跨文化交际复习

1.monochronic time (M Time) ：It schedules one event at a time. In these cultures time isperceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future.2.polychronic time (P Time) ：schedules several activities at the same time. In theseculture people emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules. They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and often break them.3.intercultural communication ：is a face-to-face communication between peoplefrom different cultural backgrounds4.host culture is the mainstream culture of anyone particular country.5.minority culture is the cultural groups that are smaller in numerical terms in relationto the host culture.6.subculture is a smaller, possibly nonconformist, subgroup within the host culture.7.multiculturalism is the official recognition of a country’s cultural and ethnic diversity.8.cross-cultural communication is a face-to-face communication between reprentativesof business,government and professional groups from different cultures.9.high-context culture ：a culture in which meaning is not necessarily contained inwords. Information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even silence. 10.low-context culture ：a culture in which the majority of the information is vested inthe explicit code.11.perception: in its simplest sense,perception is ,as Marshall singer tells us,”the processby which an individual selects, evaluates,and organizes stimuli from the external world”In other words, perception is an internal process whereby we convert the physical energies of the world into meaningful internal experiences.Non-verbal communicationIt refers to communication through a whole variety of different types f signal come into play, including the way we more, the gestures we employ, the posture we adopt, the facial expression we wear, the direction of our gaze, to the extent to which we touch and the distance we stand from each other.. IndividualismIndividualism refers to the doctrine that the interests of the individual are or ought to be paramount, and that all values, right, and duties originate in individuals. It emphasizes individual initiative, independence，individual expression, and even privacy.13. ParalanguageThe set of nonphonemic properties of speech, such as speaking tempo, vocal pitch, and intonational contours, that can be used to communicate attitudes or other shades of meaning.12.人际交际interpersonal communication: a small number of individuals who are interactingexclusively with one another and who therefore have the ability to adapt their messages specifically for those others and to obtain immediate interpretaions from them.指少数人之间的交往他们既能根据对方调整自己的信息，又能立即从对方那里获得解释。

13.内文化交际intracultural communication is defined as communication between and amongmembers of the same culture .指同一文化内某成员之间的交际，总的来说，同一种族，政治倾向宗教，或者具有同样兴趣的人们之间的交际。

跨民族交际interthnic communication：refers to communication between people of the samerace ,but different ethnic backgrounds . 指同一种族，不同民族背景的人们之间的交际。

14.跨种族交际interracial communication:occurs when the sender and the receiver exchangingmessages are from different races that pertain to different physical characteristics.指信息源和信息来自不同的种族，种族具有不同的身体特征。

跨地区交际interregional communication:refers to the exchange of messages between members of the dominant culture within a country.指一个国家内主流文化成员之间的信息交换过程Context场景The final component of communication is context. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication. All communication has seven components: the source, encoding, the message, the channel, the receiver, decoding, feedback.The Inferential Model of communication four presumptions:linguistic presumption, communicative presumption, presumption of literalness, conversational presumptions.Conversational presumptions five aspects：1relevance：the speaker’s remarks are relevant to the conversation2sincerity: the speaker is being sincere3truthfulness: the speaker is attempting to say sth true4quantity: the speaker contributes the appropriate amount of information5quality:the speaker has adequate evidence for what she or he says.The Message Model cannot account for:1disambiguation 2 underdetermination of reference3 underdetermination of communicative intent4nonliterality 5indirection 6 non communicative acts.Six characteristics of culture directly affect communication:1learned2 transmitted from generation to g3 based on symbols4 subject to change5 integrated 6EthnocentricThe primary characteristics of communication include:1 no direct mind-to-mind contact2 we can only infer3 communication is symbolic4 time-binding links us together5 we seek to define the world6 communication has consequence7 communication is dynamic8 communication is contextual9 communication is self reflectiveFunctions of nonverbal communicationNonverbal communication has its own unique functions in interpersonal communication. We will sum up some of the important ways of nonverbal communication in regulating human interaction.\ Repeating Complementing \ Substituting Regulating\Six important communication functions:1 indicate degrees of attentiveness, interest, and arousal2 influence attitude change and persuasion3 regulate interaction4 communication emotions5 define power and status relationships6 and assume a central role in impression managementculture ：what the behavior and customs mean to the people who are following themAn shared artifact（the material and spiritual products people produce）shared Behavior（what they do）shared Concepts（beliefs, values, world views……what they thinkCulture means:(a) The arts, customs, and habits that characterize a particular society or nation.(b).The beliefs, values, behavior and material objects that constitute a people's way of life.5. What are the tour characteristics of culture? Dynamic/ shared/ learned/ ethnocentricCulture is shared. All communications take place by means of symbols.Culture is learned. Culture is learned, not inherited. It derives from one’s social environment, not from one’s genes. Enculturation(文化习得): All the activities of learning one’s culture are called enculturation .Culture is dynamic. (P6)Culture is subject to change. It’s dynamic rather than static, constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures. Acculturation(文化适应): the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.Culture is ethnographic(文化中心主义). Ethnographic is the belief that your own cultural background is superior. Ethnocentrism: the belief that your own culture background is superior.6. What are the six characteristics of communication?Dynamic/ irreversible/ symbolic/ systematic/ transactional/ contextualCommunication is dynamic.Communication is ongoing, ever-changing activity. A word or action does not stay frozen when you communicate; it is immediately replaced with yet another word or action.Communication is irreversible.Once we have said something and someone else has received and decoded the message, the original sender cannot take it back.Communication is symbolic.Symbols are central to the communication process because they represent the shared meanings that are communicated. Symbols are vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of one person can be communicated to another person.Communication is systematicCommunication does not occur in isolation or in a vacuum, but rather is part of a large system. It takes place in a physical and a social context; both establish the rules that govern the interaction. Communication is transactional. (P8)A transactional view holds that communicators are simultaneously sending and receiving messages at every instant that they are involved in conversation.Communication is contextual. (P8)All communication takes place within a setting or situation called a context. By context, we mean the place where people meet, the social purpose for being together, and the nature of the relationship. Thus the context includes the physical, social, and interpersonal settings.Studying Intercultural Communication Three main obstacles:•Culture lacks a distinct crystalline structure; it is often riddled with contradictions and paradoxes.•Culture cannot be manipulated or held in check; therefore, it is difficult to conduct certain kinds of research on this topic.we study other cultures from the perspective of our own culture, so our observations and our conclusions are tainted by our orientationBarriers to Intercultural CommunicationAnxietyAssuming similarity instead of difference EthnocentrismStereotypes & prejudiceNonverbal bahavioursLanguageThe Whorf hypothesisLanguage shapes thought patternsLinguistic determinism:Languages determine nonlinguistic cognitiveprocesses. That is, learning a language changes theway a person thinks.Linguistic relativity:The resulting cognitive processes vary fromlanguage to language. Thus, speakers of differentlanguages are said to think in different ways。