery, 2005). Some other studies have suggested that credit creation is influenced by both macroeconomic variables that impact loan uptake as well as internal structures such as the composition of a bank's balance sheet and the demand for loans (Druck and Garibaldi, 2000; Furfine, 2000; Tracey, 2011).By modifying a Tobin-Markowitz portfolio model to account for the phenomenon of deposit variability, Kane and Malkiel (1965) discover cogent reasons for rejecting formulations of the manner in which certain availability effects operate. They make two additions to the traditional bank portfolio model: deposit variability and consideration of long run profits. Their argument is that given an existing optimum portfolio, a certain class of loan demand creates a dilemma for a bank. Granting such a loan according to the writers, adds to the risk-return ratio, but increases the strength of a bank's client relationship and may increase a bank's expected return, while reducing overall risk. Refusal will nevertheless increase the risk and reduce the expected (long run) return. Their study rejects the hypothesis that credit rationing is purely on the basis of credit risk. Their findings support the assertion that credit rationing is on the basis of client features which entail: the strength of the existing client relationship, the size of the borrower, stability and the prospects for long term growthof deposits, and the existence of profitable future lending opportunities.Montgomery (2005) investigates the hypothesis that stricter capital adequacy requirements introduced under the Basel Accord caused Japanese banks to alter their portfolios away from heavily weighted risky assets such as loans and corporate bonds and into unweighted assets such as government bonds. Using a panel of Japanese bank balance sheets for fiscal years 1982-1999, the study finds that neither international nor domestic bank asset portfolios are strongly affected by the total regulatory capital ratio. The study explores the sensitivity of various risk weight categories of assets to both total regulatory capital and core regulatory capital and to examine differences in the sensitivity of asset growth to regulatory capital for domestic and international banks in Japan. Moving the argument further, Sawada (2008), attributes bank runs to twoalternative views; the random withdrawal theory on the one hand, which considers bank runs as a self-fulfilling phenomenon, and the information based theory which considers bank runs as a phenomenon induced by the market discipline of depositors under asymmetric information on the other hand. To investigate portfolio management with respect to banks exposed to liquidity risk, the study uses micro level data pertaining to the pre war era of the Japanese banking industry (1927-1932), since the study is centred on a market without deposit insurance. The findings show that liquidity risk as captured in the study is negatively and statistically significantly related at the 1 percent level of significance to the cash-asset ratio, positively related to the security-asset ratio and insignificantly related to the liquid-asset ratio.In a more related paper studying the effect of bank leverage ratio on credit allocation and bank stability of banks on top of risk-based capital requirements, Kiema and Jokivuolle (2011) finds that both low-risk and high-risk loan rates and volumes remain essentially unchanged. This is because banks previously specializing in low-risk lending can adapt by granting both low-risk and high-risk loans. For sufficiently high LRRs, low-risk lending rates would significantly increase and high-risk lending rates would fall. Similary, Spinassou (2012) finds that high leverage ratios as required by banking regulators impact on the banks'behaviour either positively or negatively. The study shows that the implementation of a leverage ratio with a risk-dependent capital ratio incites banks to increase their risk-taking. On the other hand this regulation incites banks to hold an adequate level of capital and decreases the banking instability.Amidu (2006) examines whether bank lending is constrained by monetary policy in Ghana. Using panel cross-sectional data covering the period from 1998 to 2004, the study models the share of loans and advances in banks'total assets as a function of the growth rate of real GDP, the rate of inflation, the Central Bank of Ghana prime rate, broad money supply, bank size measured as the logarithm of a bank's total assets, and liquidity as measured by the share of a bank's liquid assets to total assets. Among the findings, the study shows that during the period of the investigation, Ghanaian banks preferred to invest in risk-free government treasury bills and bonds to secure higher profitability. However, in Sierra Leone, Bathalomew (2005) using a panel of seven banks with monthly data collected between March 1999 and December 2004 finds some mixed results. Estimating three equations to test the collusion hypothesis, the efficient market hypothesis and a joint hypothesis of collusion and efficient market hypotheses, he confirms support for the collusion hypothesis for the dominant banks, suggesting the role of monopoly power in driving dominant commercial banks'profitability in Sierra Leone, but rejects same for the fringe banks. His study however suggests that smaller banks derive profits from efficiency and not from monopoly rent. The study uses three measures of profitability; return on equity, return on capital, and return on assets for analytical purposes.Tracey (2011) employs an ordinary least square (OLS) model to ascertain the minimum and maximum threshold points for NPLs at which commercial banks become risk adverse in the disbursal of loans. Using the study by Hou and Dickinson (2007) as the launching pad, the study looks at the risk aversion of banks in supplying loans through the modelling of loan supply on balance sheet variables such as the growth rate of the ratio of NPLs to total loans, its square, the growth rates of deposits, other earning assets and capital. The study detects some level of evidence that at higher level of NPLs/loan ratio, banks become more risk adverse in loan disbursal. It is also observed that the two countries used have varying level of risk aversion behavioural patterns. The deposits growth rate is found to move in the same direction as loan supply.The literature also finds the influence of bank specific factors such as bank ownership on credit supply. Evidence abounds to suggest that state-owned banks display lending behavior different from private banks in many countries (Dinc, 2005;Jia, 2009). Dinc (2005) shows how lending of state-owned banks correlates with the electoral cycle in a cross-country study. State-owned banks boost lending in election years relative to private banks, suggesting a different objective function for both types of banks. In a related vein, Jia (2009) analyzes the relationship between ownership and the prudential behavior of banks in China by comparing state-owned and joint-equity banks. He observes that state-owned banks are less prudent in lending. This finding suggests that in times of crisis state-owned banks are more reluctant to pare back lending than other banks. Again, there is also evidence to suggest that foreign owned banks display lending behavior different from domestic banks. For example, Funga (2011) find that relative to domestic private banks, foreign-owned banks reduced their credit supply more and state-controlled banks less. This supports the hypothesis that foreign banks have a “ack of loyalty”to domestic actors particularly during economic downturns or crisis, as well as the view that an objective function of state-controlled banks being more development oriented leads them to support the economy during economic downturns.4. Concluding remarksThe general purpose of this work has been to investigate the factors that influence banks' credit supply in Sierra Leone. Specifically, the study has looked into the effects of risk premium, loan risks as well as capital adequacy on bank loan supply in Sierra Leone between 2002 and 2011.Using annual bank level data on an unbalanced panel of 13 banks in the market for the study period, and employing a time and bank specific fixed effects model, the principal hypothesis that the level of risk premium influences the share of loans to the private sector in interest earning asset of banks has been confirmed. Additionally, the study has shown that NPLs, tier 1 capital ratio and local currency deposit levels positively and statistically significantly affect banks'loan supply to the private sector,while ADRand bank size have significant negative effect on the dependent variable. Also, using a random effect model estimation, bank loan demand (also a control for economic activities) as proxied by real national income growth rate, and bank type are found to be significant determinants of bank portfolio composition. Nevertheless, the market risk component of the model (VRL rate) was found to play a negligible role in shaping banks' loan supply.On the basis of the findings, the study therefore recommends the following: first, bank loan supply as a fraction of bank IEA has been found to be positively responsive to risk premium. To that end, government should play the needed role for risk premium to be sufficient enough for banks to lend more to the private sector, relative to acquiring government securities. After all, banks are in the business of taking calculated risk to make money. Admittedly, this policy advice in no way advocates for a rising loan interest rate, because that would have the negative effect of adverse selection and moral hazard. One way to enable the interest rates on treasury bills and treasury bearer bonds to be appreciably lower than the returns on loans and advances is for government to exercise fiscal discipline in line with the West Africa Monetary Zone's benchmark. That would reduce the amount of government's public sector borrowing requirements so as to bring down the yield on government securities through the interaction of demand and supply.Second, NPL ratio is found to have a positive influence on bank loan supply in Sierra Leone. We have advanced in this study that this may be because actual provisions for loan losses are farless than the value of NPLs on the banks' books which makes banks lend more to encourage repayment of doubtful debts. NPLs do not show in the banks' audited accounts (the usual accounting practice).What is reported in the banks' income statements is“net recoveries/(impairment losses) on loans and advances”, a figure that is far less than the value of NPLs of the banks. This underestimates the portfolio risk of a bank. Banking supervisors should pay keen attention to the level of the banks' actual value of NPLs so as to truly capture the magnitude of the potential default rate of borrowers.Third, the study finds a negative relationship between the loan-deposit ratio and a bank's loan supply. This is because banks cannot sell loans off their books, once they have originated it. We recommend that the Central Bank of Sierra Leone should play a parental role in strengthening the depth of the Interbank Market operations. This will have the effect of increasing access of banks to short term liquidity for intraday position management, enhance market depth to beyond the traditional overnight to one week tenor, and subsequently promote financial stability through confidence building. The availability of more funding sources other than client deposits reduces the risk of adverse deposits shocks.Fourth, a positive relationship has been established between bank loan supply and a bank's leverage ratio measured by a bank's equity divided by total assets, albeit at the 10 percent level of significance. On this note, the current effort of the Central Bank of Sierra Leone to double banks' capitalisation by 2014 should not be relented upon. This is not justifying any increases in the risk capital requirements for the individual risk categories. Instead, we recommend a reduction in the risk capital requirements for fully secured credit exposures. Further, banks should be encouraged to have capital in excess of the minimum paid up capital (capital buffers) so as have more room to absorb the inherent risk in the business of banking.In conclusion, we suggest any future studies should investigate the determinants of the sectoral allocation of bank credits. Additionally, with the availability of data, a time series analysis of this topic using aggregated data is advisable, where an impulse response analysis can be carried out.银行风险、资本和贷款供应:证据来自塞拉利昂奥古斯丁·博卡里大学经济学、加纳摘要目标——这项研究的目的是研究在塞拉利昂影响银行贷款供给的因素。
外文文献及翻译
（（英文参考文献及译文）二〇一六年六月本科毕业论文 题 目：STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED INTHE AUDIT学生姓名：王雪琴学 院：管理学院系 别：会计系专 业：财务管理班 级：财管12-2班 学校代码： 10128 学 号： 201210707016Statistics and AuditRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED IN THE AUDIT - views, recommendations, fi ndingsPhD Candidate Gabriela-Felicia UNGUREANUAbstractThe rapid increase in the size of U.S. companies from the earlytwentieth century created the need for audit procedures based on the selectionof a part of the total population audited to obtain reliable audit evidence, tocharacterize the entire population consists of account balances or classes oftransactions. Sampling is not used only in audit – is used in sampling surveys,market analysis and medical research in which someone wants to reach aconclusion about a large number of data by examining only a part of thesedata. The difference is the “population” from which the sample is selected, iethat set of data which is intended to draw a conclusion. Audit sampling appliesonly to certain types of audit procedures.Key words: sampling, sample risk, population, sampling unit, tests ofcontrols, substantive procedures.Statistical samplingCommittee statistical sampling of American Institute of CertifiedPublic Accountants of (AICPA) issued in 1962 a special report, titled“Statistical sampling and independent auditors’ which allowed the use ofstatistical sampling method, in accordance with Generally Accepted AuditingStandards (GAAS). During 1962-1974, the AICPA published a series of paperson statistical sampling, “Auditor’s Approach to Statistical Sampling”, foruse in continuing professional education of accountants. During 1962-1974,the AICPA published a series of papers on statistical sampling, “Auditor’sApproach to Statistical Sampling”, for use in continuing professional educationof accountants. In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, “AuditSampling”, which provides general guidelines for both sampling methods,statistical and non-statistical.Earlier audits included checks of all transactions in the period coveredby the audited financial statements. At that time, the literature has not givenparticular attention to this subject. Only in 1971, an audit procedures programprinted in the “Federal Reserve Bulletin (Federal Bulletin Stocks)” includedseveral references to sampling such as selecting the “few items” of inventory.Statistics and Audit The program was developed by a special committee, which later became the AICPA, that of Certified Public Accountants American Institute.In the first decades of last century, the auditors often applied sampling, but sample size was not in related to the efficiency of internal control of the entity. In 1955, American Institute of Accountants has published a study case of extending the audit sampling, summarizing audit program developed by certified public accountants, to show why sampling is necessary to extend the audit. The study was important because is one of the leading journal on sampling which recognize a relationship of dependency between detail and reliability testing of internal control.In 1964, the AICPA’s Auditing Standards Board has issued a report entitled “The relationship between statistical sampling and Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)” which illustrated the relationship between the accuracy and reliability in sampling and provisions of GAAS.In 1978, the AICPA published the work of Donald M. Roberts,“Statistical Auditing”which explains the underlying theory of statistical sampling in auditing.In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, named “Audit Sampling”, which provides guidelines for both sampling methods, statistical and non-statistical.An auditor does not rely solely on the results of a single procedure to reach a conclusion on an account balance, class of transactions or operational effectiveness of the controls. Rather, the audit findings are based on combined evidence from several sources, as a consequence of a number of different audit procedures. When an auditor selects a sample of a population, his objective is to obtain a representative sample, ie sample whose characteristics are identical with the population’s characteristics. This means that selected items are identical with those remaining outside the sample.In practice, auditors do not know for sure if a sample is representative, even after completion the test, but they “may increase the probability that a sample is representative by accuracy of activities made related to design, sample selection and evaluation” [1]. Lack of specificity of the sample results may be given by observation errors and sampling errors. Risks to produce these errors can be controlled.Observation error (risk of observation) appears when the audit test did not identify existing deviations in the sample or using an inadequate audit technique or by negligence of the auditor.Sampling error (sampling risk) is an inherent characteristic of the survey, which results from the fact that they tested only a fraction of the total population. Sampling error occurs due to the fact that it is possible for Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthe auditor to reach a conclusion, based on a sample that is different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would have been subject to audit procedures identical. Sampling risk can be reduced by adjusting the sample size, depending on the size and population characteristics and using an appropriate method of selection. Increasing sample size will reduce the risk of sampling; a sample of the all population will present a null risk of sampling.Audit Sampling is a method of testing for gather sufficient and appropriate audit evidence, for the purposes of audit. The auditor may decide to apply audit sampling on an account balance or class of transactions. Sampling audit includes audit procedures to less than 100% of the items within an account balance or class of transactions, so all the sample able to be selected. Auditor is required to determine appropriate ways of selecting items for testing. Audit sampling can be used as a statistical approach and a non- statistical.Statistical sampling is a method by which the sample is made so that each unit consists of the total population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, method of sample selection is random, allowed to assess the results based on probability theory and risk quantification of sampling. Choosing the appropriate population make that auditor’ findings can be extended to the entire population.Non-statistical sampling is a method of sampling, when the auditor uses professional judgment to select elements of a sample. Since the purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions about the entire population, the auditor should select a representative sample by choosing sample units which have characteristics typical of that population. Results will not extrapolate the entire population as the sample selected is representative.Audit tests can be applied on the all elements of the population, where is a small population or on an unrepresentative sample, where the auditor knows the particularities of the population to be tested and is able to identify a small number of items of interest to audit. If the sample has not similar characteristics for the elements of the entire population, the errors found in the tested sample can not extrapolate.Decision of statistical or non-statistical approach depends on the auditor’s professional judgment which seeking sufficient appropriate audits evidence on which to completion its findings about the audit opinion.As a statistical sampling method refer to the random selection that any possible combination of elements of the community is equally likely to enter the sample. Simple random sampling is used when stratification was not to audit. Using random selection involves using random numbers generated byRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit a computer. After selecting a random starting point, the auditor found the first random number that falls within the test document numbers. Only when the approach has the characteristics of statistical sampling, statistical assessments of risk are valid sampling.In another variant of the sampling probability, namely the systematic selection (also called random mechanical) elements naturally succeed in office space or time; the auditor has a preliminary listing of the population and made the decision on sample size. “The auditor calculated a counting step, and selects the sample element method based on step size. Step counting is determined by dividing the volume of the community to sample the number of units desired. Advantages of systematic screening are its usability. In most cases, a systematic sample can be extracted quickly and method automatically arranges numbers in successive series.”[2].Selection by probability proportional to size - is a method which emphasizes those population units’recorded higher values. The sample is constituted so that the probability of selecting any given element of the population is equal to the recorded value of the item;Stratifi ed selection - is a method of emphasis of units with higher values and is registered in the stratification of the population in subpopulations. Stratification provides a complete picture of the auditor, when population (data table to be analyzed) is not homogeneous. In this case, the auditor stratifies a population by dividing them into distinct subpopulations, which have common characteristics, pre-defined. “The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of elements in each layer and therefore allow a reduction in sample size without a proportionate increase in the risk of sampling.” [3] If population stratification is done properly, the amount of sample size to come layers will be less than the sample size that would be obtained at the same level of risk given sample with a sample extracted from the entire population. Audit results applied to a layer can be designed only on items that are part of that layer.I appreciated as useful some views on non-statistical sampling methods, which implies that guided the selection of the sample selecting each element according to certain criteria determined by the auditor. The method is subjective; because the auditor selects intentionally items containing set features him.The selection of the series is done by selecting multiple elements series (successive). Using sampling the series is recommended only if a reasonable number of sets used. Using just a few series there is a risk that the sample is not representative. This type of sampling can be used in addition to other samples, where there is a high probability of occurrence of errors. At the arbitrary selection, no items are selected preferably from the auditor, Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthat regardless of size or source or characteristics. Is not the recommended method, because is not objective.That sampling is based on the auditor’s professional judgment, which may decide which items can be part or not sampled. Because is not a statistical method, it can not calculate the standard error. Although the sample structure can be constructed to reproduce the population, there is no guarantee that the sample is representative. If omitted a feature that would be relevant in a particular situation, the sample is not representative.Sampling applies when the auditor plans to make conclusions about population, based on a selection. The auditor considers the audit program and determines audit procedures which may apply random research. Sampling is used by auditors an internal control systems testing, and substantive testing of operations. The general objectives of tests of control system and operations substantive tests are to verify the application of pre-defined control procedures, and to determine whether operations contain material errors.Control tests are intended to provide evidence of operational efficiency and controls design or operation of a control system to prevent or detect material misstatements in financial statements. Control tests are necessary if the auditor plans to assess control risk for assertions of management.Controls are generally expected to be similarly applied to all transactions covered by the records, regardless of transaction value. Therefore, if the auditor uses sampling, it is not advisable to select only high value transactions. Samples must be chosen so as to be representative population sample.An auditor must be aware that an entity may change a special control during the course of the audit. If the control is replaced by another, which is designed to achieve the same specific objective, the auditor must decide whether to design a sample of all transactions made during or just a sample of transactions controlled again. Appropriate decision depends on the overall objective of the audit test.Verification of internal control system of an entity is intended to provide guidance on the identification of relevant controls and design evaluation tests of controls.Other tests:In testing internal control system and testing operations, audit sample is used to estimate the proportion of elements of a population containing a characteristic or attribute analysis. This proportion is called the frequency of occurrence or percentage of deviation and is equal to the ratio of elements containing attribute specific and total number of population elements. WeightRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit deviations in a sample are determined to calculate an estimate of the proportion of the total population deviations.Risk associated with sampling - refers to a sample selection which can not be representative of the population tested. In other words, the sample itself may contain material errors or deviations from the line. However, issuing a conclusion based on a sample may be different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would be subject to audit.Types of risk associated with sampling:Controls are more effective than they actually are or that there are not significant errors when they exist - which means an inappropriate audit opinion. Controls are less effective than they actually are that there are significant errors when in fact they are not - this calls for additional activities to establish that initial conclusions were incorrect.Attributes testing - the auditor should be defining the characteristics to test and conditions for misconduct. Attributes testing will make when required objective statistical projections on various characteristics of the population. The auditor may decide to select items from a population based on its knowledge about the entity and its environment control based on risk analysis and the specific characteristics of the population to be tested.Population is the mass of data on which the auditor wishes to generalize the findings obtained on a sample. Population will be defined compliance audit objectives and will be complete and consistent, because results of the sample can be designed only for the population from which the sample was selected.Sampling unit - a unit of sampling may be, for example, an invoice, an entry or a line item. Each sample unit is an element of the population. The auditor will define the sampling unit based on its compliance with the objectives of audit tests.Sample size - to determine the sample size should be considered whether sampling risk is reduced to an acceptable minimum level. Sample size is affected by the risk associated with sampling that the auditor is willing to accept it. The risk that the auditor is willing to accept lower, the sample will be higher.Error - for detailed testing, the auditor should project monetary errors found in the sample population and should take into account the projected error on the specific objective of the audit and other audit areas. The auditor projects the total error on the population to get a broad perspective on the size of the error and comparing it with tolerable error.For detailed testing, tolerable error is tolerable and misrepresentations Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditwill be a value less than or equal to materiality used by the auditor for the individual classes of transactions or balances audited. If a class of transactions or account balances has been divided into layers error is designed separately for each layer. Design errors and inconsistent errors for each stratum are then combined when considering the possible effect on the total classes of transactions and account balances.Evaluation of sample results - the auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether assessing relevant characteristics of the population is confirmed or needs to be revised.When testing controls, an unexpectedly high rate of sample error may lead to an increase in the risk assessment of significant misrepresentation unless it obtained additional audit evidence to support the initial assessment. For control tests, an error is a deviation from the performance of control procedures prescribed. The auditor should obtain evidence about the nature and extent of any significant changes in internal control system, including the staff establishment.If significant changes occur, the auditor should review the understanding of internal control environment and consider testing the controls changed. Alternatively, the auditor may consider performing substantive analytical procedures or tests of details covering the audit period.In some cases, the auditor might not need to wait until the end audit to form a conclusion about the effectiveness of operational control, to support the control risk assessment. In this case, the auditor might decide to modify the planned substantive tests accordingly.If testing details, an unexpectedly large amount of error in a sample may cause the auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balances is given significantly wrong in the absence of additional audit evidence to show that there are not material misrepresentations.When the best estimate of error is very close to the tolerable error, the auditor recognizes the risk that another sample have different best estimate that could exceed the tolerable error.ConclusionsFollowing analysis of sampling methods conclude that all methods have advantages and disadvantages. But the auditor is important in choosing the sampling method is based on professional judgment and take into account the cost / benefit ratio. Thus, if a sampling method proves to be costly auditor should seek the most efficient method in view of the main and specific objectives of the audit.Romanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit The auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether the preliminary assessment of relevant characteristics of the population must be confirmed or revised. If the evaluation sample results indicate that the relevant characteristics of the population needs assessment review, the auditor may: require management to investigate identified errors and likelihood of future errors and make necessary adjustments to change the nature, timing and extent of further procedures to take into account the effect on the audit report.Selective bibliography:[1] Law no. 672/2002 updated, on public internal audit[2] Arens, A şi Loebbecke J - Controve …Audit– An integrate approach”, 8th edition, Arc Publishing House[3] ISA 530 - Financial Audit 2008 - International Standards on Auditing, IRECSON Publishing House, 2009- Dictionary of macroeconomics, Ed C.H. Beck, Bucharest, 2008Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit摘要美国公司的规模迅速增加，从第二十世纪初创造了必要的审计程序，根据选定的部分总人口的审计，以获得可靠的审计证据，以描述整个人口组成的帐户余额或类别的交易。
英文文献翻译(终稿)
毕业论文英文文献翻译学生姓名:系别: 中国语言文学系专业: 汉语言文学年级:学号: 200940101021指导教师: 王文征The Big Secret of Dealing with PeopleDale Carnegie There is only one way under high heaven to get anybody to do anything. Did you ever stop to think of that? Yes, just one way. And that is by making the other person want to do it.Remember, there is no other way.Of course, you can make someone want to give you his watch by sticking a revolver in his ribs. You can make your employees give you cooperation - until your back is turned - by threatening to fire them. You can make a child do what you want it to do by a whip or a threat. But these crude methods have sharply undesirable repercussions.The only way I can get you to do anything is by giving you what you want.What do you want?Sigmund Freud said that everything you and I do springs from two motives: the sex urge and the desire to be great.John Dewey, one of America’s most profound philosophers, phrased it a bit differently. Dr. Dewey, said that the deepest urge in human nature is “the desire to be important.” Remember that phrase: “the desire to be important.” It is significant. You are going to hear a lot about it in this book. What do you want? Not many things, but the few that you do wish, you crave with an insistence that will not be denied. Some of the things most people want include:1. Health and the preservation of life.2. Food.3. Sleep.4. Money and the things money will buy.5. Life in the hereafter.6. Sexual gratification.7. The well – being of our children.8. A feeling of importance.Almost all these wants are usually gratified –all except one. But there is one longing – almost as deep, almost as imperious, as the desire for food or sleep – which isseldom gratified. It is what Freud calls “the desire to be great.” It is what Dewey calls the “desire to be important.”Lincoln once began a letter saying: “Everybody likes a compliment.” William James said: “The deepest principle in human nature is the craving to be appreciated.”He didn’t speak, mind you, of the “wish”or the “desire”or the “longing” to be appreciated. He said the “craving” to be appreciated.Here is a gnawing and unfaltering human hunger, and the rare individual who honestly satisfies this heart hunger will hold people in the palm of his or her hand and “even the undertaker will be sorry when he dies.”The desire for a feeling of importance is one of the chief distinguishing differences between mankind and the animals. To illustrate: When I was a farm boy out in Missouri, my father bred fine Duroc – Jersey hogs and pedigreed white – faced cattle. We used to exhibit our hogs and white –faced cattle at the country fairs and live –stock shows throughout the Middle West. We won first prizes by the score. My father pinned his blue ribbons on a sheet of white muslin, and when friends of visitors came to the house, he would get out the long sheet of muslin. He would hold one end and I would hold the other while he exhibited the blue ribbons.The hogs didn’t care about the ribbons they had won. But Father did. These prizes gave him a feeling of importance.If our ancestors hadn’t had this flaming urge for a feeling of importance, civilization would have been impossible. Without it, we should have been just about like animals.It was this desire for a feeling of importance that led an uneducated, poverty –stricken grocery clerk to study some law books he found in the bottom of a barrel of household plunder that he had bought for fifty cents. You have probably heard of this grocery clerk. His name was Lincoln.It was this desire for a feeling of importance that inspired Dickens to write his immortal novels. This desire inspired Sir Christopher Wren to design his symphonies in stone. This desire made Rockefeller amass millions that he never spent! And this same desire made the richest family in your town build a house far too large for its requirements.This desire makes you want to wear the latest styles, drive the latest cars, and talk about your brilliant children.It is this desire that lures many boys and girls into joining gangs and engaging in criminal activities. The average young criminal, according to E.P. Mulrooney, onetime police commissioner of New York, is filled with ego, and his first request after arrest is for those lurid newspapers that make him out a hero. The disagreeable prospect of serving time seems remote so long as he can gloat over his likeness sharing space with pictures of sports figures, movie and TV stars and politicians.The difference between appreciation and flattery? That is simple. One is sincere and the other insincere. One comes from the heart out; the other from the teeth out. One is unselfish; the other selfish. One is universally admired; the other universally condemned.I recently saw a bust of Mexican hero General Alvaro Obregon in the Chapultepec palace in Mexico City. Below the bust are carved these wise words from General Obregon’s philosophy: “Don’t be afraid of enemies who attack you. Be afraid of the friends who flatter you. ”No! No! No! I am not suggesting flattery! Far from it. I’m talking about a new way of life. Let me repeat. I am talking about a new way of life.King George V had a set of six maxims displayed on the walls of his study at Buckingham Palace. One of these maxims said: “Teach me neither to proffer nor receive cheap praise.” That’s all flattery is – cheap praise. I once read a definition of flattery that may be worth repeating: “Flattery is telling the other person precisely what he thinks about himself.”“Use what language you will,”said Ralph Waldo Emerson, “you can never say anything but what you are.”If all we had to do was flatter, everybody would catch on and we should all be experts in human relations.When we are not engaged in thinking about some definite problem, we usually spend about 95 percent of our time thinking about ourselves. Now, if we shop thinking about ourselves for a while and begin to think of the other person’s good points, we won’t have to resort to flattery so cheap and false that it can be spotted almost before it is out of the mouth.One of the most neglected virtues of out daily existence is appreciation. Somehow, we neglect to praise our son or daughter when he or she brings home a good report card,and we fail to encourage our children when they first succeed in baking a cake or building a birdhouse. Nothing pleases children more than this kind of parental interest and approval.The next time you enjoy filet mignon at the club, send word to the chef that it was excellently prepared, and when a tired salesperson shows you unusual courtesy, please mention it.Every minister, lecturer and public speaker knows the discouragement of pouring himself or herself out to an audience and not receiving a single ripple of appreciative comment. What applies to professionals applies doubly to workers in offices, shops and factories and our families and friends. In our interpersonal relations we should never forget that all our associates are human beings and hunger for appreciation. It is the legal tender that all souls enjoy.Try leaving a friendly trail of little sparks of gratitude on your daily trips. You will be surprised how they will set small flames of friendship that will be rose beacons on your next visit. Pamela Dunham of New Fairfield, Connecticut, had among her responsibilities on her job the supervision of a janitor who was doing a very poor job. The other employees would jeer at him and litter the hallways to show him what a bad job he was doing. It was so bad, productive time was being lost in the shop.Without success, Pam tried various ways to motivate this person. She noticed that occasionally he did a particularly good piece of work. She made a point to praise him for it in front of the other people. Each day the job he did all around got better, and pretty soon he started doing all his work efficiently. Now he does an excellent job and other people give him appreciation and recognition. Honest appreciation got results where criticism and ridicule failed.Hurting people not only does not change them, it is never called for. There is an old saying that I have cut out and pasted on my mirror where I cannot help but see it every day:I shall pass this way but once; any good therefore, that I can do or any kindness that I can show to any human being, let me do it now. Let me not defer nor neglect it, for I shall not pass this way again.Emerson said: “Every man I meet is my superior in some way. In that, I learn ofhim.”If that was true of Emerson, isn’t it likely to be a thousand times more true of you and me? Let’s cease thinking of our accomplishments, our wants. Let’s try to figure our other person’s good points. Then forget flattery. Give honest, sincere appreciation. Be “hearty in your approbation and lavish in your praise,”and people will cherish your words and treasure them and repeat them over a lifetime – repeat them years after you have forgotten them.From:Dale Carnegie.How To Stop Worrying And Start Living［M］．Beijing:ChinaMaterial Press，2005.和人交往的一大秘诀戴尔·卡耐基天底下只有一个方法，可以让任何一个人去做任何一件事。
英文文献翻译(1)
英文文献翻译二〇一四年月日科技文章摘译Preventing electricity-stolen smart metersWith the development, it has been increasingly used in smart instrumentation equipment, so that the instrument performance have been greatly improved. This article describes the preventing electricity-stolen smart meters is to the ATMEL AT89C51 microcontroller as the core of the design, it achieves 32 power measurement and touring shows, and other functions, but also preventing electricity-stolen, anti-submarine-moving, high-precision, long-life And low power consumption and other characteristics of the new residential areas and is the preferred meter in the urban network reform.Hardware design(l) Signal acquisition and conversion of the electric circuit is more complicated measures, the traditional way is to sample the respective current, voltage, the AID conversion after their multiplication. This approach is not only to analog circuit design of high demand, the software programming requirements are also high, but it is difficult to achieve multiple users on the measure. Therefore, we choose BL0932B as a signal acquisition and conversion circuit core, it is an electronic power meter ASIC. BL0932B design based on the signal acquisition and conversion external circuit board with simple, high precision and stability, and other characteristics, especially for single-phase two-line power users of energy metering.BLO932B within the buffer amplifier, analog multiplier, VIF converters, counting circuit and drive circuit, can accurately measure positive and negative direction of the two active power and computing power in the same direction. The output in two ways: rapid pulse output and slow output for the former computer data processing, the latter used to drive pulse motor work.As the signal acquisition and conversion circuit board as well as the high-voltage 220 v, there Baidoa v order of magnitude of the small-signal, which requires the printed circuit board design and production process to be very scientific and rational. In addition, in order to protect the motherboard, BL0932B rapid pulse of the photoelectric sent to isolation after the SCM.(2) MCU control circuitSCM control circuit, including analog switch arrays, display and keypad circuit, datastorage, serial communications interface and watchdog circuit.l) analog switch array Preventing electricity-stolen smart meters are centralized meter, the MCU to the multi-pulse signals in real-time detection, therefore, it uses an Analog Switches CD405I of four eight-select and a 3 to 8 decoder 74 LS138 common Composed of analog switch arrays,ang it achieve a 32-way pulse of the cycle of detection.2) And show circuit as a key focus on smart meters, need to show the contents of many. Main form of households, electricity, the status of various instructions and error information. To this end, we designed the LED display, from 10 strings and static converters 74 LSl64 drive so you can at least take up the MCU resources. In addition, the signal input terminal also designed the 25 LED indicator, to display the 25 electricity capacity.The meters are "checking" and "cleared" two function keys are directly linked to the P3 in 89 C51 on the mouth. Through a combination of the two keys, can easily achieve the MCU cleared meter, single households cleared, online check, such as locking and unlocking operation.3) Data storage because of the configuration of the table need to record a large number of important data, in order to ensure data security, we designed the two data memory: parallel data memory and serial data memory. Parallel data memory by 6264, it has SK bytes of storage space, to fully meet the requirements of the table. In order to prevent power-down when the data loss, to the 6264 allocation of the 3.6 v backup battery. Backup battery switch and the 6264 election signals the film, by special worship P MAx691 provide monitoring chip. Serial data memory by 24 LC65, it also has a SK bytes of storage space, and through IZC bus connected with the MCU. Although there is no IZC 89C51 microcontroller bus interface, but through software programming, P1 I can simulate the two lines of its timing, completion of the 24 LC65 read and write operations. 24LC65 is a serial EZPROM, without battery backup, data can be safely stored in 200 years.4) Serial communication interface 89 C51 has a full-duplex serial interface, used in this meter for meter reading and communication interface. In order to achieve far more concentrated form clusters copied, in the serial interface on the basis of plus RS485 driver chips 75 LBC184. This can be through various meter RS485 bus and data acquisition system for communication links, and concentrate meter reading, remote meter reading.4) watchdog circuit watchdog circuit used for monitoring chip mix P MAX691, it has a power-on reset, brownout detection, backup battery switch and watchdog timer input output, and other functions. To determine whether the cumulative electricity. This part of the programming is mainly used in order to achieve the operation, with fewer bytes RAMoccupation, the code simple and fast, and other advantages.(3) Data validation and multi-site storage of data directly related to electricity users and property management departments of vital interests, is the most important data, we must ensure that its security is absolutely right and, therefore, in the real data storage, all of the electricity Check to ensure the accuracy of the data. Data in 6264 and 2465 have been taken in the multi-site storage, backup each other to ensure that data foolproof. Practice has proved that these measures, the data will no longer be an error or lost, the effect is very obvious.(4) of electricity and stepping roving show that the normal operation procedure, the pulse measurement, shows that various tour operators, and its power, when the last one shows that the electricity consumption, to calculate the unit's total electricity consumption and display, and then To start from scratch cycle show. In order to facilitate the spot meter reading, specially designed step show: that is, each press a button detection, household electricity consumption, and also shows the integral part.防偷电智能电表随发展，它已被越来越多地用于仪器仪表中构成智能仪器，从而使仪器仪表的性能得到极大改善。
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英文文献翻译
题目：赣州市池江中学学生亚健康心理现状的调查研究
学院：体育学院
专业名称：体育教育
班级学号：11102124
学生姓名：谢宝飞
指导教师：张文仙
国外亚健康状态的研究进展
20世纪80年代中期，前苏联学者N。
布赫曼（Berkman）提出在健康与疾病之间存在着一种中间状态。
20世纪90年代中期，我国学者王育学和孙涛首次提出"亚健康"的概念，定义为：介于健康和疾病的中间状态，在医疗机构县级以上中心医院）经系统检查和单项检查，未发现有疾病，而患者向己确实感觉到了躯体和心理上的种种不适。
1996年，在首届"亚健康学术研讨会"上，亚健康状态的名称和广义概念被正式确定。
自"亚健康状态"的概念提出后，许多学者从不同的研究角度对业健康状态做出了定义。
董玉整认为，个体的亚健康状态表现为身心情感方面处于健康与疾病之间的健康低质量状态及体验。
刘保延等提出亚健康状态指持续3个月以上出现的不适状态或适应能力显著减退而无明确疾病诊断，或有明确诊断但所患疾病与目前不适状态没有直接因果关系。
Wamg和Yan在国际上提出亚健康状态的英文名称为"Suboptimal health status"（SHS），并将其定义为：以持续3个月以上的感觉不适、虚弱、低体力等为特征的，一种可逆的无病理诊断的介于健康与疾病的中间状态。
其理论基础是处于亚健康状态时，所出现的持续不适、虚弱和能力减退等症状足由环境及心理等方面的刺激使机体长期发牛应濑反应所引起。
亚健康状态与中医学治未病的思想相结合且我国亚健康状态的研究主要集中在中医领域，目前较为公认《亚健康中医临床指南》中定义为：一定时间内活力降低、功能和适应能力减退，但不符合现代医学有关疾病的临床或业临床诊断标准的处于健康和疾病之问的一种状念，具体包括躯体、心理和社会交往方丽的症状。
虽然国外没有对亚健康状态的定义，但对一些医学无法解释的症状有研究，将其描述为人体出现的缺乏病理改变的躯体化综合征，以疼痛和躯体功能障碍为常见表现，并常伴随沮丧和焦虑等精神障碍。
根据出现的医学无法解释的症状可以具体分为许多综合征：慢性疲劳综合征，肠道易激综合征，肌纤维痛，非心源性胸痛，海湾战争综合征，躯体形式障碍等。
虽然涵盖了这一些状态的特征下，但由于并没有揭示出现该症状的原因，目前此定义仍在争议中。
因疲劳是亚健康状态的常见表现之一，有人将亚健康状态与医学无法解释的症状之一的慢性疲劳综合征划等号，也曾有学者将慢性疲劳综合征作为亚健康的诊断标准。
但美国疾病控制中心1988年3月将慢性疲劳综合征正式确定为一种以慢性疲劳为主要特征的疾病并制定了诊断标准，其慢性疲劳症状持续时间为6个月以上，且该病的症状群除疲劳表现外，还包括睡眠紊乱、异常情绪表现等。
亚健康状态虽多表现为慢性疲劳，但并不特指符合特殊标准的慢性疲劳综合征，所以两者应有各自不同的诊断标准。
我国学者提出的亚健康状态比国外的"医学无法解释的症状"范围广泛，包括躯体、心理和社
会适应等方面。
此外，因多数的医学无法解释的症状已被列人美国精神障碍诊断统计手册第4版（DSM一Ⅳ）和国际疾病分类第10版中的疾病范围，所以不应将其判定为业健康状态范围内。
目前，对亚健康状态的研究存在一重要问题。
首先，对亚健康状态这一概念的定义及诊断标准未达成共识。
亚健康状态的内涵足广泛的，并且因其是介于健康与疾病间的中间状态，都是其难以界定的原因。
制订统一的、易操作的诊断标准将有利于亚健康状态的研究和治疗。
第二，目前亚健康状态的测评方法很多，常见自制的问卷和判定标准，若没有统一的问卷及量化标准，会使得各研究结果问缺乏可比性。
第三，目前对于亚健康状态的评估主要是以人的主观感受及心理状态为主，很少采用客观指标进行诊断，造成测评结果差异。
第四，国内外学者应广泛合作交流，共同探讨亚健康状态的问题，存关键问题上取得同行的认可并达成共识。