chapter11 语法
语法 Chapter 11
VERB (VII) THE NON-FINITESTHE INFINITIVEThe tenses of the infinitive comprise relative time indication.1) The indefinite infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive is simultaneous with or posterior to the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence, e.g.He seems to know this. (= It seems that he knows this.)He seemed to know this. (= It seemed that he knew this.)He seems to be studying hard (= It seems that he is studying hard.)They decided to discuss the problem at the next meeting. (=They decided that they would discuss the problem at the next meeting.)2) The perfect infinitive shows that the action expressed by the infinitive is prior to the action indicated by the finite form of the verb, e.g.He is said to have invented the machine by himself. (=It is said that he [has] invented the machine by himself.)11.3 Uses of the Infinitive and the Infinitive Phrase1) As subject, e.g.It is necessary for us to pay more attention to spoken English.2) As predicative, e.g.The common aspiration of the entire people there is to bring about an early reunification of their fatherland.3)As object, e.g.He promised to arrange for you to speak first.4) As attribute, e.g.Success grows out of struggles to overcome difficulties.5) As appositive, e.g.Our task, to dislodge the enemy from its entrenched position, was accomplished in time.6) As adverbial, e.g.I am sorry to have kept you waiting. (cause)The window was wide open to admit air. (purpose)7) As part of complex objectAs part of complex object the infinitive is often used after such verbs or phrasal verbs as: Advise, allow, ask, beg, bid, call on, care for, cause, compel, depend on, desire, expect, feel, get, hate, have, hear, help, imagine, invite, let, expect, look at, listen to, long for, make, notice, observe, order, permit, press, prevail upon, prove, rely on, see, tell, teach, take, tempt, trust, urge, vote for, watch, wish, e.g.I didn‟t hear anyone say anything about the matter.The commander ordered his men to complete combat readiness within ten minutes.8) As logical predicate in the nominative absolute construction, e.g.We shall meet at the entrance at ten to eight, the company to set off at eight sharp.9) As independent element, e.g.To tell [you] the truth, they didn‟t quite like the idea.To be fair, he has worked hard these days.10) To express a wish, (used alone) e.g.To be young again! (= I wish I were young again.)11.4 For +Noun (or pronoun in objective case) + InfinitiveThe preposition “for” may introduce a construction in which a noun (or pronoun in objective case) has an infinitive attached to it. The noun or pronoun is the logical subject of the infinitive, .e.gIt was hardly possible for us to fulfil the task without the help of others (subject)For him to do the job alone is impossible. (subject)What we want is for you to understand the matter clearly. (predicative)We deem it advisable for him to go there at once. (object)I am anxious for him to have a good rest. (adverbial)The time has come for you to do some extensive reading. (attribute)11.5 Omission of the Particle “to”The particle “to” is to be omitted:1)After all auxiliary and modal verbs except in “ought to”, “used to”, and “have to” .2)As part of complex object after verbs such as see, hear, feel, watch, observe, perceive, notice, behold, e.g.I feel my heart beat fast.We saw him cross the street.I heard her open the door.But: Now I saw him to be the boy I had seen the day before. (collocated with “be”)I felt the picture to be in full agreement with the original.He was seen to cross the street. (passive)She was heard to open the door. (passive)3)After the object of the causative verbs (let, make, have, etc.), e.g.I will have him do it.But : What would you have me to do?I will have someone to translate the story for me.The landlord made her suffer a lot.Let me try, please.Cf: He bade me [to] come in. (literary)I will get him to do it.4) In some idiomatic constructions, e.g.I had rather die than betray my motherland.I would rather go later.You had better do the homework by yourself.Better be alone (= One had better be alone) than in bad company.Cf: Better to die (=It is better to die) standing than to live on one‟s knees.The people there couldn‟t do anything but fight on.I hate doing nothing but wait and see.We have nothing to do but enjoy ourselves.But: …I am sure we in English had nothing to do but [to] fight the battle out.‟THE PARTICIPLE11.7 Tenses in the ParticipleSimilar to those of the infinitive, the tense forms of the participle comprise relative time indication.1)The present participle(1)When used in the function of an attribute, the indefinite form denotes that the action of the participle is either simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb or going on at the moment of speaking, e.g.Come next Monday and hand in your report to the teacher sitting (=who will be sitting) at the desk. (simultaneousness)The teacher talking (=who is talking) with our monitor now will teach us next term. (an action going on at the moment of speaking)But the passive form can only denote an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb, e.g.The factory being built at present is a new iron and steel plant.(2)When used as the adverbial, the indefinite form of terminative verbs or verbs of a mixedlexical character usually indicates that the action of the participle is prior to or simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, e.g.Passing into the ante-room, he sat dow n on the edge of a chair… (priority)Coming down the stairs, he was full of happiness. (Snow)But if it derives from a durative verb, it always indicates simultaneousness and so with all the indefinite forms introduced by the conjunction when and while, e.g.Standing by the window, he watched the drifting clouds.When crossing the street, she saw him getting off the bus.(3)The perfect form of a terminative verb or a verb of a mixed lexical character always indicates an action already completed, that is, an action which precedes the action expressed by the finite form, e.g.Having arranged everything to everybody‟s satisfaction, he left us.Having crossed the marsh, I saw a trace of white over the moor. (bronte)But if the form is of a durative verb, it refers to neither priority nor completeness, e.g.Having been here for years, he is quite familiar with everything about him.Having stayed home with all his people for the holiday, he enjoyed himself thoroughly.2)The past participle(1)With terminative verbs, the past participle expresses an action already completed before that expressed by the finite verb, e.g.A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this stream.Overcome with emotion, she couldn‟t help crying.(2)With durative verbs, it has no perfective meaning and denotes an action simultaneous with the action of the finite verb, e.g.I felt highly amused.He is a teacher loved and respected by all the students.11.8 The past participle of a transitive verb is always passive in its adjective uses (及物动的过去分词作形容词用时，总是含有被动的意思。
英语UNit11句型和语法详解
Example: "She sings beautifully, and she plays the guitar well." "They arrived early, but the meeting was cancelled."
Mastering these concepts can also improve students' ability to understand and analyze complex texts and courses
02
Detailed Explanation of Sentence Patterns
Simple senses
A simple presence considerations of a single independent clause It contains a subject and a predicate and expressions a complete thought
03
Grammar Explanation
Tenses and Voices
Tenses
English has three main tensions - present, past, and future Each tense has different forms for different individuals and numbers For example, in the presence tense, the verb "to be" is "am" for the first person singular, "are" for the second person singular and plural, and "is" for the third person singular
chapter11.language acquisition
The one-word or holophrastic stage
Characterized by speech in which single terms are uttered for everyday objects. Already extending their use Most verbs and nouns, infrequent function words
Pre-language stages
Cooing:3months old the first recognizalble sounds with velar consonants such as [k] [g] as well as high vowels such as [i] [u] Babbling:6months old fricatives, nasals, syllable type sounds 9months old recognizable intonation patterns,combination 10-11months old use vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis
Imitation and practice alone cannot explain some of the forms created by children.
Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize or overgeneralize them to new contexts. They create new forms or new uses of words.
Chapter 11 Language Acquisition
Unit Eleven 语法讲解(11单元语法讲解)
Unit Eleven 宾语从句语法讲解：宾语从句：一，宾语从句的定义：在复合句中作宾语的从句叫宾语从句。
考点一，宾语从句的引导词1，如果宾语从句是由陈述句转变而来时，其引导词用that引导, that 无意义，在口语中和非正式用语中常省略。
如：They are good doctors . He tell us .------ He tell us (that) they are good doctors .2，如果宾语从句是由一般疑问句转变而来，其引导词要用if / whether ,意为“是否”。
如：Mr. chen asks , “ Are you all here ? .” ------ Mr. chen asks if / whether we are all here . 3，如果宾语从句是由特殊疑问句转变而来的，其引导词用原来的疑问词。
如：Tom asked me ,” When did you begin to study English ?” ------Tom asked me when I began to study English .[ 口诀陈述that 来引导，有时可以省略掉。
一般问句表“是否”，if 或whether 来引导。
特殊问句作宾从，疑问词连接就可行。
考点二，宾语从句的时态1，主句的时态为一般现在时，从句的谓语动词的时态要根据具体的情况用相应的任何时态。
如：Mike knows (that) the doctor has returned . 迈克知道这个医生已经回来了。
I don’t know if my sister was having a party at home at 9:00 last night . 我不知道昨天晚上九点我的妹妹是否正在家里举行一场聚会。
2，主句的时态为一般过去时，从句的谓语动词的时态要用相应的某一过去的时态。
如：The lady said she would buy a gift for her son .这位夫人说她将为儿子买件礼物。
11-外部性
Chapter 11 EXTERNALITIES•An externality refers to the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander.•Externalities cause markets to be inefficient, and thus fail to maximize total surplus.When the market works as it shouldWhen the market works as it should……•Recall: Adam Smith’s “invisible hand” of the marketplace leads self-interested buyers and sellers in a market to maximize the total benefit that society can derive from a market. But market failures can still happen.EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY•When the impact on the bystander is adverse, the externality is called a negative externality.•When the impact on the bystander is beneficial, the externality is called a positive externality.EXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY•NegativeExternalities–Automobile exhaust–Cigarette smoking–Barking dogs (loudpets)–Loud stereos in anapartment buildingEXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY•Positive Externalities–Immunizations–Restored historic buildings–Research into new technologiesEXTERNALITIES AND MARKET INEFFICIENCY•Negative externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.•Positive externalities lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable.Welfare Economics: A Recap•The Market for Aluminum•The quantity produced and consumed in the market equilibrium is efficient in the sense that itmaximizes the sum of producer and consumersurplus.•If the aluminum factories emit pollution (a negative externality), then the cost to society of producingaluminum is larger than the cost to aluminumproducers.Figure 1 The Market for AluminumQuantity ofAluminum0Price ofAluminum EquilibriumDemand(private value)Supply(private cost)Q MARKETWelfare Economics: A Recap•The Market for Aluminum•For each unit of aluminum produced, the social cost includes the private costs of the producers plus thecost to those bystanders adversely affected by thepollution.Figure 2 Pollution and the Social Optimum EquilibriumQuantity ofAluminum 0Price ofAluminumDemand(private value)Supply(private cost)Social cost (private cost and external cost)Q OPTIMUM OptimumExternalCost Q MARKETNegative Externalities•The intersection of the demand curve and the social-cost curve determines the optimal output level.•The socially optimal output level is less than themarket equilibrium quantity.Negative Externalities•Internalizing an externality involves altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actions.•To achieve the socially optimal output…•the government can internalize an externality byimposing a tax on the producer to reduce theequilibrium quantity to the socially desirablequantity.Positive Externalities•When an externality benefits the bystanders, a positive externality exists.•The social value of the good exceeds the privatevalue.•A technology spillover is a type of positive externality that exists when a firm’s innovation or design not only benefits the firm, but enters society’s pool of technological knowledge and benefits society as a whole.Figure 3 Education and the Social OptimumQuantity ofEducation0Price ofEducation Demand(private value)Supply(private cost)Q MARKET Social value(private andexternal benefit)Externalbenefit Equilibrium OptimumQ OPTIMUMPositive Externalities•The intersection of the supply curve and the social-value curve determines the optimal output level.•The optimal output level is more than theequilibrium quantity.•The market produces a smaller quantity than issocially desirable.•The social value of the good exceeds the private value of the good.Positive Externalities•Internalizing Externalities:•Subsidies•Used as the primary method for attempting to internalizepositive externalities.•Industrial Policy•Government intervention in the economy that aims topromote technology-enhancing industries•Patent laws are a form of technology policy that give the individual (orfirm) with patent protection a property right over its invention.•The patent is then said to internalize the externality.PRIVATE SOLUTIONS TO EXTERNALITIES•Government action is not always needed to solve the problem of externalities.•Types of Private Solutions–Moral codes and social sanctions–Charitable organizations–Integrating different types of businesses–Contracting between partiesThe Coase Theorem•The Coase theorem is a proposition that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their own.•Transaction costs•Transaction costs are the costs that parties incur inthe process of agreeing to and following through ona bargain.Why Private Solutions Do Not Always Work•Sometimes the private solution approach fails because transaction costs can be so high that private agreement is not possible.PUBLIC POLICIES TOWARD EXTERNALITIES•When externalities are significant and private solutions are not found, government mayattempt to solve the problem through . . .–command-and-control policies.–market-based policies.Command-and-Control Policies: Regulation•Usually take the form of regulations: •Forbid certain behaviors.•Require certain behaviors.•Examples:•Requirements that all students be immunized.•Stipulations on pollution emission levels set by theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA).and Subsidies•Government uses taxes and subsidies to align private incentives with social efficiency.•Corrective taxes are taxes enacted to correct the effects of a negative externality.•Also called Pigovian taxesand Subsidies•Examples of Regulation versus Corrective Tax •If the EPA decides it wants to reduce the amount ofpollution coming from a specific plant. The EPAcould…•tell the firm to reduce its pollution by a specific amount(i.e. regulation).•levy a tax of a given amount for each unit of pollution thefirm emits (i.e. corrective tax).Market-Based Policy 2: Tradable Pollution Permits•Tradable pollution permits allow the voluntary transfer of the right to pollute from one firm to another.•A market for these permits will eventuallydevelop.•A firm that can reduce pollution at a low cost mayprefer to sell its permit to a firm that can reducepollution only at a high cost.Figure 4 The Equivalence of Corrective Taxes and Pollution Permits Quantity of Pollution0Price ofPollutionDemand for pollution rights PCorrective tax (a) Corrective Tax2. . . . which, togetherwith the demand curve,determines the quantityof pollution.1.A correctivetax sets theprice ofpollution . . .QFigure 4 The Equivalence of Corrective Taxes and Pollution Permits Quantity of Pollution 0Demand forpollution rightsQ Supply of pollution permits (b) Pollution PermitsPrice ofPollution 2. . . . which, togetherwith the demand curve,determines the priceof pollution. 1. Pollution permits set the quantity of pollution . . .PBoth the Corrective Taxes and PollutionPermit approaches canyield the same result.。
新概念英语第二册第11课课文详解及语法解析
新概念英语第二册第11课课文详解及语法解析课文详注 Further notes on the text1. One good turn deserves another.礼尚往来。
(1)名词turn的含义之一是“(协助或损害他人的)举动”、“行为”：Yesterday George did me a good/ an ill turn.乔治昨天做了一件对我有利/不利的事。
He is always ready to do a turn for others.他总是乐于为他人做好事。
(2)deserve的意义为“应受”、“应得(奖赏、惩罚等)”、“值得”，通常为及物动词：His words deserve attention.他的话值得注意。
Mary deserves the prize.玛丽应得这个奖。
2. He gets a good salary…他的薪水很高……good在这里的意思是“相当大/多的”、“相当可观的”：It takes me a good three hours to get there.我花了整整3小时才到达那里。
3. …but he always borrows money from his friends and never pays it back.……但他却总是向朋友借钱，并且从来不还。
(1)连词and在这句话中可解释为“并且”、“另外”(in addition)。
(2)pay在这里的意思是“偿还(债务等)”。
pay还能够解释为“付”、“支付(价款、账单等)”，如课文的最后一句话：…so now you can pay for my dinner!……所以现在你能够替我付饭钱了!pay 既是及物动词也能够是不及物动词：How much did you pay for that dress?那件衣服你花了多少钱?I paid the bill.我付了账。
语法 Grammar in use在前10课的语法中，我们比较了一般过去时、一般现在时、现在完成时、现在实行时和过去实行时等时态以及和它们相关的时间状语，另外还学习了被动语态。
英语考研 胡壮麟版 语言学教程英语考研 Chapter 11
Focus on Form
Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communicationoriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.
解释，并逐字讲解。学生跟教师朗读单词。教师说出母语 意思，学生说了英语单词。 [3] 讲授语法：讲解语法意义及相关规则，在黑板上列出课 文中的相关词汇，学生按语法规则进行转换等。 [4] 讲解课文：教师逐句念课文，学生分析语法与译成母语。 教师随时纠正错误。 [5] 巩固新课：学生跟教师逐句朗读课文。教师依课文提问， 学生按课文回答。 [6] 布置作业：拼写单词；语法填空；背诵课文。
9
Focus on form: occasional attention on grammar with focusing on meaning at the same time. （聚焦于形式，形式与意义兼顾）
Focus on forms: traditional way of teaching grammar explicitly.(传统语法教学）
[4] 课堂用语大部分是母语。通过翻译检查教学质量。练
习方式有单句填空、造句、背诵课文和作文等。用母语组
织教学。把母语当作释义、讲解、练习和检查的重要手段，
很少积极使用目的语。
18
Grammar-translation method
[1] 通过母语的翻译和比较，能使学生比较深刻地理解外语 的抽象词义和复杂的句子结构。系统讲授语法知识，注意 利用学生的理解力，有利于启发思维，训练智慧，有助于 提高教学效果。学生语法概念清晰，词义理解较确切，翻 译能力得到培养。
Chapter_11_12_Verb_tense_and_aspect
3. A future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement. He is leaving china in a few weeks. I’m going to Shanghai for the summer holiday.
5. If he cooks, I always wash up. If you heat metal, it expands. [a woman is talking about the relationship with her husband.] If he’s cooking for example a roast meal, or any kind of meal, I can sometimes sort of do the typical, you know, wife bit of going in the kitchen and saying, “Oh, I’ll take over.’
Use of past progressive p134
1. An action in progress at a definite point or period of past time 2. A past habitual action 3. To denote futurity in the past 4. To make polite requests and express hypothetical meanings
1. To denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking What are you doing? I’m writing a letter. 2. An action in progress at a period of time including the present He is studying law while her sister is dong physics. I teach English at the college, but I’m now teaching in a middle school.
人教版九年级英语语法unit11知识点
人教版九年级英语语法unit11知识点Unit 11 Language points in the 9th Grade English Grammar TextbookIntroduction:In the 9th Grade English Grammar textbook, Unit 11 focuses on several important grammar points. Understanding these points will not only help students to improve their English language skills but also enable them to communicate effectively in various situations. In this article, we will discuss the key grammar concepts covered in Unit 11 and how they can be applied in real-life scenarios.1. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives:One of the crucial grammar points in Unit 11 is comparative and superlative adjectives. Comparative adjectives are used to compare two things, while superlative adjectives are used to compare multiple things. For instance, "The elephant is larger than the dog" demonstrates the use of the comparative adjective, while "The elephant is the largest animal in the zoo" shows the application of a superlative adjective. Mastering these concepts allows students to express their preferences and make comparisons more accurately.2. Adverbial Clauses of Time:Unit 11 also covers adverbial clauses of time, which are used to explain when an action occurred. By using conjunctions such as "when," "before," "after," and "while," students can effectively convey temporal relationships. For example, "I will go to the movies when I finish my homework" demonstrates the use of an adverbial clause of time. By understanding this concept, students can construct more complex sentences and describe events in a more precise manner.3. Direct and Indirect Speech:Direct and indirect speech is another significant aspect covered in Unit 11. Direct speech involves quoting someone's exact words, while indirect speech reports what someone said. By mastering this grammar concept, students can accurately convey information they have heard or express someone else's opinion. For example, changing the direct speech "She said, 'I am going to the park'" to indirect speech results in "She said that she was going to the park." Knowing how to use direct and indirect speech helps enhance communication skills and ensures accurate transmission of information.4. Passive Voice:Understanding the passive voice is essential for effective communication. The passive voice is used when the focus is on theobject of an action, rather than the subject. It is formed using the auxiliary verb "be" and adding the past participle of the main verb. For example, changing the active sentence "John painted the picture" to passive results in "The picture was painted by John." Being proficient in using the passive voice enables students to express ideas more accurately and create varied sentence structures.5. Reported Speech with Modal Verbs:Unit 11 also introduces reported speech with modal verbs. Modal verbs, such as "can," "must," and "should," express possibility, necessity, or advice. When reporting someone's speech that involves modal verbs, it is essential to make appropriate changes. For example, changing the direct speech "He said, 'I can swim'" to indirect speech results in "He said that he could swim." Understanding the usage of reported speech with modal verbs enables students to convey messages accurately and convey others' thoughts and opinions.Conclusion:The aforementioned grammar points covered in Unit 11 of the 9th Grade English Grammar textbook are integral to effective English communication. Comparative and superlative adjectives, adverbial clauses of time, direct and indirect speech, passive voice, and reported speech with modal verbs are essential components that allow studentsto express themselves and understand others better. By mastering these grammar concepts, students can enhance their language skills and become confident and proficient English communicators.。
新概念英语第二册第11课重点语法句型
第11课的内容： ⼀、重要句型或语法 1、复习第1-10课的关键句型 第1-10课的重点内容有：简单句及其语序、⼀般现在时、现在进⾏时、⼀般过去时、现在完成时、冠词、不定代词、过去进⾏时、⽐较关系、表时间的介词、被动语态。
2、动词不定式 本课侧重的是动词不定式做宾语补⾜语的⽤法，如：He wants me to ask you a question. / Frank helped Tom to dig this hole. ⼆、课⽂主要语⾔点 I was having dinner at a restaurant when Tony Steel came in. 1)复习过去进⾏时的⽤法，侧重when的⽤法，即主句动词⽤过去进⾏时、when引导的从句动词⽤⼀般过去时，注意与while的区别(while引导的并列句的动词⽤过去进⾏时，另⼀个并列句⽤⼀般过去时或过去进⾏时)。
如原句可以改为：While I was having dinner at a restaurant, Tony Steel came in. 2)注意restaurant的拼写和读⾳。
Tony worked in a lawyer\s office years ago, but he is now working at a bank. 1)可从but前后两句话中的时间状语years ago和now来提问学⽣动词时态的使⽤。
2)注意work in a lawyer's office和work at a bank中不同地点采⽤的不同的介词。
3)lawyer只需识记基本意思，注意bank也可以表⽰河岸。
He gets a good salary, but he always borrows money from his friends and never pays it back. 1)get a good salary，收⼊不错。
曼昆经济学原理Chapter11公共物品和共有资源 中英文笔记
Chapter 11 Public Goods And Common Resources 公共物品和共有资源·本章问题：公共物品和共有资源的定义为什么私人市场不能生产公共物品我们经济中的一些重要的公共物品为什么公共物品的成本—收益分析既是必要的又是困难的为什么人们往往会过多的使用共有资源我们经济中一些重要的共有资源§1. 不同类型的物品The Different Kinds of Goods一．根据两个特点来分类1.排他性Excludability：可以阻止其他人享用该物品the property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it2.竞争性Rivalry：某人对该物品的使用减少其他人对该物品的享受。
the property of a good whereby one person’s use diminishes other people’s use 二．四类物品Four Types of Goods1.私人物品Private Goods：既有排他性，又有竞争性both excludable and rival.2.公共物品Public Goods：既无排他性，又无竞争性neither excludable nor rival3.共有资源Common Resources：有竞争性，无排他性rival but not excludable4.自然垄断Natural Monopolies：有排他性，无竞争性excludable but not rival§2. 公共物品Public Goods一．搭便车问题The Free-Rider Problem1.搭便车者a free-rider：从一种物品中获益，但却避免了为此支付的人a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it2.结论：由于公共物品没有排他性，搭便车者问题就阻碍了私人市场提供公共物品。
英语语言学第十一章笔记
英语语言学第十一章笔记以下是英语语言学第十一章的笔记：英语语言学第十一章：句法学1、句法学简介句法学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究句子的构造和规则。
它涉及词汇、词序、短语和句子等不同级别的语言单位，以及这些单位之间的关系。
2、句子的构成句子由主语和谓语构成。
主语通常由名词或名词短语担任，而谓语则描述主语的动作或状态。
例如，“The cat sat on the mat.”（猫坐在垫子上。
）中，“The cat”是主语，“sat”是谓语。
3、词序和短语词序是句子中词语的排列顺序。
在大多数情况下，英语中的主语、谓语和宾语的顺序是固定的。
此外，短语是一种由两个或更多词语组成、共同表达一个意思的语言单位。
常见的短语类型包括名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语等。
4、句子结构英语中的句子结构可以分为简单句和复杂句两种。
简单句是由一个主语和一个谓语组成的句子，例如“I am a student.”（我是一个学生。
）复杂句则包含一个或多个从句，从句通常是名词性从句或定语性从句。
例如，“The cat that sat on the mat is black.”（坐在垫子上的猫是黑色的。
）是一个包含定语性从句的复杂句。
5、转换语法转换语法是句法学的一个重要分支，研究如何通过改变词语的属性或结构来改变句子的意义。
例如，“I like eating pizza”和“Pizza is delicious”是两个意义不同的句子，但它们可以通过转换语法相互转化。
6、语言习得和句法学句法学在语言习得中扮演着重要的角色。
研究发现，儿童在习得语言时通常会先学会基本的词汇和短语，然后逐渐学习更复杂的句子结构和语法规则。
句法学的研究有助于我们更好地理解儿童语言习得的过程，也为二语习得提供了重要的理论依据。
chapter11 solidarity
• Brown&Gilman(1960)指出,有两种因素制约着人们称呼语的使用, 一是“权势关系”（power）,二是“等同关系”（solidarity）。 • “权势关系”指通过地位来显示,只要交际一方在年龄、辈份、资 格、财富、地位、力量等方面优于另一方,就对另一方具有“权 势”；即是社会指示中谈话双方的社会地位差异，以及由此形成 双方在称呼语上的反差和不平衡关系。 • “等同关系”则通过社会距离来显示,它是指交际双方在某些方面, 如经历、年龄、性别、职业、兴趣、宗教信仰、宗族等方面具有 共同性。交际中人们往往选择不同的称呼语。同什么人交际,应称 呼什么,不仅在于他们各自的身份，更在于他们的相互关系。 • 这两个特征特征可分别采用相应的拉丁词语vos和tu的首字母大写 形式来标示，通常写作V和T，V指代表示礼貌客气的尊称形式； T体现表示亲近和的统称形式；话语双方通过这种非对称形式的 选用，表明各自在等级社会中身份地位的异同，以及在错综复杂 的人际关系中角色的认定。
Tu and Vous (4)
• In 1960, Brown and Gilman published the thesis of The pronoun of Power and Solidarity and opened the research in address forms and pronouns of sociolinguistics through making a study of developing process of European languages’ pronouns symmetrical pragmatic system, one is power (权势 语义) and the other is solidarity (等同语义).
深圳牛津初三chapters11-12期末知识归纳
Chapter11-12基础知识归纳与练习一.基础知识归纳(一)单词n. traveller,advertising,advertiser,spender,educator,disease,course,benefit,cigare tte,interview,hunter,application,pay,post,mark,standard,offer,sex,nationality,skill,commentv. earn,act,advertise,suffer,hunt,apply,search,prove,serve,tickadj. illegal,wealthy,fit,junior,effective,available,confusing,exact,unfairadv. neatly,faithfully(二)短语1.points of view2.identify with3.put pressure on4.in addition5.take action6.be allowed to do7.be good/bad for8.agree with9.on the other hand 10.have an effect on 11.make sure 12.according to 13.become interested in 14.in my opinion/view 15.a piece of advice 16.at least 17.as a result18.at all costs 19.miss out 20.make mistakes 21.on time 22.as well as 23.prepare for 24.make an impression on 25.at any time 26.lose weight27.be proud of(三)句型1.What do you think about/of.....? 你认为.....怎么样？2.Do you agree with sb? 你同意某人的意见吗？3.....Nothing/Something wrong with..... .........没有（有）毛病4.make/have/let sb do sth 让某人做某事5.encourage sb to do sth 鼓励某人做某事6.persuade sb to do sth 劝说某人做某事7.It is illegal for sb to do sth 某人做....是不合法的8.Sb thinks it is wrong to do sth 某人认为做....是不对的9.What would you advise me to do? 你建议我做什么？10.Do you think I ought to....? 你认为我应该.....吗？11.Why have you applied for the job? 你为什么申请这份工作？12.I'd like to be..... 我愿意成为.......13.You'd better..... 你最好........(四)语法A.不带to的动词短语归纳1.had better (not) do sth 最后（不要）做某事2.Would you please (not) do sth? 请你（不）做某事，好吗？3.Let/have/make sb do sth 让某人做某事B.被动语态C.so....that.....与such.....that.....的区别二.基础知识练习A.根据句意及英文释义提示填写单词，使句子完整、通顺1.It's _______________(against the law) to carry guns in our country.2.Early to bed.early to rise,makes a man healthy,_____________(very rich),and wise.3.Jody is such a big _____________(a person who spends a lot of money) that she uses up all her salary every month.4.Many ____________(illness) are caused by bacteria.5.That ________________(teacher) published many articles in these magazines.6.Perhaps this book will ________________(show sth is true) to be of some use to you in your studies.7.I'd like to ______________(look through) some information on Bird Flu.8.This is the only ticket ________________(that sb can get).B.用括号内所给单词的适当形式填空，使句子完整、通顺1.The _________(hurt) agreed to take us to go hunting the next day.2.This area is ____________(wealth) in fruits and flowers.3.Rose has great ____________(confident) in her success.4.There are five _____________(interview) in the interview.5.Advertising is often the most __________(effect) method of promotion.6.Your answer is really ____________(confuse).7.There are too many TV ________________(advertise) between the program.8.I'm sorry,but I'm not ________________(interest) in the concert.C.根据句意及汉语提示完成句子，使句子完整、通顺1.Letters of _____________________________(申请) must be handwritten.2.It's important to learn a _______________________(技能).3.He is studying at a __________________(初级的) middle school.4.Most of the important cities of the world _______________(遭受) from traffic jam.5.She has ___________________(赚得) a lot of money this month.6.This project is of great __________________(益处) to everyone.7.The school library is ___________________(可用的) to every student.8.What's your _________________(评价) on his behaviour?9.What's your _____________________(国籍)?10.She has ____________________(服务) the family faithfully for thirty years.D.从方框中选择合适的词组填空，注意用其适当形式put pressure on take action as a result ofas well as have an effect on in additionin my view at all costs make a good impression on be proud of1.__________________,cycling is the best way to keep fit.2.Parents are ______________ to prevent children from watching TV too much.3.The bridge must be repaired within three days _____________________.4.It's important to _______________________ others.5.I'm learning French ____________________________________ English.6.The birth of twins ____________________ their parents to find a bigger flat.7.Bush ____________________________ what he had done.8._________________________to a diet,she does sports half an hour per day.9.He was late _______________________________ the snow.10.There is no doubt that TV advertisements __________________________ the consumers.E.解释句子1.We decided not to go climbing because it was raining heavily._____________________________________________________________________ 2.Work hard and you will achieve your goal._____________________________________________________________________ 3.How do you like the blue jacket?_____________________________________________________________________ 4.Finally,they arrived at school in time._____________________________________________________________________ 5.She is proud of her voice._____________________________________________________________________ 6.Would you please give me a hand?_____________________________________________________________________ 7.She will fail the exam unless she studies harder._____________________________________________________________________ 8.This is so good a film that everyone wants to see it._____________________________________________________________________ 9.Although he is poor,he is having a happy life._____________________________________________________________________ 10.I couldn't swim so fast as Tom._____________________________________________________________________F.根据所给提示翻译下列句子1.学校不允许学生吸烟。
实用英语教学法教程-徐锦芬-Chapter 11 Teaching grammar
实用英语教学法教程-徐锦芬-Chapter 11 TeachinggrammarChapter 11: Teaching GrammarIntroduction:Teaching grammar is an essential component of language instruction as it helps learners understand the structure and rules of a language. This chapter will provide a detailed and precise guide on effective teaching methodsfor grammar instruction.1. Communicative Approach:- The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in real-life situations. Grammar is taught in context, and learners are encouraged to use grammar structures in meaningful communication.- Teachers can use authentic materials, such as newspaper articles or dialogues, to present grammar points. Learners can then analyze and practice the target grammar structure in these authentic contexts.2. Deductive Approach:- The deductive approach involves presenting learners with explicit grammar rules and explanations before providing them with practice activities.- Teachers can use charts, diagrams, or visual aids to present grammar rules. Learners can then apply these rules through controlled or guided practice activities.3. Inductive Approach:- The inductive approach involves presenting learners with examples of language use and allowing them to discovergrammar rules and patterns on their own.- Teachers can provide learners with a text or a set of sentences that contain the target grammar structure. Learners can then analyze these examples to identify the grammar rule or pattern.4. Task-Based Approach:- The task-based approach focuses on engaging learners in meaningful tasks that require the use of grammar structures. - Teachers can design tasks, such as role-plays or problem-solving activities, that prompt learners to use the target grammar in a realistic and purposeful way. This approach encourages learners to actively use grammar structures in context.5. Contextualized Grammar Instruction:- Contextualized grammar instruction involves teaching grammar within meaningful contexts, such as conversations, stories, or real-life situations.- Teachers can integrate grammar instruction into speaking, listening, reading, and writing activities. This helps learners understand how grammar structures are used in different language skills.6. Error Correction:- Error correction is an important part of teaching grammar as it helps learners identify and correct their mistakes.- Teachers can provide immediate or delayed error correction, depending on the purpose of the activity. They can also use various error correction techniques, such as self-correction, peer correction, or teacher correction.7. Scaffolded Practice:- Scaffolded practice involves providing learners with gradually increasing levels of support to practice and internalize grammar structures.- Teachers can start with controlled practice activities, where learners focus on accuracy and repetition. Then, they can move on to guided practice activities, where learners apply the grammar in slightly more open-ended tasks. Finally, learners can engage in communicative practice activities, where they use the grammar structure in meaningful communication.Conclusion:Teaching grammar requires a variety of approaches and techniques to cater to the diverse needs and learningstyles of learners. By using a combination of communicative, deductive, inductive, task-based approaches, and contextualized instruction, teachers can effectively teach grammar and help learners develop their language proficiency.。
新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-11-Second-language-acquisition
Chapter 11 Second language acquisition第二语言习得知识点：1.*Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage2.Connections between first and second language acquisition3.Contrastive analysis4.*Error analysis5.Characteristics of interlanguage6.*Krashen’s Input Hypothesis7.Individual Differences in second language acquisition: language aptitude; motivation;#learning strategies考核目标：识记：Definition: second language acquisition; overgeneralization; interlanguage领会：Connections between first and second language acquisition; Contrastive analysis; Error analysis; Characteristics of interlanguage; Individual Differences in second language acquisition简单应用：Krashen’s Input Hypothesis一、定义1. Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得：refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. 指一个人在习得其母语之后是如何习得一门第二语言系统的研究。
chapter_11_risk_and_return_2
strike is specific to that company, unexpected lawsuits
combined with other stocks in a portfolio
Diversification and Portfolio Risk
Diversification and Unsystematic Risk
Diversification reduces the variability of returns Helps eliminate unsystematic risk Poor returns from 1 stock can be offset by great
• Two points from the table:
(1) Some of the riskiness associated with individual assets can be eliminated by forming portfolios
• The process of spreading an investment across assets
Risk: Systematic and Unsystematic
• 2nd type of surprise is systematic risk – a
risk that affects a large number of assets
– Has market wide effects – market risk – Non-diversifiable – Examples: uncertainties of GDP, interest rates,
16---Chapter Eleven 情态动词 语法讲解系列
Chapter Eleven 情态动词Modal Verbs一基本概念及特征➢概念：情态动词是一种本身有一定的词义，但要与动词原形及其被动语态一起使用，给谓语动词增添感情色彩,表示说话人对有关行为或事物的态度和看法，认为其可能、应该或必要等的动词。
➢特征：不能单独作谓语，须和行为动词或系动词连用共同构成谓语；无人称和数的变化(have to除外：has to/had to)；后接动词原形(do/be)；具有助动词作用(可用来构成否定句，疑问句及简明回答)二、基本分类只作情态动词的有：must, can (could), may (might)可作情态动词也可作实义动词的有：need, dare可作情态动词也可作助动词的有：will (would), shall (should)具有情态动词某些特征的有：have to, ought to, had better三，用法详解1. 情态动词基本用法1) can/could’t➢表示能力，意为“能、会Two eyes can see more than one. 两只眼比一只眼看得清。
Could the girl read she went to school? 这女孩上学前能识字吗？➢表示请求或允许，多用于口语中，意为“可以”，相当于may。
You can go now. 你现在可以走了。
Can I have a look at your new pen? 我可以看一看你的新钢笔吗？He asked whether he could take the book out of the reading-room.➢较委婉客气地提出问题或陈述看法。
Can (Could) you lend me a hand? 帮我一把好吗？I’m afraid we couldn't give you an answer today.恐怕我们今天不能给你答复。
注意：情态动词的过去式除了表示过去的时间这一用法外，更多时候表达一种比原形更为委婉客气的语气。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter 11Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching⏹Applied linguistics⏹Krashen’s Input hypothesis⏹i+1 principle⏹Interlanguage⏹Syllabus⏹Contrastive analysis⏹Error analysis⏹Error/mistake11.1 Applied linguistics•Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems.•Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology.Applied Linguistics应用语言学语言学的一个分支，主要关心的是如何应用语言学理论、方法和成果来阐释其他领域遇到的语言问题。
应用语言学发展最充分的分支是外语教学，有时这个名称似乎只指这个领域。
但是近年来出现了好几个其他应用领域，包括语言故障的语言学分析（临床语言学）、母语教育中的语言使用（教育语言学）、词典学的发展、翻译、人工智能和风格学等。
⏹应用语言学不但运用语言学知识，还利用社会学、心理学、人类学、信息论等方面的知识，并把这些理论和知识应用与实践方面，例如，语言教学大纲的设计、言语矫正、语言规划、问题学研究等等。
•Applied linguistics–Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching.–Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language.•According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is able to explain some linguistic features would have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by using authority –“it‟s like that”, “it‟s an exception”, or “it‟s less formal”.11.2 Linguistics and language learning•Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories.–In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.2.1Grammar and language learningfocus on form 语法形式中心As a compromise between the “purely form-focused approaches” and the “purely meaning-focused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.Focus on Form•Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.The definition of UG•In linguistics, the theory of universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess, without having to learn them.•Universal grammar acts as a way to explain how language acquisition works in humans, by showing the most basic rules that all languages have to follow.Universal Grammar (UG)•Noam Chomsky–A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence.–The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals.–While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar.Universal Grammar•Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures. •According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low.•The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play.•The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense.Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisition, many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching.–Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second language acquisition based on Chomsky‟s linguistic theory.Drawbacks•UG‟s primary aim is to account for how language works, not acquisition.•UG is only concerned with the core grammar of language (syntax).•The communication function is discarded in UG.•Chomsky is concerned only with …competence‟, there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research.Grammar-based teaching•Grammar-translation method•Audiolingual method•Situational language teachingGrammar-translation method•The Grammar-Translation Method is a method of foreign or second language teaching which uses translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.•At one time The Grammar-Translation Method was called Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages of Latin and Greek。
The Audiolingual Method听说法•The Audiolingual Method is a method of foreign or second Language teaching which emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing. In the audiolingual method, mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom.•The Audiolingual Method uses dialogues as the main form of language presentation and drills as the main training techniques.Situational language teaching•Situational language teaching is a term not commonly used today, but it is an approach developed by British applied linguists in the 1930s to the 1960s, and which had an impact on language courseswhich survive in some still being used today.•Objectives•a practical command of the four basic skills of a language, through structure•accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar•ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations•automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns.2.2 Input 输入•Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language.•This input may come in written or spoken form.•In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse.a. Input输入的语言：有两个意思：（用于语言学习）指学习者已听到、已接受并能吸收的语言。