语言学Pragmatics语用学

II. Context 语境
There are different kinds of context.
One kind is described as linguistic context, also wenku.baidu.comnown as co-text.
More generally, we know how to interpret words on the basis of physical context.
All the deictic expressions have to be interpreted in terms of which person, place or time the speaker has in mind. We make a broad distinction between what is marked as close to the speaker(this, here, now) and what is distant(that, there, then), we can also indicate whether movement is away from the speaker’s location(go) or toward the speakers location(come).
1. A: Can I look at your Chomsky? B: Sure, it’s on the shelf over there. Chomsky refers to the book written by Chomsky. 2. Waiter 1: Where’s the fresh salad sitting? Waiter 2: He’s sitting by the door. Fresh salad refers to the customer who ordered fresh salad. 3. Teacher: You can borrow my Shakespeare. 4. Waiter: the ham sandwich left without paying. 5. Nurse: The hernia（疝气）in room 5 wants to talk to the doctor. 6. Dentist: my eleven-thirty canceled so I had an early lunch.
Pragmatics
Preview:
Invisible meaning (隐含意义)
Context (语境) Deixis (指示语)
Reference (指称)
Anaphora (照应) Presupposition (预设) Speech acts (言语行为) Politeness (礼貌原则)
a) Co-text
The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. The surrounding co-text has a strong effect on what we think the word means.
Bank
1. I need to go to the bank to withdraw some cash. 2. It’s on the north bank of the Thames. 3. The girls ran down the steep grassy bank.
a. the side of a river, canal, etc. and the land near it b. an organization that provides various financial services c. an amount of sth that is collected; a place where sth is stored ready for use d. a raised area of ground that slopes at the sides, often at the edge of sth or dividing sth
IV.Reference 指称
In discussing deixis, we assumed that the use of words to refer to people and things was a simple matter. However, words themselves don’t refer to anything. People refer. We have to define reference as an act by which a speaker(or writer) uses language to enable a listener(or reader) to identify something.
Terms
a. Linguistic context(co-text)(语言语境\上下文语境): It refers to that which occurs before and \or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. It often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. b. Physical context(客观环境语境): Our understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the physical context, particularly the time and place, in which we encounter linguistic expressions. c. Deixis(指示语): It comes from the Greek word deixis which means “pointing” via language. d. Reference(指称): It is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to. e. Inference(推理): It refers to any additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant.
Pragmatics：
It refers to the study of “intended speaker meaning”.
I. Invisible meaning 隐含意义
In order for us to recognize the invisible meaning, the writers must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations. Then, we use the meaning of the words, in combination, and the context in which they occur, and we try to arrived at what the writer of the sign intended his message to convey.
III.Deixis 指示语
a)Person deixis: it, this, me, you, him, them, etc. b)Spatial deixis: here, there, near that, etc.
c)Temporal deixis: now, then, tonight, last week, etc.
We can use names associated with things to refer to people and names of people to refer to things. The key process here is called inference. An inference is any additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant.
Person deixis
Person deixis
• You’ll have to bring it
back tomorrow because
Person deixis
Temporal deixis
she isn’t here today.
Spatial deixis
Temporal deixis
4. He has a bank of knowledge.
b) Physical context
Our understanding of much of what we read and hear is tied to the physical context, particularly the time and place, in which we encounter linguistic expressions.