英文翻译(2016.2.29修改版)
2016年考研英语二真题答案解析及翻译大师兄版
2016年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语二试题Section I Use of EnglishDirections:Read the following text.Choose the best word(s)for each numbered blank and mark[A],[B],[C]or[D]on the ANSWER SHEET.(10points)Happy people work differently.They’re more productive,more creative,and willing to take greater risks. And new research suggests that happiness might influence1firms work,too.Companies located in places with happier people invest more,according to a recent research paper.2, firms in happy places spend more on R&D(research and development).That’s because happiness is linked to the kind of longer-term thinking3for making investments for the future.The researchers wanted to know if the4and inclination for risk-taking that come with happiness would 5the way companies invested.So they compared U.S.cities’average happiness6by Gallup polling with the investment activity of publicly traded firms in those areas.7enough,firms’investment and R&D intensity were correlated with the happiness of the area in which they were8.But is it really happiness that’s linked to investment,or could something else about happier cities9why firms there spend more on R&D?To find out,the researchers controlled for various10 that might make firms more likely to invest–like size,industry,and sales–and for indicators that a place was 11to live in,like growth in wages or population.The link between happiness and investment generally 12even after accounting for these things.The correlation between happiness and investment was particularly strong for younger firms,which the authors13to“less codified decision making process”and the possible presence of“younger and less14 managers who are more likely to be influenced by sentiment.”The relationship was15stronger in places where happiness was spread more16.Firms seem to invest more in places where most people are relatively happy,rather than in places with happiness inequality.17this doesn’t prove that happiness causes firms to invest more or to take a longer-term view,the authors believe it at least18at that possibility.It’s not hard to imagine that local culture and sentiment would help19how executives think about the future.“It surely seems plausible that happy people would be more forward-thinking and creative and20R&D more than the average,”said one researcher.1.[A]where[B]how[C]why[D]when2.[A]In return[B]In particular[C]In contrast[D]In conclusion3.[A]sufficient[B]famous[C]perfect[D]necessary4.[A]individualism[B]realism[C]optimism[D]modernism5.[A]echo[B]miss[C]spoil[D]change6.[A]imagined[B]assumed[C]measured[D]invented7.[A]Sure[B]Odd[C]Unfortunate[D]Often8.[A]headquartered[B]advertised[C]overtaxed[D]divided9.[A]overstate[B]summarize[C]explain[D]emphasize10.[A]factors[B]stages[C]levels[D]methods11.[A]desirable[B]reliable[C]sociable[D]reputable12.[A]resumed[B]held[C]emerged[D]broke13.[A]assign[B]attribute[C]transfer[D]compare14.[A]serious[B]experienced[C]ambitious[D]civilized15.[A]thus[B]instead[C]also[D]never16.[A]rapidly[B]directly[C]regularly[D]equally17.[A]While[B]Since[C]After[D]Until18.[A]arrives[B]jumps[C]hints[D]strikes19.[A]share[B]simplify[C]rediscover[D]shape20.[A]pray for[B]give away[C]send out[D]lean towardSection II Reading ComprehensionPart ADirections:Read the following four texts.Answer the questions below each text by choosing[A],[B],[C]or[D].Mark your answers on the ANSWER SHEET.(40points)Text1It’s true that high-school coding classes aren’t essential for learning computer science in college.Students without experience can catch up after a few introductory courses,said Tom Cortina,the assistant dean at Carnegie Mellon’s School of Computer Science.However,Cortina said,early exposure is beneficial.When younger kids learn computer science,they learn that it’s not just a confusing,endless string of letters and numbers–but a tool to build apps,or create artwork,or test hypotheses.It’s not as hard for them to transform their thought processes as it is for older students.Breaking down problems into bite-sized chunks and using code to solve them becomes normal.Giving more children this training could increase the number of people interested in the field and help fill the jobs gap,Cortina said.Students also benefit from learning something about coding before they get to college,where introductory computer-science classes are packed to the brim,which can drive the less-experienced or-determined students away.The Flatiron School,where people pay to learn programming,started as one of the many coding bootcamps that’s become popular for adults looking for a career change.The high-schoolers get the same curriculum,but“we try to gear lessons toward things they’re interested in,”said Victoria Friedman,an instructor.For instance,one of the apps the students are developing suggests movies based on your mood.The students in the Flatiron class probably won’t drop out of high school and build the next Facebook. Programming languages have a quick turnover,so the“Ruby on Rails”language they learned may not even be relevant by the time they enter the job market.But the skills they learn–how to think logically through a problem and organize the results–apply to any coding language,said Deborah Seehorn,an education consultant for the state of North Carolina.Indeed,the Flatiron students might not go into IT at all.But creating a future army of coders is not the sole purpose of the classes.These kids are going to be surrounded by computers—in their pockets,in their offices,in their homes–for the rest of their lives,The younger they learn how computers think,how to coax the machine into producing what they want–the earlier they learn that they have the power to do that–the better.21.Cortina holds that early exposure to computer science makes it easier to_____.[A]complete future job training[B]remodel the way of thinking[C]formulate logical hypotheses[D]perfect artwork production22.In delivering lessons for high-schoolers,Flatiron has considered their_____.[A]experience[B]academic backgrounds2016年考研英语二真题及大师兄版解析[A]was a give-in to governmental pressure[B]would involve fewer agencies in action[C]granted less federal regulatory power[D]went against conservation policies28.It can be learned from Paragraph3that unintentional harm-doers will not be prosecuted if they_____.[A]agree to pay a sum for compensation[B]volunteer to set up an equally big habitat[C]offer to support the WAFWA monitoring job[D]promise to raise funds for USFWS operations29.According to Ashe,the leading role in managing the species is_____.[A]the federal government[B]the wildlife agencies[C]the landowners[D]the states30.Jay Lininger would most likely support_____.[A]the plan under challenge[B]the win-win rhetoric[C]environmental groups[D]industry groupsText3That everyone's too busy these days is a cliché.But one specific complaint is made especially mournfully: There's never any time to read.What makes the problem thornier is that the usual time-management techniques don't seem sufficient.The web's full of articles offering tips on making time to read:“Give up TV”or“Carry a book with you at all times.”But in my experience,using such methods to free up the odd30minutes doesn't work.Sit down to read and the flywheel of work-related thoughts keeps spinning--or else you're so exhausted that a challenging book is the last thing you need.The modern mind,Tim Parks,a novelist and critic,writes,“is overwhelmingly inclined toward communication…It is not simply that one is interrupted;it is that one is actually inclined to interruption.”Deep reading requires not just time,but a special kind of time which can't be obtained merely by becoming more efficient.In fact,“becoming more efficient”is part of the problem.Thinking of time as a resource to be maximized means you approach it instrumentally,judging any given moment as well spent only in so far as it advances progress toward some goal.Immersive reading,by contrast,depends on being willing to risk inefficiency, goallessness,even time-wasting.Try to slot it as a to-do list item and you'll manage only goal-focused reading—useful,sometimes,but not the most fulfilling kind.“The future comes at us like empty bottles along an unstoppable and nearly infinite conveyor belt,”writes Gary Eberle in his book Sacred Time,and“we feel a pressure to fill these different-sized bottles(days,hours,minutes)as they pass,for if they get by without being filled,we will have wasted them.”No mind-set could be worse for losing yourself in a book.So what does work?Perhaps surprisingly,scheduling regular times for reading.You'd think this might fuel the efficiency mind-set,but in fact,Eberle notes,such ritualistic behaviour helps us“step outside time's flow”into “soul time.”You could limit distractions by reading only physical books,or on single-purpose e-readers.“Carry a book with you at all times”can actually work,too—providing you dip in often enough,so that reading becomes the default state from which you temporarily surface to take care of business,before dropping back down.On a really good day,it no longer feels as if you're“making time to read,”but just reading,and making time for everything else.31.The usual time-management techniques don’t work because_____.[A]what they can offer does not ease the modern mind.[B]what people often forget is carrying a book with them.[C]what challenging books demand is repetitive reading.[D]what deep reading requires cannot be guaranteed.32.The“empty bottles”metaphor illustrates that people feel a pressure to_____.37.It can be inferred from Paragraph3that young people_____.[A]favor a slower life pace.[B]hold an occupation longer.[C]attach importance to pre-marital finance.[D]give priority to childcare outside the home.38.The priorities and expectations defined by the young will_____.[A]depend largely on political preferences[B]reach almost all aspects of American life[C]focus on materialistic issues[D]become increasingly clear39.Both young and old agree that_____.[A]good-paying jobs are less available.[B]the old made more life achievements.[C]housing loans today are easy to obtain.[D]getting established is harder for the young.40.Which of the following is true about Schneider?_____.[A]He found a dream job after graduating from college.[B]His parents believe working steadily is a must for success.[C]His parents’good life has little to do with a college degree.[D]He thinks his job as a technician quite challenging.Part BDirections:Read the following text and answer the questions by choosing the most suitable subheading from the list A-G for each numbered paragraphs(41-45).There are two extra subheadings which you do not need to use.Mark your answers on the ANSWER SHEET.(10points)[A]Be silly[B]Have fun[C]Ask for help[D]Express your emotions.[E]Don’t overthink it[F]Be easily pleased[G]Notice thingsAct Your Shoe Size,Not Your AgeAs adults,it seems that we’re constantly pursuing happiness,often with mixed results.Yet children appear to have it down to an art—and for the most part they don’t need self-help books or therapy.Instead,they look after their wellbeing instinctively and usually more effectively than we do as grownups.Perhaps it’s time to learn a few lessons from them.41.___________.What does a child do when he’s sad?He cries.When he’s angry?He shouts.Scared?Probably a bit of both. As we grow up,we learn to control our emotions so they are manageable and don’t dictate our behaviours,which is in many ways a good thing.But too often we take this process too far and end up suppressing emotions, especially negative ones.That’s about as effective as brushing dirt under a carpet and can even make us ill.What we need to do is find a way to acknowledge and express what we feel appropriately,and then–again,like children–move on.42.__________.A couple of Christmases ago,my youngest stepdaughter,who was9years old at the time,got a Superman T-shirt for Christmas.It cost less than a fiver but she was overjoyed,and couldn’t stop talking about it.Too oftenwe believe that a new job,bigger house or better car will be the magic silver bullet that will allow us to finally be content,but the reality is these things have little lasting impact on our happiness levels.Instead,being grateful for small things every day is a much better way to improve wellbeing.43.__________.Have you ever noticed how much children laugh?If we adults could indulge in a bit of silliness and giggling, we would reduce the stress hormones in our bodies,increase good hormones like endorphins,improve blood flow to our hearts and ever have a greater chance of fighting off infection.All of which would,of course,have a positive effect on our happiness levels.44.__________.The problem with being a grownup is that there’s an awful lot of serious stuff to deal with—work,mortgage payments,figuring out what to cook for dinner.But as adults we also have the luxury of being able to control our own diaries and it’s important that we schedule in time to enjoy the thing we love.Those things might be social, sporting,creative or completely random(dancing around the living room,anyone?)—it doesn’t matter,so long as they’re enjoyable,and not likely to have negative side effects,such as drinking too much alcohol or going on a wild spending spree if you’re on a tight budget.45.__________.Having said all of the above,it’s important to add that we shouldn’t try too hard to be happy.Scientists tell us this can back fire and actually have a negative impact on our wellbeing.As the Chinese philosopher Chuang Tzu is reported to have said:“Happiness is the absence of striving for happiness.”And in that,once more,we need to look to the example of our children,to whom happiness is not a goal but a natural byproduct of the way they live.Section III Translation46.Directions:Translate the following text into Chinese.Write your translation on the ANSWER SHEET.(15points) The supermarket is designed to lure customers into spending as much time as possible within its doors.The reason for this is simple:The longer you stay in the store,the more stuff you’ll see,and the more stuff you see,the more you’ll buy.And supermarkets contain a lot of stuff.The average supermarket,according to the Food Marketing Institute,carries some44,000different items,and many carry tens of thousands more.The sheer volume of available choice is enough to send shoppers into a state of information overload.According to brain-scan experiments,the demands of so much decision-making quickly become too much for us.After about40 minutes of shopping,most people stop struggling to be rationally selective,and instead began shopping emotionally—which is the point at which we accumulate the50percent of stuff in our cart that we never intended buying.SectionⅣWritingPart A47.Directions:Suppose you won a translation contest and your friend,Jack,wrote an email to congratulate you and ask foradvice on translation.Write him a reply to1)thank him,and2)give your adviceYou should write about100words on the ANSWER SHEET.Do not sign your own name at the end of the e“Li Ming”instead.Do not write the address.(10points)Part B48.Directions:Write an essay based on the following chart.In your essay you should1)interpret the chart,and2)give your comments.You should write about150words on the ANSWER SHEET.(15points)某高校学生旅行目的调查2016年全国硕士研究生入学统一考试英语二试题大师兄版参考答案Section I Use of English(10points)1.A B C D2.A B C D3.A B C D4.A B C D5.A B C D6.A B C D7.A B C D8.A B C D9.A B C D10.A B C D11.A B C D12.A B C D13.A B C D14.A B C D15.A B C D16.A B C D17.A B C D18.A B C D19.A B C D20.A B C DSection II Reading Comprehension(50points)Part A(40points)21.A B C D22.A B C D23.A B C D24.A B C D25.A B C D26.A B C D27.A B C D28.A B C D29.A B C D30.A B C D31.A B C D32.A B C D33.A B C D34.A B C D35.A B C D36.A B C D37.A B C D38.A B C D39.A B C D40.A B C DPart B(10points)41.A B C D E F G42.A B C D E F G43.A B C D E F G44.A B C D E F G45.A B C D E F GSection III Translation(15points)超市的设计是要吸引顾客在店内尽可能长时间地购物。
unit2课文翻译The Virtues of Growing Older
The Virtues of Growing Older （长大变老有好处）Our society worships youth. Advertisements convince us to buy Grecian Formula and Oil of Olay so we can hide the gray in our hair and smooth the lines on our face. Television shows feature attractive young stars with firm bodies, perfect complexions, and thick manes of hair. Middle-aged folks work out in gyms and jog down the street, trying to delay the effects of age.我们所处的社会崇尚年轻。
连篇累牍的广告劝我们买希腊配方的洗发水和玉兰油，这样的话，白发无处可寻，面部的皱纹也能被抚平。
电视节目上尽是体魄强健，肤色无暇，头发浓密的年轻明星。
而中年人则在体育馆里锻炼，在马路上慢跑，尽量不让岁月过早地留下痕迹。
Wouldn't any person over thirty gladly sign with the devil just to be young again? Isn't aging an experience to be dreaded? Perhaps it is unAmerican to say so, but I believe the answer is "No." Being young is often pleasant, but being older has distinct advantages.不是所有三十出头的人都会为了重获青春而心甘情愿地与魔鬼订立合约吗？长大变老难道不可怕吗？说它不可怕可能不是美国人的回答，但我却认为长大变老不可怕。
四年级英语下册第二单元课文原文和翻译
四年级英语下册第二单元课文原文和翻译pep四年级英语下册第二单元课文原文和翻译第12面Unit 2 What time is it? 现在几点了？第12面第12面London Cairo Beijing New York Brasilia Sydney伦敦、开罗、北京、纽约、巴西利亚、悉尼第12面第12New York, 7 a.m. 纽约。
早上七点。
面第12What time is it? 几点了？面第12It's 7 o'clock. 七点了。
面第12It's time to get up. 该起床了。
面第12面第12Brasilia, 9 a.m. 巴西利亚，上午九点。
面第12What time is it? 几点了？面第12Hurry up! It's time for school! 快！该上学了！面第12面第12London, 12 noon 伦敦，中午十二点面第12What time is it? 几点了？面第12It's 12 o'clock. It's time for lunch. 十二点了。
该吃午饭了。
面第12面第12Cairo, 2 p.m. 开罗，下午两点。
面第12What time is it? 几点了？面第12It's 2 o'clock. Let's play football. 两点了。
一起踢足球吧。
面第12OK. 好。
面第12面第12Beijing, 8 p.m. 北京，晚上八点。
面第12What time is it? 几点了？面第12It's time to watch TV. 看电视的时间到了。
面第12面第12Sydney, 10 p.m. 悉尼，晚上十点。
面第12What time is it? 几点了？面第12It's 10 o'clock. 十点了。
2016 考研英语(二)翻译答案解析
2016 考研英语（二）翻译答案解析来源：文都教育2016年考研英语考试已经结束，文都教育给大家提供了的考研英语（二）翻译答案解析，供广大考生参考：46. Directions:Translate the following text into Chinese. Your translation should be written on the ANSWER SHEET. (15 points)The supermarket is designed to lure customers into spending as much time as possible within its doors. The reason for this is simple:The longer you stay in the store, the more stuff you'll see, and the more stuff you see, the more you'll buy. And supermarkets contain a lot of stuff. The average supermarket, according to the Food Marketing Institute, carries some 44,00 different items, and many carry tens of thousands more. The sheer volume of available choice is enough to send shoppers into a state of information overload. According to brain-scan experiments, the demands of so much decision-making quickly become too much for us. After about 40 minutes of shopping, most people stop struggling to be rationally selective, and instead begin shopping emotionally - which is the point at which we accumulate the 50 percent of stuff in our cart that we never intended buying.【翻译解析】1、The supermarket is designed to lure customers into spending as much time as possible within its doors.句子分析：句子主干为the supermarket is designed to lure customers into spending. 后面的as much time as possible和within its doors 都是状语。
新编实用英语2课文1翻译
unit 1课文翻译passage I 你真的被邀请了吗？如果有人问你什么时间是否有空并邀请你参加某一活动，在你尚未弄清楚邀请的具体内容之前，你没有必要答应一定参加。
比如说，如果你说有空，而邀请参加的却是你不愿意做的事（到你已经去过10次的当地景点旅游），那么你就可以回绝邀请，或者以后再编个借口。
如果遇到这种情况，就告诉邀请你的人你得看看安排，等以后再回复他们。
如果的确需要回绝邀请，多数邀请人需要得到解释。
恰当的做法如下;先道歉，再说明回绝的理由，最后对邀请表示感谢。
当有人请你到家里做客时，谁是客人、谁是主人非常清楚，但是邀请你去餐厅吃饭，喝咖啡或其它饮料时，有时就会出现问题，这方面的习俗在美国的不同地区是不同的。
在许多情况下，一般认为应由邀请人付账单，但是有时各付各的帐。
在非正式的场合朋友之间经常如此，比如“咱们去喝杯啤酒吧，”或“想喝杯咖啡吗？”然而，在这个国家的许多地方，有些人喜欢去餐馆吃饭，而不是在家里请客吃饭。
这种情况，一般由主人付账，而客人可以主动提出付小费，尽管这可能被主人谢绝。
（如果遇到这种情况，就顺其自然。
) 如果邀请是随意发出的，比如“咱们去（餐馆的名字）吃饭吧，”这样说更像是建议，而不是邀请，这样你就应该准备付你自己的那部分账单。
如果你想请某人去餐馆吃饭，一定要表达清楚：“我要请你去..." 。
美国人也要表达清楚，不过它们时常以为你了解当地的这方面的风俗习惯。
如果你心里没数，就问问朋友。
还有一些话听起来像邀请，但实际上并不是。
人们可能会说：“我们什么时候得聚一聚”或“你什么时候到我家来坐坐。
”你可以透过这些话的含糊其辞来断定这不是邀请—没有提到具体的时间，而且经常使用“什么时候”这个词，这些经常是告别时的客套话。
在这种情况下，你可以回答：“是的，那太好了”，或“我很愿意”，或类似的话。
然后就把这件事阁下。
如果他们不打电话给你，你随时可以邀请他们。
unit2课文参考译文A篇网络的持续发展在仅仅5年的时间里，全球范围网（万维网）已经成为一种新媒体，使人们能够从小到房间内大到全球范围分享信息、处理业务并相互交流。
2016职称英语理工B级译文(Word版)
2016年职称英语等级考试教材短文及译文（理工类B级）目录第二部分阅读判断第一篇Inventor of LED第二篇El Nino第三篇Smoking第四篇Engineering Ethics第五篇Recue Platform* 第六篇Microchip Research Center Created* 第七篇Moderate Earthquake Strikes England* 第八篇What is dream* 第九篇Dangers Await Babies with Altitude* 第十篇Thy biology of music第三部分概括大意和完成句子第一篇More Than 8 Hours Sleep Too Much of a Good Thing第二篇Soot and Snow: a Hot Combination第三篇Icy Microbes第四篇Compact Disks第五篇LED Lighting* 第六篇How We Form First Impression* 第七篇Screen Test* 第八篇The Mir Space Station* 第九篇More Rural Research Is Needed* 第十篇Washoe Learned American Sign Language第四部阅读理解第一篇Ford Abandons Electric Vehicles第二篇World Crude Oil Production May Peak a Decade Earlier Than Some Predict第三篇Citizen Scientists第四篇Motoring Technology第五篇Late-Night Drinking第六篇Making Light of Sleep第七篇Sugar Power for Cell Phones第八篇Eiffel Is an Eyeful第九篇An Essential Scientific Process第十篇Young Female Chimps Outlearn Their Brothers第十一篇When Our Eyes Serve Our Stomach第十二篇Florida Hit by Cold Air Mass第十三篇Invisibility Ring第十四篇Japanese Car Keeps Watch for Drunk Drivers第十五篇Winged Robot Learns to Fly第十六篇Japanese Drilling into Core of Earth*第十七篇A Sunshade for the Planet*第十八篇Thirst for Oil*第十九篇Musical Robot Companion Enhances Listener Experience*第二十篇Explorer of the Extreme Deep*第二十一篇Plant Gas*第二十二篇Real-World Robots*第二十三篇Powering a City? It's a Breeze.*第二十四篇Underground Coal Fires -- a Looming Catastrophe*第二十五篇Eat to Live*第二十六篇Male and Female Pilots Cause Accidents Differently*第二十七篇Driven to Distraction*第二十八篇Sleep Lets Brain File Memories*第二十九篇I will Be Bach*第三十篇Digital Realm*第三十一篇Hurricane Katrina*第三十二篇Mind-reading Machine*第三十三篇Experts Call for Local and Regional Control of Sites for Radioactive第五部分补全短文第一篇Mobile phones第二篇Baby Talk (2016新增)第三篇Common Questions About Dreams (2016新增)第四篇The Bilingual Brain第五篇 A Record-BreakingRover* 第六篇The Apgar Test (2016新增)* 第七篇Ice Cream Taster Has Sweet Job (2016新增)* 第八篇Watching Microcurrents Flow* 第九篇Lightening Strikes* 第十篇How deafiness Makes It Easier to Hear第六部分完型填空第一篇Captain Cook Arrow Legend第二篇Avalanche and Its Safety第三篇Giant Structures第四篇Animal's "Sixth Sense"第五篇Singing Alarms Could Save the Blind* 第六篇Car Thieves Could Be Stopped Remotely* 第七篇An Intelligent Car* 第八篇Why India Needs Its Dying Vultures* 第九篇Wonder Webs* 第十篇Chicken Soup for the Soul：Comfort Food Fights Loneliness 第一篇Inventor of LEDWhen Nick Holonyak set out to create a new kind of visible lighting usingsemiconductor alloys, his colleagues thought he was unrealistic. Today, hisdiscovery of light-emitting diodes, or1 LEDs, are used in everything fromDVDs to alarm clocks to airports. Dozens of his students have continuedhis work, developing lighting used in traffic lights and other everydaytechnology.On April 23, 2004, Holonyak received the $500,000 Lemelson-MIT Prize ata ceremony in Washington. This marks the 10th year that theLemelson-MIT Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)has given the award to prominent inventors.“Any time you get an award, big or little2, it’s always a surprise.”Holonyak said.Holonyak, 75, was a student of John Bardeen, an inventor of the transistor,in the early 1950s. After graduate school3, Holonyak worked at Bell Labs.He later went to General Electric4, where he invented a switch nowwidely used in house dimmer switches5.Later, Holonyak started looking into how semiconductors could be used togenerate light. But while his colleagues were looking at how to generateinvisible light, he wanted to generate visible light. The LEDs he invented in1962 now last about 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs, and aremore environmentally friendly and cost effective.Holonyak, now a professor of electrical and computer engineering andphysics at the University of Illinois, said he suspected that LEDs wouldbecome as commonplace as they are today, but didn’t realize how manyuses they would have.“You don’t know in the beginning. You think you’re doing somethingimportant, you think it’s worth doing, but you really can’t tell what the bigpayoff is going to be, and when, and how. You just don’t know.” he said.The Lemelson-MIT Program also recognized Edith Flanigen, 75, with the$100,000 Lemelson-MIT Lifetime Achievement Award for her work on anew generation of “molecular sieves,” that can separate molecules bysize.第一篇LED的发明者当Nick Holonyak着手用半导体含金创造一种新的可视照明设备的时候，同事们都认为他不现实。
考研英语二翻译真题及答案
考研英语二翻译真题及答案2016考研英语二翻译真题及答案引导语：为了帮助大家更好地准备考研，以下是店铺为大家整理的2016考研英语二翻译真题及答案，欢迎阅读!英语二Translate the following text into Chinese. Your translation should be written on the ANSWER SHEET. (15 points) The supermarket is designed to lure customers into spending as much time as possible within its doors. The reason for this is simple:The longer you stay in the store, the more stuff you'll see, and the more stuff you see, the more you'll buy. And supermarkets contain a lot of stuff. The average supermarket, according to the Food Marketing Institute, carries some 44,00 different items, and many carry tens of thousands more. The sheer volume of available choice is enough to send shoppers into a state of information overload. According to brain-scan experiments, the demands of so much decision-making quickly become too much for us. After about 40 minutes of shopping, most people stop struggling to be rationally selective, and instead begin shopping emotionally - which is the point at which we accumulate the 50 percent of stuff in our cart that we never intended buying.超市设计的目的就是为了使消费者花尽可能多的'时间在店内逛。
大学英语教材第2版翻译
大学英语教材第2版翻译IntroductionAs the demand for English language proficiency continues to grow, the importance of reliable and effective English textbooks for university students cannot be overstated. The need for a well-structured and comprehensive English textbook lies at the core of language learning and development. In this article, we will explore the translation of the second edition of the University English Textbook, delving into the challenges and considerations that arise when undertaking such a task.Translation Process1. Textual Analysis and UnderstandingBefore embarking on the translation process, a thorough analysis of the original English textbook is essential. This involves understanding the overall structure, the topics covered, and the specific language skills targeted. Familiarity with the target audience, their learning objectives, and cultural background is also crucial.2. Terminology Research and ConsistencyTranslators must ensure the accurate translation of key terms and concepts throughout the textbook. Extensive research on specialized terminology and subject-specific jargon is necessary to maintain consistency and ensure that the translated text is coherent and understandable for the readers. The use of glossaries and reference materials can facilitate this process.3. Adaptation to Cultural ContextWhile maintaining the integrity of the original content, it is important to adapt the translated textbook to the cultural context of the target language. This involves considering the linguistic nuances, cultural references, and educational systems of the target audience. Adapting exercises, examples, and illustrations to suit the cultural preferences and educational practices of the readers enhances their engagement and comprehension.4. Syntactical and Stylistic ConsiderationsTranslating a textbook requires careful attention to syntax and style. Sentences should be clear, concise, and grammatically accurate, ensuring that the meaning of the original text is conveyed effectively. Translators must also take into account the appropriate tone and register consistent with the target language.5. Proofreading and EditingAn integral part of the translation process is meticulous proofreading and editing. This ensures the accuracy and fluency of the translated text. Translators need to review the translated content multiple times, checking for any errors or inconsistencies, and refining the text to meet the highest standards of readability and coherence.Challenges in Translation1. Cultural Nuances and Idiomatic ExpressionsThe translation of idiomatic expressions and cultural nuances presents one of the greatest challenges in translating the English textbook. Translatorsmust strike a balance between direct translations and equivalent expressions in the target language that convey the same intended meaning. This requires a deep understanding of both languages and the ability to adapt and capture the essence of the original text.2. Language Specificity and Contextual MeaningEnglish language textbooks often contain exercises or texts that rely heavily on contextual meaning. Translating such passages while maintaining the intended message can be complex. Translators must consider the context, cultural references, and background knowledge of the readers to ensure accurate comprehension.ConclusionTranslating the second edition of the University English Textbook is a challenging yet rewarding task. It requires a comprehensive understanding of both the source and target languages, along with careful attention to cultural nuances and linguistic peculiarities. By following a systematic translation process and prioritizing accuracy and readability, the translated textbook aims to contribute to the learning and development of university students in their pursuit of English language proficiency.。
2016年全国高考英语试题及答案(全国II卷)精校版(可编辑修改word版)
绝密★启用前2016 年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试英语本试卷分第一卷（选择题）和第二卷（非选择题）两部分。
共150 分，共12 页。
考试结束后，将本试卷和答题卡一并交回。
第Ⅰ卷第一部分听力（共两节，满分30 分）做题时，现将答案标在试卷上。
录音内容结束后，你将有两分钟的时间将试卷上的答案转涂到答题卡上。
第一节（共5 小题：每小题 1.5 分，满分7.5 分）听下面5 段对话，每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C 三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。
听完每段对话后，你都有10 秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
例：How much is shirt?A.￡19.15B. ￡9.18C. ￡9.151.What will Lucy do at 11:30 tomorrow?A.Go out for lunch.B. See her dentistC. Visit a friend.2.What is the weather like now?A.It’s sunny.B. It’s rainy.C. To discuss his studies.3.Why does the man talk to Dr. Simpson?A.To make an apology.B. To ask for help.C. To discuss his studies.4.How will the woman get back from the railway station?A.By trainB. By car.C. By bus.5.What does Jenny decide to do first?A.Look for a jobB. Go on a trip.C. Get an assistant.第二节（共15 小题：每小题1.5 分，满分22.5 分）听下面5 段对话或独白。
2016考研英语二真题阅读翻译
2016考研英语二真题阅读翻译在每年考研英语考试中,阅读理解试题在整个试卷中占很大比重,其重要程度不言而喻。
下面就是店铺给大家整理的2016考研英语二真题阅读翻译，希望对你有用!考研英语阅读原文Biologists estimate that as many as 2 million lesser prairie chickens — a kind of bird living on stretching grasslands — once lent red to the often gray landscape of the midwestern and southwestern United States.But just some 22,000 birds remain today, occupying about 16% of the species' historic range.The crash was a major reason the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWS) decided to formally list the bird as threatened."The lesser prairie chicken is in a desperate situation," said USFWS Director Daniel Ashe.Some environmentalists, however, were disappointed.They had pushed the agency to designate the bird as "endangered," a status that gives federal officials greater regulatory power to crack down on threats.But Ashe and others argued that the "threatened" tag gave the federal government flexibility to try out new, potentially less confrontational conservations approaches.In particular, they called for forging closer collaborations with western state governments, which are often uneasy with federal action and with the private landowners who control an estimated 95% of the prairie chicken's habitat.Under the plan, for example, the agency said it would not prosecute landowner or businesses that unintentionally kill, harm, or disturb the bird, as long as they had signed a range—widemanagement plan to restore prairie chicken habitat.Negotiated by USFWS and the states, the plan requires individuals and businesses that damage habitat as part of their operations to pay into a fund to replace every acre destroyed with 2 new acres of suitable habitat.The fund will also be used to compensate landowners who set aside habitat, USFWS also set an interim goal of restoring prairie chicken populations to an annual average of 67,000 birds over the next 10 years.And it gives the Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (WAFWA), a coalition of state agencies, the job of monitoring progress.Overall, the idea is to let "states" remain in the driver's seat for managing the species," Ashe said.Not everyone buys the win-win rhetoric.Some Congress members are trying to block the plan,and at least a dozen industry groups, four states, and three environmental groups are challenging it in federal court.Not surprisingly, industry groups and states generally argue it goes too far; environmentalists say it doesn't go far enough."The federal government is giving responsibility for managing the bird to the same industries that are pushing it to extinction," says biologist Jay Lininger.考研英语阅读翻译生物学家估计美国中西部和西南部的广袤草原上曾生活着多达200万只的小草原松鸡，这些红色的小草原松鸡为灰蒙蒙的草原风貌增添了几分红艳。
新概念英语-第二册课文中英对照版
新概念英语第二册课文1-96课中英对照版Lesson 1 A private conversation 私人谈话Last week I went to the theatre. I had a very good seat? The play was very interesting. I did not enjoy it? A young man and a young woman were sitting behind me. They were talking loudly. I got very angry. I could not hear the actors. I turned round. I looked at the man and the woman angrily. They did not pay any attention. In the end, I could not bear it. I turned round again. 'I can't hear a word!' I said angrily? ‘It’s none of your business,' the young man said rudely. 'This is a private conversation!'.上星期我去看戏。
我的座位很好，戏很有意思，但我却无法欣赏。
一青年男子与一青年女子坐在我的身后，大声地说着话。
我非常生气，因为我听不见演员在说什么。
我回过头去怒视着那一男一女，他们却毫不理会。
最后，我忍不住了，又一次回过头去，生气地说：“我一个字也听不见了！”“不关你的事，”那男的毫不客气地说，“这是私人间的谈话！”Lesson 2 Breakfast or lunch? 早餐还是午餐？It was Sunday. I never get up early on Sundays. I sometimes stay in bed until lunch time.Last Sunday I got up very late. I looked out of the window. It was dark outside.'What a day!' I thought. 'It's raining again.' Just then, the telephone rang. It was my aunt Lucy.' I've just arrived by train,' she said. 'I'm coming to see you.' 'But I'm still having breakfast,' I said.'What are you doing?' she asked. ‘I’m having breakfast,' I repeated.'Dear me,' she said. 'Do you always get up so late? It's one o'clock!''那是个星期天，而在星期天我是从来不早起的，有时我要一直躺到吃午饭的时候。
新视野大学英语第三版Book2课文翻译
新视野大学英语第三版Book2课文翻译第一篇：新视野大学英语第三版 Book 2 课文翻译新视野大学英语第三版 Book 2 课文翻译 Unit 1 Text A 一堂难忘的英语课如果我是唯一一个还在纠正小孩英语的家长，那么我儿子也许是对的。
对他而言，我是一个乏味的怪物：一个他不得不听其教诲的父亲，一个还沉湎于语法规则的人，对此我儿子似乎颇为反感。
我觉得我是在最近偶遇我以前的一位学生时，才开始对这个问题认真起来的。
这个学生刚从欧洲旅游回来。
我满怀着诚挚期待问她：“欧洲之行如何？” 3 她点了三四下头，绞尽脑汁，苦苦寻找恰当的词语，然后惊呼：“真是，哇！” 4 没了。
所有希腊文明和罗马建筑的辉煌居然囊括于一个浓缩的、不完整的语句之中！我的学生以“哇！”来表示她的惊叹，我只能以摇头表达比之更强烈的忧虑。
关于正确使用英语能力下降的问题，有许多不同的故事。
学生的确本应该能够区分诸如their/there/they're之间的不同，或区别complimentary 跟complementary之间显而易见的差异。
由于这些知识缺陷，他们承受着大部分不该承受的批评和指责，因为舆论认为他们应该学得更好。
学生并不笨，他们只是被周围所看到和听到的语言误导了。
举例来说，杂货店的指示牌会把他们引向stationary（静止处），虽然便笺本、相册、和笔记本等真正的stationery（文具用品）并没有被钉在那儿。
朋友和亲人常宣称They've just ate。
实际上，他们应该说They've just eaten。
因此，批评学生不合乎情理。
对这种缺乏语言功底而引起的负面指责应归咎于我们的学校。
学校应对英语熟练程度制定出更高的标准。
可相反，学校只教零星的语法，高级词汇更是少之又少。
还有就是，学校的年轻教师显然缺乏这些重要的语言结构方面的知识，因为他们过去也没接触过。
学校有责任教会年轻人进行有效的语言沟通，可他们并没把语言的基本框架——准确的语法和恰当的词汇——充分地传授给学生。
Unit-1-Love新编大学英语第二版第二册课文翻译
Unit 1 LoveA Good Heart to Lean OnAugustus J. BullockMore than I realized, Dad has helped me keep my balance.[1] When I was growing up, I was embarrassed to be seen with my father. He was severely crippled and very short, and when we would walk together, his hand on my arm for balance, people would stare. I would be ashamed of the unwanted attention. If he ever noticed or was bothered, he never let on.[2] It was difficult to coordinate our steps—his halting, mine impatient—and because of that, we did n't say much as we went along. But as we started out, he always said, “You set the pace. I will try to adjust to you. ”[3] Our usual walk was to or from the subway, which was how he got to work. He went to work sick, and despite nasty weather. He almost never missed a day, and would make it to the office even if others could not. It was a matter of pride for him.[4] When snow or ice was on the ground, it was impossible for him to walk, even with help. At such times my sisters or I would pull him through the streets of Brooklyn , N.Y. , on a child's sleigh to the subway entrance. Once there, he would cling to the handrail until he reached the lower steps that the warmer tunnel air kept ice-free. In Manhattan the subway station was the basement of his office building, and he would not have to go outside again until we met him in Brooklyn on his way home.[5] When I think of it now, I marvel at how much courage it must have taken for a grown man to subject himself to such indignity and stress. And I marvel at how he did it—without bitterness or complaint.[6] He never talked about himself as an object of pity, nor did he show any envy of the more fortunate or able. What he looked for in others was a “good heart”, and if he found one, the owner was good enough for him.[7] Now that I am older, I believe that is a proper standard by which to judge people, even thoughI still don't know precisely what a “good heart” is. But I know the times I don't have one myself.[8] Unable to engage in many activities, my father still tried to participate in some way. When a local baseball team found itself without a manager, he kept it going. He was a knowledgeable baseball fan and often took me to Ebbets Field to see the Brooklyn Dodgers play. He liked to go to dances and parties, where he could have a good time just sitting and watching.[9] On one memorable occasion a fight broke out at a beach party, with everyone punching and shoving. He wasn't content to sit and watch, but he couldn't stand unaided on the soft sand. In frustration he began to shout, “I'll fight anyone who will sit down with me! I'll fight anyone who will sit down with me! ”[10] Nobody did. But the next day people kidded him by saying it was the first time any fighter was urged to take a dive even before the bout began.[11] I now know he participated in some things vicariously through me, his only son. When I played ball (poorly), he “played” too. When I joined the Navy, he “joined” too. And when I came home on leave, he saw to it that I visited his office. Introducing me, he was really saying, “This is my son, but it is also me, and I could have done this, too, if things had been different. ” Those words were never said aloud.[12] He has been gone many years now, but I think of him often. I wonder if he sensed my reluctance to be seen with him during our walks. If he did, I am sorry I never told him how sorry I was, how unworthy I was, how I regretted it. I think of him when I complain about trifles, when I am envious of another's good fortune, whe n I don't have a “good heart”.[13] At such times I put my hand on his arm to regain my balance, and say, “You set the pace. I will try to adjust to you.”善良之心，久久相依当时我没有意识到，是爸爸帮我保持平衡奥古斯塔斯• J •布洛克1 随着我渐渐长大，当别人看见我和爸爸在一起，我会觉得很尴尬。
2016年英语全国2卷高频词汇整理
daily
adj.每日的
broaden
v.拓宽
n.文章
disastrous
adj.灾难性的
continent
n.大陆
cameraman
n.摄影师
achieve
v.实现achievementn.成就
reasonable
adj.合理的
companion
n.同伴
survival
n.生存survivevi.幸存
march
v.前进
image
n.形象
forceful
be intended to do
有意为之
voyage
n.航行
a crew of
一队
outstanding
adj.杰出的
scientist
n.科学家
undoubtedly
adv.毋庸置疑地
shore
n.岸
journalism
n.新闻学
force
n.武力;暴力;力量v.强迫
shoot
v.拍摄
passage
n.创造力createv.创造
experimentally
adv.实验性地
creative
adj.创造性的
construction
n.建设
risk
v./n.风险
be filled with
充满
fail
v.失败;未能(做到)failuren.失败
shelf
n.架子
declare
v.声明announcevt.宣言
adv.例外地；罕见，特别
hesitate to do
2016年全国高考英语卷2阅读(无错版)
What’s on?Electric Underground7.30pm－1.00am Free at the Cyclops TheatreDo you know who’s playing in your area? We’re bringing you an evening of live rock and pop music from the best local bands. Are you interested in becoming a musician and getting a recording contract(合同)? If so, come early to the talk at 7.30pm by Jules Skye, a successful record producer. He’s going to talk about how you can find the right person to produce you music.Gee Whizz8.30pm-10.30pm Comedy at KaleidoscopeCome and see G ee Whizz perform. He’s the funniest stand-up comedian on the comedy scene. This joyful show will please everyone, from the youngest to the oldest. Gee Whizz really knows how to make you laugh! Our bar is open from 7.00pm for drinks and snacks(快餐).Simon’s Workshop5.00pm-7.30pm Wednesdays at Victoria StageThis is a good chance for anyone who wants to learn how to do comedy. The workshop looks at every kind of comedy, and practices many different ways of making people laugh. Simon is a comedian and actor who has 10 years’ experience of teaching comedy. His workshops are exciting and fun. An evening with Simon will give you the confidence to be funny.Charlotte Stone8.00pm-11.00pm Pizza WorldFine food with beautiful jazz music; this is a great evening out. Charlotte Stone will perform songs from her newbest-selling CD, with James Pickering on the piano. The menu is Italian, with excellent meat and fresh fish, pizzas and pasta(面食). Book early to get a table. Our bar is open all day, and serves cocktails, coffee, beer, and white wine.21. Who can help you if you want to have your music produced?A. Jules Skye.B. Gee Whizz.C. Charlotte Stone.D. James Pickering.22. At which place can people of different ages enjoy a good laugh?A. The Cyclops TheatreB. KaleidoscopeC. Victoria StageD. Pizza World23. What do we know about Simon’s Workshop?A. It requires membership status.B. It lasts three hours each time.C. It is run by a comedy club.D. It is held every Wednesday.24. When will Charlotte Stone perform her songs?A. 5.00pm-7.30pm.B. 7.30pm－1.00am.C. 8.00pm-11.00pm.D. 8.30pm-10.30pm.Five years ago, when I taught art at a school in Seattle, I used Tinkertoys as a test at the beginning of a term to find out something about my students. I put a small set of Tinkertoys in front of each student, and said:”Make something out of the Tinkertoys. You have 45 minutes today - and 45minutes each day for the rest of the week.”A few students hesitated to start. They waited to see the rest of the class would do. Several others checked the instructions and made something according to one of the model plans provided. Another group built something out of their own imaginations.Once I had a boy who worked experimentally with Tinkertoys in his free time. His constructions filled a shelf in the art classroom and a good part of his bedroom at home. I was delighted at the presence of such a student. Here was an exceptionally creative mind at work. His presence meant that I had an unexpected teaching assistant in class whose creativity would infect(感染) other students.Encouraging this kind of thinking has a downside. I ran the risk of losing those students who had a different style of thinking. Without fail one would declare,” But I’m just not creative.”“Do you dream at night when you’re asleep?”“Oh, sure.”“So tell me one of your most interesting dreams.” The student would tell something wildly imaginative. Flying in the sky or in a time machine or growing three heads. “That’s pretty creative. Who does that for you?”“Nobody. I do it.”“Really-at night, when you’re asleep?”“Sure.”“Try doing it in the daytime, in class, okay?”25. The teacher used Tinkertoys in class in order to ________?A. know more about the studentsB. make the lessons more excitingC. raise the stude nts’ interest in artD. teach the students about toy design26. What do we know about the boy mentioned in Paragraph 3?A. He liked to help his teacher.B. He preferred to study alone.C. He was active in class.D. He was imaginative.27. What d oes the underlined word “downside” in Paragraph 4 probably mean?A. Mistake.B. Drawback.C. Difficulty.D. Burden.28. Why did the teacher ask the students to talk about their dreams?A. To help them to see their creativity.B. To find out about their sleeping habits.C. To help them to improve their memory.D. To find out about their ways of thinking.Reading can be a social activity. Think of the people who belong to book groups. They choose books to read and then meet to discuss them. Now, the website turns the page on the traditional idea of a book group.Members go on the site and register the books they own and would like to share. BookCrossing provides an identification number to stick inside the book. Then the person leaves it in a public place, hoping that the book will have an adventure, traveling far and wide with each new reader who finds it.Bruce Pederson, the managing director of BookCrossing, says, “The two things that change your life are the people you meet and books you read. BookCrossing combines both.”Members leave books on park benches and buses, in train stations and coffee shops. Whoever finds their book will go to the site and record where they found it.People who find a book can also leave a journal entry describing what they thought of it. E-mails are then sent to the BookCrossing to keep them updated about where their books have been found. Bruce peterson says the idea is for people not to be selfish by keeping a book to gather dust on a shelf at home.BookCrossing is part of a trend among people who want to get back to the “real” and not the virtual(虚拟). The site now has more than one million members in more than one hundred thirty-five countries.29. Why does the author mention book groups in the first paragraph?A. To explain what they are.B. To introduce BookCrossing.C. To stress the importance of reading.D. To encourage readers to share their ideas.30. What does the underlined word “it” in Paragraph 2refer to?A. The book.B. An adventure.C. A public place.D. The identification number.31. What will a BookCrosser do with a book after reading it?A. Meet other readers to discuss it.B. Keep it safe in his bookcase.C. Pass it on to another reader.D. Mail it back to its owner.32. What is the best title for the text?A. Online Reading: A Virtual TourB. Electronic Books: A new TrendC. A Book Group Brings Tradition BackD. A Website Links People through BooksA new collection of photos brings an unsuccessful Antarctic voyage back to life.Frank Hurley’s pictures would be outstanding----undoubtedly first-rate photo-journalism---if they had been made last week. In fact, they were shot from 1914 through 1916, most of them after a disastrous shipwreck(海滩), by a cameraman who had no reasonable expectation of survival. Many of the images were stored in an ice chest, under freezing water, in the damaged wooden ship.The ship was the Endurance, a small, tight, Norwegian-built three-master that was intended to take Sir Ernest Shackleton and a small crew of seamen and scientists, 27 men in all, to the southernmost shore of Antarctica’s Weddell Sea. From that point Shackleton wanted to force a passage by dog sled(雪橇) across the continent. The journey was intended to achieve more than what Captain Robert Falcon Scott had done. Captain Scott had reached the South Pole early in 1912 but had died with his four companions on the march back.As writer Caroline Alexander makes clear in her forceful and well-researched story The Endurance, adventuring was even then a thoroughly commercial effort. Scott’s last journey, completed as be lay in a tent dying of cold and hunger, caught the world’s imagination, and a film made in his honor drew crowds. Shackleton, a onetim e British merchant-navy officer who had got to within 100 miles of the South Pole in 1908, started a business before his 1914 voyage to make money from movie and still photography. Frank Hurley, a confident and gifted Australian photographer who knew the Antarctic, was hired to make the images, most of which have never before been published.33. What do we know about the photos taken by Hurley?A. They were made last weekB. They showed undersea sceneriesC. They were found by a cameramanD. They recorded a disastrous adventure34. Who reached the South Pole first according to the text?A. Frank HurleyB. Ernest ShackletonC. Robert Falcon ScottD. Caroline Alexander35. What does Alexander think was the purpose of the 1914 voyage?A. Artistic creationB. Scientific researchC. Money makingD. Treasure hunting。
2016高考全国II卷英语满分作文卷英语满分作文(另附翻译和高分短语、句型)
2016高考全国II卷英语满分作文（另附翻译和高分短语、句型）作文题目：假定你是李华，你校摄影俱乐部（photography ciub）将举办国际中学生摄影展，请给你的英国朋友Peter写封信，请他提供作品，信的内容包括：1、主题：环境保护；2、展览时间；3、投稿邮箱：**************************。
注意：1、词数100左右；2、可以适当增加细节，以使行文连贯。
满分范文+准确翻译（一）Dear Peter,Our school photography club is going to hold an International High School Student Photography Show. The theme of the show is environmental protection. It will start from June 15th and last for three weeks. Any student who is interestedis welcome to participate.I know youtake good pictures and you’ve alwayswanted to do somethingfor environmental protection. I remember you showed me some photoson this theme the last time you visited our school. This is surely a good chance for more people to see them. If you want to join, you can send your photos to**************************.Hope to hear from you soon.Yours,Li Hua亲爱的彼得：我们学校摄影俱乐部将举办国际中学生摄影展。
新编大学英语2课文翻译（完整版）
新编大学英语2课文翻译（完整版）善良之心，久久相依 ................................... 当时我没有意识到，是爸爸帮我保持平衡奥古斯塔斯 ? J ? 布洛克1 随着我渐渐长大，当别人看见我和爸爸在一起，我会觉得很尴尬。
他身材矮小，走起路来跛得很厉害。
我们一起走时，他要把手搭在我的肩上才能保持平衡，人们就会盯着我们看。
对这种不必要的注意我觉得非常难堪。
他也许曾注意到，或着觉得烦恼，但他从来没有流露出来。
2 要协调我们的步伐并不容易，他(的步子)一瘸一拐的，我(走起来)则缺乏耐心。
因此，我们走路的时候并不怎么说话。
但出发时，他总是说：“你定步伐，我会尽量跟上。
”3 我们通常在家和地铁之间来往，这是他上班的必由之路。
不论生病还是碰到恶劣的天气他都去上班，几乎没有旷过一天工。
即使别人无法上班，他也要去办公室。
对他来说这是一种自豪。
4 当地上有冰或雪的时候，即使有人帮忙他也无法走路。
这时，我或者我的姐妹就用孩子玩的雪撬拉着他，穿过纽约布鲁克林的街道，直到地铁的入口处。
一到那儿，他就能紧紧抓住扶手一直走下去, 地铁道里比较暖和，下面的楼梯不结冰。
曼哈顿的地铁站正好是他办公楼的地下室，因此除了从布鲁克林我们去接他的地方到回家为止，他都不用再出去。
5 一个成年男子要有多少勇气才能承受这种屈辱和压力，我现在想来惊讶不已。
他从没有痛苦或抱怨，他是怎么做到这一步的我感到不可思议。
6 他从不把自己当作同情的对象，也从不对更幸运的或更能干的人表示任何嫉妒。
他在别人身上所寻找的是一颗“善心”。
如果他找到了一颗善心，那么有这么颗心的人对他来说就是一位大好人了。
7 由于年龄的增长，我相信那是一种用来判断人的恰当的标准，尽管我还不能精确地知道什么是一颗“善心”。
但是，当我自己没有的时候，我是知道的。
8 尽管很多活动我爸爸不能参加，但他还是尽量用某种方式参与。
当本地的一支棒球队发现缺经理的时候，他使它维持下去。
英语翻译原文
Bearing Load Measurement in a Hydropower Unit Using Strain Gauges Installed Inside Pivot PinM.Nässelqvist&R.Gustavsson&J.-O.AidanpääReceived:2November2010/Accepted:28March2011#Society for Experimental Mechanics2011Abstract To determine a machine’s mechanical condition it is of importance to know the radial bearing forces in the machine.Radial forces are caused by magnetic pull forces in the generator,clamped shafts,mass unbalance and flow properties around the turbine.Measuring the shaft displace-ment in the bearing or the bearing housing acceleration is not sufficient for status determination of a vertical hydro-power unit.It is the magnitude and frequencies of the radial forces in combination with structure properties which give information as to whether a measured value is harmful or not.This paper presents an alternative method for mea-surement of radial bearing load in a hydropower unit.The method presented in this paper is based on strain measure-ments on pivot pins.The pivot pins are placed behind the bearing pad and the radial loads acting on the pad propagate through the pivot pin.New pivot pins were purchased and equipped with strain gauges.The new pivot pins were calibrated and a transfer function between applied load and measured output voltage was identified for each pivot pin. After calibration the pivot pins were installed in a vertical hydropower unit.Measurements were performed for several different operating modes of the hydropower unit.To verify that the measured load levels were of right order of magnitude,the radial bearing loads were calculated from numerical simulations of bearing properties and shaft eccentricity measurements.The two methods for determin-ing bearing load showed almost the same results.This indicates that either method can be used to determine bearing load.Keywords Bearing load.Hydropower.Strain gauge.Shaft displacement.Pivot pinIntroductionAlmost40%of failures in electrical machines can be related to bearing failures[1,2].High radial forces are likely to cause bearing damage or machine failures,with economical losses as a consequence.Knowing the radial forces that act on the machine provides a good means of determining the machine’s condition and can provide reliable condition monitoring.In a machine,it is the magnitude and frequency of the forces acting on the rotor and surrounding structure, not the shaft and housing displacement amplitudes,which degenerate the machine[3].Unfortunately,condition monitoring on hydropower units(HPU)is often focused on absolute levels of shaft displacement and housing acceleration,excluding its relation to load[4,5].Radial bearing loads acting on a vertical HPU are both static and dynamic.Static loads are mainly caused by unbalance magnetic pull due to eccentric rotor position in the stator [6],clamped shaft due to poor bearing alignment and unsymmetrical flow properties in the turbine.Dynamic loads are generated from rotor unbalance,shape deviations in generator[7],and turbulent flow in the turbine[8,9].Figure1 presents a schematic description of the hydropowerunit. M.Nässelqvist(*)Vattenfall Research&Development AB,Civil&Materials Engineering,SE-81426Älvklarleby,Swedene-mail:Mattias.Nasselqvist@R.GustavssonVattenfall Power Consultant ABMechanical&Process Engineering,Kyrkogatan4,80320Gävle,SwedenJ.-O.AidanpääDivision of Solid Mechanics,LuleåUniversity of Technology,SE-97187Luleå,SwedenExperimental MechanicsDOI10.1007/s11340-011-9495-yIf the machine is equipped with a vibration monitoring system that only monitors bearing housing acceleration,it is not possible to monitor the static loads acting on the machine,and estimation of the amplitudes of the dynamic loads from the measured acceleration entails knowing the stiffness of the bearing brackets and its interconnections.Condition monitoring systems using only shaft displace-ment sensors also have their difficulties.It is possible to estimate both static and dynamic loads if the stiffness and damping are known as a function of shaft eccentricity,at the current bearing clearance [10].The bearing bracket in HPUs often consist of large steel beam constructions,the geometry changes with temperature,as the generator temperature varies from between 15and 80°C.The thermal expansion of the beams influences the bearing clearances,which changes the relation between bearing properties and radial displacement.Measurement of bearing loads in industrial applica-tions has been performed previously.In marine applica-tions Grant [11]used load cells installed behind the bearing pad to determine radial loads.This method is also being used in an ongoing project involving measurements on a vertical hydropower unit [12].Bearing loads in hydropower units have also been measured using strain gauges installed on the structure supporting the bearing housing [13].The choice of which method is most appropriate depends on the scope and prerequisites of the measurement being undertaken.The advantage of using commercial load cells placed behind bearing pads is that it is possible to select a suitable load range for the sensor.The disadvantage of this method is that a load cell placed behind a bearing pad generally causes a reduction in total radial stiffness.Measurements performed with strain gauges installed on the pedestal generally show high temperature sensitivity and low strains at normal bearing loads and may also be affected by electrical noise.The structures are,in general,stiff structures built for high radial rge steel beams are commonly used as construction parts in the pedestals,see Fig.1.The thermal expansion is therefore high in relation to the strains that the radial loads cause.The advantage with the method using strain gauges installed on the pedestal is that no operations inside the bearing are needed and the properties of the machine are not changed.This method is therefore well suited to measurements performed on machines that are still under warranty from the manufacturer,i.e.no operations inside the machine are allowed.The cross section surface area of the pivot pin is approximately ten times less than the area of the pedestals cross section.For a given radial bearing load the strain will be higher in the pivot pin than in the pedestal.Higher measured strains give a better resolution on the measured loads and reduce the influence of electrical noise.The reason why the method presented in this paper has been developed is the need for a method that measures radial bearing loads with high accuracy,given the high strain from applied load during normal operation in relation to the strain caused by thermal expansion.However,the total stiffness of the structure needs to be unaffected to avoid changes in the machine ’s dynamic properties.Measuring the radial bearing loads in combination with measured shaft displacement and the phase between load and displacement provides opportunities for calculating bearing parameters such as stiffness and damping [14,15].Bearing ConfigurationThe machine on which the measurements were performed is equipped with three hydrodynamic radial tilting pad bearings in the form of a upper generator guide bearing (UGB),a lower generator guide bearing (LGB)and a turbine guide bearing (TGB),see Fig.1.Load measure-ments were performed in all three bearings simultaneously.The pads of the generator guide bearings (GGB),upper and lower,have a total arc length close to 350°,i.e.there is a small circumferential gap between the pads.The pads in the GGBs have also almost the same pad length as arc length.Bearings with pads with these properties are frequently used in Swedish hydropower units.The TGB is a new type of tilting pad bearing design only used in a few HPUs in Sweden.The TGB has a large circumferen-tial gap between the pads and a significantly smaller arc -pad length relationship than the GGBs.In Table 1theFig.1Schematic depiction of a hydropower unitExpMechbearing properties are presented and Fig.2show the components of the bearings.MethodRadial bearings of tilting pad type in hydropower units consist of bearing pads,pivot pins (PP)and shims or wedges,see Fig.2.When the machine rotates,a pressure is built up between the pad and the journal,the function of the pivot pins being to allow the pad to tilt into an equilibrium position caused by the pressure distribution on the pad.To change the clearance in bearings of the type used for the GGBs,the shims are replaced by a different shim thickness.The shims are placed between the pad and the pivot pin.To change shims,the pad must be removed from the bearing housing.In most of the newer types of bearings,including the bearing in the TGB,a wedge is placed between the pivot pin and the housing.To adjust the clearance,the vertical position of the wedge is adjusted,a procedure that can be performed without removing the pad.The majority of the radial guide bearings installed in Swedish HPU are of the GGB type.Recently,some bearings more like the TGB have been installed in Swedish HPUs.Bearing Load MeasurementBy installing strain gauges (SGs)inside or on the side of the pivot pins it is possible to measure the strains in the pivot pins caused by the radial load acting on the bearing.From the measured strain it is possible to determine the radial load acting in the pivot pin,i.e.the load acting on the bearing pad.PrototypesTo develop a method that determines the load acting on the pivot pin,prototypes equipped with strain gauges were made.The purpose of the prototypes was to find a SG installation in the PP that gave the highest possible measured strain in relation to the applied load,but still had low hysteresis.Figure 3shows a schematic depiction of a modified PP and one of the prototypes.Different installation positions for different strain gauges were evaluated on the prototype pivot pins.Installations were performed with strain gauges on the side,position SG 1in Fig.3,and underneath the pivot pin,position SG 2in Fig.3.Finally,the installation of a strain gauge inside the pivot pin,position SG 3in Fig.3,was tested.For installations with the SGs on the side and underneath the pivot pin,a regular XY strain gauge from HBM (HBM K-XY31-3/350)was used in different bridge configurations.For the method using a strain gauge installed inside the PP,a small hole was drilled from underneath the PP and through two-thirds of its thickness.The gauge was inserted into the hole and bonded in place using adhesive EP-18.To determine the behavior of the installed SG the prototype PPs were loaded axially from 0kN to 100kN and back to 0kN,in steps of 10kN.The strain was measured during the on and off loading.The last method,SG installed inside the PP,gave the lowest hysteresis and the highest measured strain in relation to applied load.The SG used in the last method is made by Kyowa and is type KFG-3-120.KFG-3-120Parameter UGB LGB TGB Units Number of pads 8248[−]Bearing clearance 0.50.60.55[mm]Journal diameter 5501700950[mm]Pad offset 0.60.60.6[−]Pad preload 000.2[−]Pad length 240200150[mm]Pad arc length 4414.530[degrees]Pivot type Rocker Rocker Ball[−]Oil typeISO VG 68ISO VG 68ISO VG 68[−]Table 1Properties for genera-tor guide bearings and turbine guidebearingFig.2Components in turbine guide bearing and generator guide bearingExpMechis normally used for bolt pre-load measurements [16].Table 2presents properties of the SGs.For the load measurements on the HPU,the last method using SG 3was chosen.In the prototype measure-ments and in the measurements on the HPU the SG 3was configured in a Wheatstone quarter-bridge configuration using a single active strain gauge,see Fig.4.The supply voltage,V +and V −to the bridge was 4.2V and −4.2V respectively.To determine the strain the voltage difference between S +and S −was measured and amplified in the amplifier.The amplification factor of the amplifier was set at 200μStrain/V and the output voltage from the amplifier was acquired in the data acquisition unit (DAQ).The amplifiers used for the measurements were made by Vattenfall Research and Development and the DAQs usedwere 8x NI SCXI-1140.The measured data were sampled at 640Hz simultaneously on all channels and 4th order anti-aliasing filters with a cut off frequency of 200Hz were used.Applying the Method on the MachineTo install the load measurement system in the HPU all the pivot pins had to be replaced.For all three guide bearings,a total of 40new pivot pins were purchased and modified by the manufacturers of the bearings.A hole was drilled in the centre of each pivot pin and small tracks were milled for the wire installation,see Fig.5.To determine the relationship between applied load and measured strain each PP was calibrated individually.CalibrationEach pivot pin was loaded to 100kN and back to 0kN in steps of 10kN.During loading the measured output voltage from the amplifier,V PPi ,and applied load were registered for each PP.From the measured voltage and the applied load a second order calibration polynomial wasdeterminedFig.3Schematic depiction of a modified pivot pin (a )and one of the prototype pivot pins (b )Table 2Properties off Kyowa KFG-3-120and HBM K-XY31-3/350Parameter KFG-3-120-C20-11HBM K-XY31-3/350Gauge length 3mm3mmResistance 120.4±0.4Ω350±0.35ΩGauge factor 2.0±1% 2.07±1%Diameter2mm–Fig.4Schematic diagram of the measurementsetupFig.5Modified pivot pins for turbine guide bearing (a )and generator guide bearing (b )ExpMechfor each PP.Equation (1)presents the relationship deter-mined between applied load and measured voltage.f i ¼k 3i ÁV PPi 2þk 2i ÁV PPi þk 1ið1Þwhere f i is the load acting on pivot pin i and k 1i ::::k 3i are constants.Figure 6presents the applied load as a function of measured voltage for the PPs in the LGB.The PPs used in the TGB are of more rigid construction and showed a lower strain in relation to applied load.InstallationAfter the pivot pins had been modified and calibrated,the pivot pins were installed in the HPU.Installing the pivot pins in the LGB was time consuming.The LGB consists of 24bearing pads,the space between the generator and the thrust bearing is small and the bearing clearance adjustment procedure was elaborate,see Fig.7.Between the strain gauge and the amplifier there is a wire which will break if the pivot pin rotates.There for all PPs must be locked from rotation.The PPs were also exposed to heat and oil inside the bearing necessitating the use of wires and adhesive suited for these conditions.The strain gauge installation was covered with a protective coating (HBM NG 150).Total time for installation and measurements was approximately 10working days for 5persons.Sensors for measurement of shaft displacement,bearing housing acceleration,rotational speed and generated power were also installed.The displacement sensors were installed in all three bearings and measured the shaft displacement relative to the bearing housing in directions +X,+Y,-X,-Y in Fig.1.Calculation of Total Radial Load in BearingThe loads acting on the bearings were determined from the measured voltage output from the strain gauge amplifiers and the calibration polynomials.The load acting on each pivot pin was determined.From the measured loads in the PPs,the total force in X and Y directions are determined by adding up the calculated force from each PP with respect to the installation angle.See equation (2),f x ¼X n i ¼1f i Ásin ð8i Þf y ¼X n i ¼1f i Ácos ð8i Þð2Þwhere f x and f y are the forces acting in the X and Y directions,φi is the installation angle of pivot pin i related to upstream river direction (+Y)and n is the number of bearing pads,i.e.number of pivot pins.All three bearings that these measurements were performed on are symmetrical with respect to the pad layout.In the calculation of the total bearing force it was assumed that the thermal influence was equal for all PPs.Symmetrical bearing layout and equal thermal influence on the PPs lead to elimination of the thermal effect on the total bearingload.Fig.6Calibration of pivot pins.The line represents the averagevoltage of the 24pivot pins during loading and the dashed line corresponds to off-loading.The box-and-whisker diagrams illustrate the spread of the measured data in the pivotpinsFig.7Installation of modified pivot pin in lower generator bearing (a )and turbine guide bearing (b )ExpMechSimulation of Radial Load in BearingTo get an indicator of whether the measured load levels are of the right order of magnitude,the results were compared with the radial bearing loads calculated from measured radial shaft displacement and bearing parameters.Bearing load can be estimated from measured shaft eccentricity multiplied by bearing stiffness calculated from simulations in commercial software.In bearing dynamics software it is possible to calculate radial bearing load at a prescribed bearing clearance and journal eccentricity.After installation of the new pivot pins the bearing clearances were measured since current bearing clearance had to be known to achievethe correct relation between shaft eccentricity and bearing stiffness.Eccentricity is defined as the radial displacement divided by the radial bearing clearance.The results from the bearing load simulations are approximated to an exponen-tial load-eccentricity function,equation(3).The radial loads are calculated by inserting the eccentricity vector in the equation.F"ðtÞ¼kÁe k eÁ"ðtÞð3Þwhere k and k e are constants,εis the time dependent radial deccentricity vector and Fεis the calculated radial force vector.How well the approximated function corresponds to the simulated values is determined by the mean square value,the R2value.A value of R2=1corresponds to a perfect match between the simulated values and the approximated function.In the above calculation the damping and cross-coupled stiffness terms are excluded.In tilting pad bearings the cross coupling terms are significantly smaller than the direct terms[9].Results from Load MeasurementMeasurements were performed for several different operat-ing modes.Figures8,9and10below present the results from the measurements performed on the unit during start-up and power ramp-up.Figure8presents the power output and the rotation speed.From time0to time60s the power is zero and the rotation speed of the machine increases.At approximately80%of nominal speed,at time40s,the generator is magnetized,still with0MW power output and not connected to the grid.At approximately66s the machine is connected to the grid.From time66s to time 170s the power increases to38MW.Figure9presents the displacements and loads in the LGB during start up and power ramp-up of the machine. Figure9(a)presents the magnitude of the radial displace-ment of the shaft in the LGB and Fig.9(b)presents the measured radial load acting on the LGB.The figures only cover the dynamic part of the radial displacement and load. Figure9show that the displacement and the load have the same characteristics during start-up and power ramp-up. The radial load and displacement increase when the generator is magnetized.Figure10(a,c,e)presents the loads in all three radial bearings when the machine is operating at a good efficiency rate,the measurement being performed at a constant30MW power output.The radial loads in the turbine are low.At0MW power output the radial loads in the turbine are significantly higher,see Fig.10(b,d,f).The loads in the other two bearings are slightly lower at0MW Fig.9Dynamic radial displacement(a)and bearing load(b)in lower generatorbearingFig.8Power output(solid line)and rotational speed(dashed line)ExpMechpower output than at30MW.Stator ovality and rotor eccentricity causes an oval shape of the load orbits measured at the generator bearings.To verify that the measured load levels in the LGB were of right order of magnitude,the radial bearing loads were calculated from numerical simulations of bearing properties and shaft eccentricity measurements.Figure11presents the results from the bearing simulations and the relationship between prescribed eccentricity and bearing load for the LGB.The coefficients for equation(3)were determined for the eccentricity range of15to73%,k=3.98,k e=13.93and R2= 0.99.Measured eccentricities during start up and power ramp-up were inserted in equation(3).Figure12presents the load calculated from bearing simulation and measureddisplacement. ExpMechInstallation CostsInstalling strain gauges in pivot pins and then installing the pivot pins in a HPU is expensive unless a change of bearing pads is already planned.The time needed for installation depends on the construction of the bearing.Also the disassembly of the bearing housing and the modification of components to allow wiring between PPs and amplifier are time consuming.The component costs for the load measurement method are low,except for the amplifiers and the DAQ,although these can be reused.Kyowa ’s KFG-3-120costs approxi-mately 10USD each and making a PP costs between 100and 500USD.Depending on how complicated the bearing construction is,the installation time for this bearing load measurement method should be between 5and 10working days for 2–5mechanics.The largest cost for this measurement method is therefore the man-hours and possible production losses.DiscussionDetermining the bearing load from journal eccentricity and bearing simulations involves calculations of bearing prop-erties and knowledge of current bearing clearance.Thebearing clearance changes with thermal changes in the housing and surrounding structure,which complicates the use of this method to determine bearing load.In the LGB in this HPU the bearing clearance decreased almost 20%between cold and warm machine when the thermal expansion of the pedestal causes a compression of the bearing housing.Measuring the shaft displacement in all four directions (+X,+Y,−X,−Y)makes it possible to compensate for changes in the bearing clearance.However,it is only possible to achieve approximate results with this method,due to simplifications in the representation of bearing parameters.Accuracy in radial load measuring methods is of great ing reliable load measurement methods makes it possible to determine if machine status and behavior are critical for the machine ’s operation.Reliable measurement methods also give better opportunities to plan maintenance and to perform better consequence grading of detected defects.Depending on the consequence grading,decisions can be made regarding if a problem has to be taken care of immediately or can be postponed to a more suitable production situation.The cost of measuring loads directly with strain gauges in pivot pins is higher than calculating loads from bearing simulation and eccentricity measurements.Low uncertainty in the pivot pin method leads to this method being preferable,and if the bearings in the machine are equipped with wedges it should be quite easy to install new pivot pins equipped with strain gauges.ConclusionThis paper presents a method for measuring bearing load by using strain gauges installed in pivot pins.To verify this method,bearing loads were also estimated from measured shaft displacement in bearing and calculated bearing stiffness.The two methods for determining bearing load showed almost the same results,see Figs.9(b)and 12.This indicates that either method can be used to determine bearing load.From time 0to time 60s the rotational speed of the machine is below synchronous speed,see Fig.8.The coefficient used in equation (3)to calculate the bearing load is based on bearing data calculated at synchronous speed.Calculated bearing load can therefore deviate from mea-sured load for time 0to time 60s.When comparing Figs.9(b)and 12form time 60to time 150s the calculate load is more noisy than measured load,which is possibly caused by vibrations in the carriers of the displacement sensors.The method using strain gauges installed inside pivot pins is more reliable than the method using bearing properties and eccentricity to calculate bearing load.Thermal influ-ence on the structure and bearing parameters does notaffectFig.12Load calculated from shaft displacement and the load-eccentricityfunctionFig.11Radial bearing load as a function of eccentricity,in lower generator bearingExpMechthe load measuring method using strain gauges installed inside pivot pins.An important feature with the pivot pins load measuring method is that it has no influence on the structure’s total stiffnessAcknowledgement The research presented was carried out as a part of“Swedish Hydropower Centre-SVC”.SVC has been established by the Swedish Energy Agency,Elforsk and Svenska Kraftnät together with LuleåUniversity of Technology,the Royal Institute of Technology,Chalmers University of Technology and Uppsala Uni-versity.www.svc.nu.We would like to thank VG-Power and Waplans Mekaniska Verkstads AB for manufacturing the modified pivot pins. We would also like to express our appreciation to staff at Vattenfall R&D who helped us in this project and at Vattenfall Service Nord who performed an excellent installation of the modified pivot pins in the hydropower unit.References1.Ong R,Dymond JH,Findlay RD,Szabados B(2001)Shaftcurrent in ac induction machine-An online monitoring system and prediction rules.IEEE Trans Ind Appl37(4):1189–11962.Bonnett AH,Soukup GC(1992)Cause and analysis of stator androtor failures in three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors.IEEE Trans Ind Appl28(4):921–9373.Anderson TL(2005)Fracture mechanics:fundamentals andapplications.Taylor&Francis Inc,Boca Raton Chap,104.International Organization for Standardization(2000)ISO10816–5:mechanical vibration–Evaluation of machine vibration by measurements on non-rotating parts–Part5:machine sets in hydraulic power generating and pumping plants.Geneva5.International Organization for Standardization(2005)ISO7919–5:mechanical vibration–Evaluation of machine vibration by measurements on rotating shafts–Part5: machine sets in hydraulic power generating and pumping plants.Geneva6.Gustavsson R,K.,AndanpääJ-O(2004)The influence ofmagnetic pull on the stability of generator rotors.Paper presented at the The10th international symposium on transport phenomena and dynamics of rotating machinery,Honolulu,Hawaii7.Lundström NLP,AidanpääJO(2008)Whirling frequencies andamplitudes due to deviations of generator shape.Int J Non Linear Mech43(9):933–9408.Wang Z,Zhou L(2006)Simulations and measurements ofpressure oscillations caused by vortex ropes.Journal of Fluids Engineering,Transactions of the ASME128(4):649–6559.Peng G,Qin L,Wang Z,Tian H,Luo Y(2009)Structure vibrationof hydropower house induced by Francis turbine based on CFD.In:2008Proceedings of the ASME Fluids Engineering Division Summer Conference,FEDSM2008,Jacksonville,FL,2008 ASME Fluids Engineering Division Summer Conference, FEDSM2008,pp1173–117810.Someya T(1989)Journal-bearing databook.Springer,Berlin11.Grant R(1980)Shaft alignment methods with strain gauges andload cells.SNAME Marine Technology17:8–1512.Cervantes M,Jansson I,Jourak A,Glavatskih S,AidanpääJ-O(2008)Porjus U9A full-scale hydropower research facility.In: Proceedings of the24th Symposium on Hydraulic Machinery and Systems,Foz do Iguassu,Brazil,p913.Gustavsson R,AidanpääJ-O(2003)Using strain gauges tomeasure load on hydro generator guide bearings.Hydro Review Worldwide14.San Andrés L,De Santiago O(2005)Identification of bearingforce coefficients in flexible rotors-extensions to a field method.In:Proceedings of the World Tribology Congress III-2005,Washington, D.C.,2005World Tribology Con-gress III.pp47–4815.Gustavsson RK,Lundström ML,AidanpääJO(2005)Determi-nation of journal bearing stiffness and damping at hydropower generators using strain gauges.In:Proceedings of the ASME Power Conference,2005,Chicago,IL,2005ASME Power Conference,pp933–94016.Crocombe AD,Wang R,Richardson G,Underwood CI(2006)Estimating the energy dissipated in a bolted spacecraft at put Struct84(5–6):340–350ExpMech。
中国输血协会团体标准《免疫血液学参比实验室规范》
中国输血协会团体标准《免疫血液学参比实验室规范》编制说明一、任务来源、制定过程等基本信息根据国家卫生和计划生育委员会办公厅《国家卫生计生委办公厅关于下达2015年卫生标准制定修订项目计划的通知》[国卫办法制函[2015]364号文]，制定行业标准《免疫血液学参比实验室规范》项目。
本项目列于该计划的“血液专业”中，项目序号：20151601。
2018年8月受中国输血协会血液质量专业委员会委托承担《血站质量管理体系审核指南》的编制任务，项目编号为P2018-014。
本项目第一起草单位：上海市血液中心；共同起草单位：江苏省血液中心，浙江省血液中心，陕西省血液中心，上海市第六人民医院，四川大学华西医院。
第一起草人：上海市血液中心：向东；主要起草人：上海市血液中心：朱自严、姜跃琴、刘曦；江苏省血液中心：刘衍春；浙江省血液中心：何吉；陕西省血液中心：徐华；上海市第六人民医院：李志强；四川大学华西医院：秦莉。
参与本标准起草讨论的还有上海市血液中心：郭忠慧；江苏省血液中心：马玲；浙江省血液中心：许先国、洪小珍；深圳市血液中心：张印则；国家卫计委临检中心：王露楠；军事医学科学院野战输血研究所：徐金波，张艳宇；中国医学科学院输血研究所：王珏等。
受国家卫生计生委委托，由全国十家血液中心和临床医院共同组成《免疫血液学参比实验室规范》标准编写课题组。
上海市血液中心牵头，其他血液中心和临床医院血型领域专家和技术人员共同参与。
本项目主要分9个阶段完成：1 项目启动；2 标准初稿形成；3 二次专家讨论会（西安、杭州）；4 标准讨论稿（西安杭州修订稿）形成；5 专家讨论会（上海）；6 征求意见稿形成；7 专家意见征集； 8 意见汇总及讨论和 9 标准送审稿形成。
2014年10月，上海市血液中心向东提交项目申请，2015年4月28日本标准立项。
2015年6月通过电话沟通方式和所有参加标准编制的单位和主要参与者联系，告知项目立项，并编制标准参与者联系表，全面启动本标准项目。
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比较图 5 中滤波器 S(z)和 S1(z)的伯德图，我们可以看到滤波器 S(z)可以消除
LC 滤波器的共振峰值而对在中低频段的信号几乎没有衰减效应。
图 5.滤波器 S(z)和 S1(z)的伯德图
我们引入增量 kr 是为了控制补偿器 C(z)输出的强度,最后的传递函数补偿器可以写成 C(z)=krZkS(z) =krZk (8)
基于 PWM 电压反馈的改进重复控制的单相三级逆变器 Ben bing，张秀北，侃志中，张瑞，张春江 电机工程与自动化部门 燕山大学 秦皇岛 066004 中国 zhangcj@
概要-驱动信号的空载效应和数字控制的滞后效应会严重影响逆变器失真电压的动态和 静态性能， 本文对静态和动态性能的二极管钳位三级单相逆变器进行研究。 本文认为空载效 应和滞后效应是一个周期扰动,提出了一个滞后改进重复控制策略以改善输出电压的准确性, 并减少电压畸变引起的空时的效果。该控制策略不需要检测电流的极性,它节省了用于传统 电流闭环的电流传感器数量。本文还研究重复控制滤波器的设计和相位超前组件,同时根据 提出的重复控制系统微分方程提出了演绎超前环节 k 值的方法。 最后， 本文提出的控制策略 的有效性已通过仿真和实验验证。 关键词—三相逆变器，重复控制，数字控制，死区效应。
图 2.系统闭循环的框图
III 重复控制逆变器
A 空载效应对输出电压的影响 为了避免逆变器桥臂 “直通” 现象发生,我们可以设置死区时间,使两个开关设备在互补 工作状态下能理想的同时处于关断时间。 该模拟是用于研究如表 1 所示死区时间对单相三电 平逆变器的影响。 URMS 是指逆变器输出电压的有效值,并且滞后一个节拍(50 ms)和数字控 制的计算过程。 随着死区时间的增加,输出电压均方根空载和满载之间的差异更大,且总谐波 失真(THD)较大,所以空载效应会使逆变器的输出特性变得更糟。
表 2 直流总线波动和负载变化的扰动变化
2）负载变化的抗扰动性 当直流总线电压是 800 v 且负载从 0 到 3 千瓦变化 ,在比例控制下逆变器输出电压有效 值的最大差是 9.6 v;而在改进重复控制下 RMS 输出电压差是 4.9 v。这表明改进重复控制抗 负载变化的能力优于比例控制, 在双电压闭环下的改进重复控制能补偿死区带来的影响,并 减少了输出电压幅值的损失。 3）动态性能 当系统在 t = 0.305 s 时,突加 3 kw 电阻负载,并且在 t = 0.505 s 时,突然减少 3 kw 电阻负 载,输出电压的波形图 8 所示。我们可以看到系统恢复时间减少,没有超调现象,当负载突然 变化时,系统有更好的稳定性,结果表明,本文提出的改进重复控制在双电压闭环控制下有更 好的动态性能和稳定性。
比例控制器用于改善动态性能。虽然当负载突变时产生的电压误差 e(z)误差较大,但重 复控制滞后一个工频周期扰动响应时间。 逆变器系统抗瞬态干扰的能力主要是由比例控制器 产生,同时逆变器电压稳态精度由重复控制器提高,并且输出电压的总谐波失真降低,波形的 质量优化。
图 3.平行比例和重复控制器 B 改进重复控制和设计 根据图 3,重复控制器的传统传递函数是 = (2)
其中，m 是一个正整数。然后 m 值根据如下所示 Sx（z）的幅频特性确定 | SX( e- TSW ) | =| 当m = |= (1+cos(TSmw)) (6)
,然后|Sx(z)|= 0，根据上面给定的 w0Ts 可以选择 m = 8,在 Sx(z)的频率特
性中第一通过点的角频率就是 LC 滤波器的共振角频率, 从理论上讲可以完全消除逆变器过 滤器谐振峰值,然而事实上,逆变器的滤波电感值随输出电流变化,梳状滤波器的滤波效果会 降低。 我们下面设计二阶低通滤波器 S1(z)及其参数。 系统选择阻尼比ξ = 1,且选择与 LC 滤波 器共振角频率 w0 相同的自然频率。Z 变换传递函数如下所示 S1(z)= b3=1- e-w0TS(1+w0TS) b4= e-w0TS+( e-w0TS+w0TS-1) a3=-2 e-w0TS a4= e-2w0TS (7)
图 6.传统的重复控制输出电压波形
选择 k = 7、6 分别实现根据(3)改进重复控制器,逆变器输出电压的实验波形图 7 所示, 与图 6 相比,电压波形得到了明显的改善。
图 7 提出重复控制下的输出电压波形
这表明重复控制补偿器的设计合理,稳定性好,改进重复控制可以改善死区效应,这也表 明了该计算相位超前补偿 k 最大值方法的有效性。
在(9)中,选择 kr= 0.8,F(z)= 0.95,当实现重复控制器之后,需要电脑存储空间来存储误差 e， 误差 e 由每个采样和补偿器的输出计算可得。在(9)的分子和分母多项式中，最低阶的绝对 值 z + 1 =存储单元的数量，该数量根据用来保存误差 e 和补偿器的输出值 U 所需空间来设 置,即 N + 3 的最大值或 N + m + 2- k + 1。选择的 k 值,要确保(10)分子多项式中最低阶的 z 满足 k -(N + m + 2)≤-(N + 2)且 k≤m。 分别选择 k = 7、6 根据（9）实现传统的重复控制器,逆变器输出电压的实验波形图 6 所 示。 我们可以看出电压波形不理想且零点交叉失真很严重。 仅仅减少 k 值来改善逆变器输出 波形的效果不明显。
从表 1 可以看出,当死区时间设置为 2 毫秒,逆变器的输出电压有效值在加载和满载时相 差 13 v,不满足要求的输出电压±2%调节精度。 国内外文献中,重复控制方法能用于消除空载效应和由整流负载和其他周期性扰动[7,8] 引起的逆变器输出电压的影响，但其动态性能较差,因此本文使用并行控制策略的重复控制 器和比例控制器,如图 3 所示。 表 1 死区时间对逆变器输出电压的影响
图 8 提出控制方法下输出电压的动静态响应
4） 输出电压的总谐波畸变 图 9 和表 3 显示了在两种不同的控制方法:比例控制和改进的比例重复控制平行下，空 载和 3 千瓦负荷的实验结果。
表 3 在两种不同的方法输出电压(总谐波畸变）
IV.模拟和实验分析
根据上面的控制器和 LC 滤波器参数,从四个方面验证了这个理论,其中所有的死区时间 是 2μs。 1）抑制扰动的直流总线电压波动 直流总线电压从 760V 到 850V 变化的仿真结果表如表Ⅱ所示， 缩写 IM 是 improved repetitive. 在比例控制下 IR 电源逆变器输出电压有效值的最大差是 6.7 v; 改进重复控制 RMS 最大输出电压差是 2.5 v。这表明直流总线电压波动的抑制干扰能力的改进重复控制优 于比例控制。
高稳态精度。数字控制系统在 AD 转换精度和采样延迟上有困难,而且其电流环带宽不能满 足要求,这不仅影响控制精度和实时性能,也会影响系统的稳定性以及逆变器的输出电压波 形质量[4,5]。 该论文对应用于 UPS（不间断电源）的二极管钳位三级单相逆变器的静态和动态性能 进行了研究。为了改善数字控制逆变器死区时间和滞后效应带来的影响,并满足一定要求, 即逆变器输出电压的稳态精度和总谐波失真,本文研究了一种延迟一拍的改进重复控制器。 它将空载效应和滞后效应视为周期性扰动,并基于重复控制策略进行补偿。考虑到重复控制 的动态响应慢问题，本文介绍了前馈比例控制。这个控制策略不需要检测电流的极性,这节 省了用于传统电流闭环的电流传感器数量。 除了对重复控制滤波和相位超前的设计组件进行 了设计,此外,本文对相位超前环节幂率 k 的范围及其对输出电压的影响进行了讨论。最后, 本文提出的控制策略的有效性已通过仿真和实验验证。
（ ）
=
S(z)
(3)
W= W0 , =e- ɛWTS = cos(WTS),ξ= sin(WTS) b1=1-( + b2=2+( ) -)
梳状滤波器 Sx(z)和二阶低通滤波器 S1(z)的串联 S（z）的采用不仅能消除 LC 滤波器幅 频特性的谐振峰值,而且还确保低频下的过滤器零增益特征,其中 Sx(z) 在特定频率和零相 移特性下有非常强的衰减影响。梳状滤波器的 z 变换传递函数如(5)所示。 SX (z)= (5)
其中， zk 是相位超前环节,它不仅补偿由滤波器 S(z)造成的相位滞后,也补偿滤波器 GP(z) 造成的相位滞后。某些文献中 k 的值通常根据波德图(11、12)推导出，文中提出了根据不同 的重复控制系统微分方程来演绎超前环节 k 值的方法。 2） 超前环节 Zk 的设计 把(8） 带入(2)之后,传统重复控制的补偿器输出之间的传递函数 u(z)和误差函数 e(z)如下 所示 = = (9)
我们不认为图 3 的重复控制器是滞后一个节拍的原因， 而滞后一个节拍是由数字控制延 迟引起的。 如果把计算延迟时间作为一个采样周期,即等价于闭环内加入滞后环节 z -1,最终 改进重复控制器的控制块图如图 4 所示,其中重复的因素是 F(z)z -(N + 1)。
图 4 提出的先进 1 步重复和比例控制 从图 4 可知,改进重复控制器的传递函数是 = 其中,Kr=0.8,F(z)=0.95. 为了使重复控制系统具有更好的稳定性和较小的稳态误差, 系统需要设计补偿器 C(z)。 从幅频特性的观点来看,补偿器的设计要使 C(z)GP(z)在中低频段有零增益相移且在高频段 有快速衰减特性[11、12]。 本文分别用振幅和相位补偿的方法，通过两部分来设计补偿器:首先设计滤波器 S(z)实 现低频零增益和高频率衰减特性,假定有良好的过滤效果,中低频段的增益变化不大,在高频 衰减率是 40db/dec;中频增益的不可变,在高频衰减为 40db/dec;其次设计 zk 以实现 C(z)Gp(z) 零相移特性。 1）滤波器 S（z）的设计 逆变器的参数滤波器给出如下:L = 1.2 mH,C = 15 μF,r = 0.3Ω。根据逆变器开关频率采 样周期选为 Ts = 50μs 从(1)中, LC 滤波器的 Z 变换传递函数 GP(z)可以由 (5)得,其中 w0 是自 然共振频率。 GP(z)= 其中， W0= , ξ= (4)