语言学教程第八章知识点
语言学教程Chapter8.LanguageinUse
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• Sentence meaning: What does X mean? • Utterance meaning: What do you mean
by X?
– Dog! – My bag is heavy. – “Janet! Donkeys!” (David Copperfield)
utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.
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• Speaker’s meaning
(A father is trying to get his 3year-old daughter to stop lifting up her dress to display her new underwear to the assemble.)
• Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.
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• I do. • I name this ship Queen
Elizabeth. • I bet you sixpence it will rain
tomorrow. • I give and bequeath my watch to
– Father: We don’t DO that.
– Daughter: I KNOW, Daddy.
dresses.
You don’t WEAR
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• Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence Meaning
• Utterance vs. Sentence
– Sentence: abstract units of the language system.
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
英语语言学笔记第八章
第八章语言的使用在语义那一章里，我们谈到"意义"一词可以有不同的意义，并对其中的几种作了讨论。
但是还有一种重要的意义我们没有涉及到。
假定有人对你说"You're a fool（你是个傻子）"，你一般都会反问："What do you mean?（你什么意思）"。
这并不是因为你不知道句子中各词的意思，也不是因为句子的结构太复杂，让你难以理解。
你清楚地知道you指谁，fool是什么涵义，也知道句子的结构。
你不知道的是说话人说这句话究竟是什么意思，有什么意图。
或者，你知道说话人的意图，却想用"What do you mean（你什么意思）？"来反驳对方的说法。
你这里用的并不是句子的概念意义。
这种意义有时称为"说话者意义"、"语句意义"或者"语境意义"。
这种意义与我们在语义学中研究的意义不同，对它的解释更多地依赖于说话人是谁，听话人是谁，什么时候在什么地方说这句话。
总之就是取决于语境。
研究这种意义的学科叫语用学。
因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。
现在如果我们把意义分成两大类：一类与所用的词密切相关，较稳定，是固有意义（语义学研究的意义）；另一类与语境密切相关，不太确定，是附加意义（语用学研究的意义），那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning - semantics（语用学意义= 意义- 语义学意义）。
8.1 言语行为理论这个理论是牛津哲学家奥斯汀（J. L. Austin）提出的，是研究语言使用的第一个重要理论。
奥斯汀从1952年开始讲授他的理论。
1955年，他去美国哈佛大学做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）讲座时，修订了自己的讲稿，把题目从《言与行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章
Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。
格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。
他把这种机制称作合作原则。
2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。
②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。
①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第8章
Chapter 8 Language in Use一、Some basic notions in pragmatics(1) Context:a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation, and the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc. The relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use. For example, my bag is heavy.(2) Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics studies the literal meaning of a sentence. (without taking context into consideration) Pragmatics studies the intended meaning of a speaker. (taking context into consideration)(3) Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义二、Speech act theoryThe first major theory in pragmatics, proposed by Austin. It is a theory which analyzes the role of utterances about the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?” According to this theory, we are performing different kinds of acts when we are speaking.(1) Two types of utterances:① Performatives: sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state and are not verifiable. It performs an act, including non-conventional acts such as promising, requesting and suggesting. E.g.:“I name this ship Elizabeth.”“I bet you six pounds it will rain tomorrow.”① Constatives: statements that either state or describe and are verifiable.Felicity conditions for performatives to be appropriate:A. (i) there must be a relevant conventional procedure,(①) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.B. The procedure must be executed(①) correctly and(①) completely.C. The relevant participants must(①) have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and(①) follow it up with actions as specified.(2) Austin’s new model of speech acts:Austin suggests that a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:①The first one is locutionary act: an act of saying something, that is, an act of making a meaningful utterance. It is an act of making the sentence and it is a description. For example, when someone says”It is cold here”, its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold here.①The second one is illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is, in saying X, I was doing Y. And it indicates the speakers’ intention. For example, when we say”It is cold here”, its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window.①The third one is perlocutionary act: an act performed as a result of saying something, and the act is not related with the speaker’s intention. For example, “The weather is cold here.” Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.Of the three acts, what speech act theory most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It trys to explain the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:——— (the telephone rings)——— H: That’ the phone. (1)——— W: I’ m in the bathroom. (2)——— H: Okay. (3)This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:1) Asking his wife to go and answer the phone.2) A refusal to comply with the request; asking her husband to answer the phone instead.3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.”(3) Searle’s classification of illocutionary acts:Searle has made great contribution to the development of the speech act theory. According to Searle, speech act are divided into five general categories. That is, five general types of things we do with language. Each type has a common, general purpose. They are representatives, directives, commsives, expressives, declarations. (阐述类、指令类、承诺类、表达类、宣告类）三､The theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论The second major theory in pragmatics. Proposed by Grice.In daily communication, people are observing a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle elaborated in four maxims.(1) Cooperative principle (CP)In making a conversation, all participants are expected to observe a general principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP:1) The maxim of quantity1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) The maxim of qualityTry to make your contribution one that is true.1) Do not say what you believe to be false.2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.4) The maxim of mannerBe perspicuous.1) Avoid obscurity of expression.2) Avoid ambiguity.3) Be brief.4) Be orderly.(2) Conversational implicatureAccording to Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, but understandable to the listener. Only when he shares the speakers’ knowledge or he knows why and how, he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of CP.The following provides different circumstances of the violation of CP and its maxims.1) Violation of the maxim of quantityA:When is Lucy’s birthday party?B:Sometimes next month.A:Where is X?B:He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.2) Violation of the Maxim of qualityHe is made of iron. (Metaphor)Every nice girl loves a sailor.3) Violation of the maxim of relationA: How do you like my painting?B: I’m afraid I don’t have any eye for beauty. A: What time is it?B: The postman has just arrived.4) Violation of the maxim of mannerA: Shall we get something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.A:Where is your mother?B: She is either in the room or at the market. (3) Characteristics of implicature(4) Politeness Principle (PP)Leech suggests that CP can’t explain why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean. Conversational interaction is a social behaviour. Choice of linguistic codes is central in language use. There are social and psychological factors that determined the choice.Besides being cooperative, participants try to be polite. And the speakers consider the matter of face for themself and others. Based on this observation, Leech proposed PP, which contains six maxims.1.Tact 策略Minimize cost to other.Maximize benefit to other.2.Generosity 宽宏Minimize benefit to self.Maximize cost to self.3.Approbation 赞扬Minimize dispraise of other.Maximize praise of other.4.Modesty 谦虚Minimize praise of self.Maximize dispraise of self.5.Agreement 赞同Minimize disagreement between self and other.Maximize agreement between self and other.6.Sympathy 同情Minimize antipathy between self and other.Maximize sympathy between self and other.四、Post-Gricean Developments3.Levinson’s Q- , I- and M- principles。
《语言学教程》 Chapter 8_pragmatics
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Performatives
I do. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth. I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow. I give and bequeath my watch to my brother. I promise to finish it in time. I apologize. I declare the meeting open. I warn you that the bull will charge.
8.2 Speech Aቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱt Theory
John Austin (1911-1960) How to Do Things with Words (1962) Speech acts: actions performed via utterances 1. I got up very early this morning. 2. We are having a class on linguistics. 3. I’m sorry for making you bored. 4. Let’s go and have a drink. 1 and 2: verifiable constatives(述事话语) 3 and 4: unverifiable performatives(行事话语)
Key in the distinction
Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of a linguistic form. However, they are different in many respects, such as their research methods, their research scope. What essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it its not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 5
语言学教程第8章
第八章：Relevance theory有点小问题1)the speech act theory (言语行为理论) p186It originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950’s. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.2)performatives (施为句) p186Austin classifies sentences in two categories: Performatives and Constatives. Performatives do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action.e.g. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.I apologize.3)constatives （叙事句）p187Constatives are descriptive statements, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is.E.g. I pour some liquid into the tube.(This is a sentence said by achemistry teacher in a demonstration of an experiment. It is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these worlds. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring.Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement.)4)locutionary act （发话行为）p188utterance meaning (the movement of muscles)The act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences.(According to Austin, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something, one of them is ) locutionary act, which is the act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences or the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.5)illocutionary act （行事行为）p189speaker’s meaning (intention)(the other sense is illocutionary act which means) the act of making known the speaker’s purpose or the intended meaning: asking or answering a question, giving some information or an assurance or a warning, pronouncing sentence, making a request or an appointment or a criticism, making identification or giving a description, and many others.6)perlocutionary act （取效行为）p189contextual meaning (results)(the third sense is) perlocutionary act which means the consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or inducing him to do something (the act preformed by or as a result ofsaying, the effects on the hearer.).7)the cooperative principle （合作原则）p191This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation. According to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purpose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short.The cooperative principle has four categories of maxims: maxims of quality, maxims of quantity, maxims of relation, and maxims of manner.8)maxim of quantity （数量准则）Be economicalmake your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange) but do not make your contribution more informative than is required.9)maxim of quality （质量准则）Be truthfuldo not say what you believe to be false and do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.10)maxim of relation （关系准则）Be relevant (what you say)11)maxim of manner （方式准则）Be clearBe perspicuous(清晰明白的). Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief. And be orderly.12)calculability （可推导性or 可计算性）p195It is the first character of implicature. Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including: 1) the conventional meaning of the words, 2) the CP and its maxims, 3) the context, 4) other items of the background knowledge, 5) the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case. (Hearers work out implicature based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.)13)cancellability （可取消性）p196Also known as defeasibility（可废除性）. A conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts, etc. If any of them changes, the implicature will also change.14)non-detachability （不可分离性）p196A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content ofwhat is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. In other words, an implicature will not be detached, separated from the utterance as awhole, even though the specific words may be changed.15)non-conventionality （非常规性）p197Implicature is different from its conventional meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It is indeterminate and varies with context.Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words.16)contextual meaning (语境意义)（perlocutionary act）meaning in context, meaning made in different situationsThe meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.17)pragmatics (语用学)The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.18) relevance theory （关联理论）p194Relevance theory was formally proposed by Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its optimal relevance.The assumption, or principle, underlying relevance theory is that in anygiven context, what people say is relevant. This principle of relevance can be seen as a further specification of the Gricean notion of cooperation. For relevance theory, achieving successful communication by way of the relevance of what is being said is a sufficient aim in conversation or other verbal interaction. RT is thus a minimalist theory of communication. Relevance is all we need.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a/buk/，一支钢笔读作a/pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。
考研语言学第八章笔记
考研语⾔学第⼋章笔记笔记Pragmatics:It is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker's meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.* pragmatics and semantics区别1.Pragmatics' interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.= it depends more on the context.2.It takes context into consideration while semantics concentrates on the study of literal meaning without context.3.It can also be defined as the study of language in use.Pragmatics and semantics 联系Semantics: studies the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning. Pragmatics: studies the side more closely related to the context, the more indetermined side, or something extra.Speech Act TheoryPerformatives施为句and constatives叙事句Performatives: the statements which are used to do something. They do not describe a fact and they are not verifiable. (宣布，命名，许诺，打赌）I name this ship the Queen ElizabethI bequeath this watch to my brother.I promise to finish it in time.I find you guilty. You did it. Thank you. I order you to turn right. People are warned to keep off the grass.I state that I am alone responsible.I declare the meeting open.Constatives: the statements are used to state/describe a fact.They are verifiable.First i open the door then i sit next to the door.Though performatives cannot be true or false, there are still conditions for them to meet to be appropriate.----Austin, Felicity Conditions1.There must be a relevant conventional procedure. The relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.2.The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.3.The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.因为适合条件不够完善，只能使⽤于部分情况，所以Austin放弃了他最初对叙事句和施为句的区分，建⽴了另外⼀套模式来解释如何通过语⾔事实⾏为。
《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）
《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
语言学教程 第三版 第八章 语用学
官方总站：圣才学习网
8.1.2 A Theory of the Illocutionary Act
Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels: ■A locutionary act（发话行为/言内行为）: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”. ■An illocutionary act（行事行为/言外行为）: an act performed in saying something. To say sth is to do sth.
■Conclusion: ■The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintained. ■All sentences can be used to do things.
中华英语学习网
■In saying X, I was doing Y. ■In saying “I will come tomorrow”, I was making a promise. ■Illocutionary force: equivalent to speaker's meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning, and may be
■John Austin (1911-1960) ■How to Do Things with Words (1962) ■speech acts: actions performed via utterances
8.1.1 Performatives vs. Constatives（施为句与叙事句） ■Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe
简明英语语言学教程1-8章知识要点
1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics . phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning Lexicon / morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性) 1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned. Phonetics （语音学）（定义） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics （发音）auditory phonetics （听觉）acoustic phonetics （声学） Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Phonetics & phonology ：（定义，区别） Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.) Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone （音素）Phoneme （音位）Allophone （音位变体）: （定义） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素） vowels (the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. That’s not the book he wants. ⏹ Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When the phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution . ⏹ The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET （节首）, the PEAK （韵峰）, the CODA （韵尾） ⏹ Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning. Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix) 3.4 V----teachN Af----er Root （词根）Stem （词干）affix(词缀）（定义，会用，选择）Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “ca refully ”. Affix:is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme 3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional … -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er ● Derivational morphemes ---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ● Inflectional morphemes ---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s Syntax （句法学）（定义） Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. （句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head （中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier （标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement （补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg 程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station S→NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Semantics （语义学）（定义）Semantics: the study of meaning from thelinguistic point of view （对意义的研究）Behaviorism→ Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: responseJill Jack S---------r………s ---------R(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)Pragmatics （语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics: the study of language in use orlanguage communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.The study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication. (book)Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning ofa speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Context: a basic concept in the study ofpragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background,situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categories —word-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement 4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP→(Deg) A (PP) …… PP→(Deg) P (NP) …… XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con. 5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning,which are related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog knownto both A&B Major sense relations:Synonymy (近义词）---words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall inAE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), polysemy (一词多义）one word may have morethan one meaning)homonymy (同音形异义）homophones--- twowords same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)feet 、fete meat/meet site/sighthyponymy (上下层关系）relation between a general word —superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms) flower , rose, Lilyantonymy (反义）words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalemarried. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F —Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F —Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T —Y, T; X, F —Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT) Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Clause —a group of words which form a grammaticalunit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. ⏹ Componential analysis---- a way toanalyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹ Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Cooperative principle (CP)---- According toGrice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.。
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Chapter EightPragmatics⏹Definition⏹Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, andspecifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.⏹In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced theword “Pragmatics” into literature.⏹莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：⏹句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
⏹Teaching Focus⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 2. Speech act theory⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹ 4. Post-Gricean Developments⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹ 1.3 Context⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹Various definitions:⏹The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.⏹The study of language in use.⏹The study of meaning in context.⏹The study o f speakers’ meaning,utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of language.⏹没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realizationWhat essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.⏹If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditionalsemantics (decontextualized);⏹If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics. (contextualized)⏹Semantics & Pragmatics⏹Peter bought a car.⏹It was Peter who bought a car.⏹It was a car that Peter bought.⏹What peter bought was a car.⏹句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果⏹语义学：这些句子都是同义的。
⏹语用学：这些句子都是不同的。
恭喜你⏹语音学家:分析其中每个字的发音以及整个句子的语调。
⏹句法学家:指出这是一个无主语的祈使句，有一个动词加一个代词组成。
⏹语义学家:这句话的意思：向某个人表示祝贺。
⏹语用学家:将结合具体语境，考虑说话人是谁，“你”又是谁，说话人在怎样的情况下向“你”道喜，他是真的道喜，还是挖苦嘲讽，甚至是泄愤？⏹ 1.3 Context⏹Context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared bythe speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge:⏹About the language they use;⏹About what has been said before;⏹About the world in general;⏹About the specific situation;⏹About each other.⏹Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the hearer’sinterpretation of what is said to him.⏹Let’s see how it determines the hearer’s interpretation.⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence isoften studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.⏹If a sentence is actually uttered or used in the course of communication, itbecomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used).⏹Sentence → abstract and decontextualized⏹Utterance → concrete and context-dependent⏹The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is therealization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situationof communication, or simply in a context.⏹ 2. Speech Act Theory⏹British philosopher, John Austin (1911-1960)⏹How to Do Things with Words (1962)⏹speech acts: actions performed via utterances⏹It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.⏹ 2.1 Constatives vs. performatives⏹ 2.2 A theory of illocutionary act⏹ 2.1 Constatives vs. performatives⏹Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report thatsomething is the case, or describe what something is, eg:⏹I go to the park every Sunday.⏹I teach English.⏹Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describeor report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.⏹Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.⏹I do.⏹I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.⏹I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.⏹I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.⏹I declare the meeting open.⏹I warn you that the bull will charge.⏹Felicity conditions 合适条件⏹There are conditions for performatives to meet to be appropriate orfelicitous. Austin suggested the following conditions:⏹ A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure,⏹(ii) The relevant participants and circumstance must be appropriate.⏹ B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.⏹ C. (i) The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings andintentions,⏹(ii) must follow it up with actions as specified.⏹Features of performatives⏹First person singular subject⏹Simple present tense⏹Indicative mood 陈述语气⏹Active voice⏹Performative verbs⏹Please see the following utterances, tell whether they are constatives orperformatives.⏹I will come in a few seconds.⏹I was reading a novel last night.⏹You are responsible for this accident.⏹He is in charge of our department.⏹Conclusions:⏹The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot bemaintained.⏹All sentences can be used to do things.⏹Speech act theory: we are performing actions when we are speaking.⏹ 2.2 A theory of illocutionary act⏹Austin gave up his initial distinction between constatives and performativesand set up another model to explain the way acts were performed by means of language.⏹According to his new model, a speaker might be performing three actssimultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.⏹Therefore, speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels.⏹ A locutionary act → the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.⏹Saying X.⏹An illocutionary act → an act performed in saying something. To say sth is todo sth.⏹In saying X, I was doing Y.⏹In saying “I will come tomorrow”, I was making a promise.⏹ A perlocutionary act → the act preformed by or resulting from sayingsomething, the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.⏹By saying X and doing Y, I did Z.⏹By saying “I will come tomorrow” and making a promise, I reassuremy friends.⏹Try to analyze the following utterances:⏹Shoot her!⏹It seems that the computer is out of work.⏹Among the three acts, the locutioary act is what linguists have beenstudying all along.⏹The perlocutionary act involves many psychological and social factors, ofwhich we are still more or less in the dark.⏹So the illocutionary act is what Austin really driving at.⏹In this sense, speech act theory is in fact a theory of the illocutionary act.⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.⏹Oxford philosopher, Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988)⏹Logic and Conversation in 1975⏹ 3.1 Cooperative Principle⏹ 3.2 Conversational implicature⏹ 3.1 Cooperative Principle⏹Grice’s theory is an attempt at explaining how a hearer gets from what issaid to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.⏹His idea is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.⏹This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle (CP).⏹Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs bythe accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.⏹To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:⏹Maxim of Quality⏹Do not say what you believe to be false.⏹Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence.⏹Maxim of Quantity⏹Make your contribution as informative as required (for thecurrent purposes of the exchange).⏹Do not make your contribution more informative thanrequired.⏹Maxim of Relation⏹Be relative.⏹Maxim of Manner⏹Be perspicuous.⏹Avoid obscurity of expression.⏹Avoid ambiguity.⏹Be brief.⏹Be orderly.⏹ 3.2 Conversational implicature⏹CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.⏹People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.⏹However, CP is often violated.⏹Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.⏹Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.⏹Violation of the Maxims⏹We try to say things which are true, relevant, as well as informative enough,and in a clear manner. Hearers will also try to interpret in this way.⏹In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe thesemaxims strictly. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.⏹Lies do not have implicatures proper, since the basis for accurateinterpretation is lost.⏹Violation of maxim of quantity⏹“War is war.”⏹“Girls are girls.”----A:When is Susan’s farewell party?----B:Sometime next month.⏹Violation of Maxim of quality----He is made of iron.----A: would you like to come to our party tonight?----B:I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.⏹Violation of maxim of relation----A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?----B: We had a basketball match with class 2 and we beat them.----A: The hostess is an awful bore.----B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?⏹Violation of maxim of manner----A: Shall we get something for the kids?----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.---- Love that never told can be.----A: Miss X sang “Home sweet home”----B: Miss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of “Home sweet home”.⏹Characteristics of Implicature⏹Calculability⏹Cancellability⏹Non-detachability⏹Non- conventionality⏹CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE as a type of implied meaning, which isdeduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.⏹Characteristics of implicature⏹Calculability: hearers work out implicature based on literal meaning, CP andits maxims, context, etc.⏹Cancellability / defeasibility: If the linguistic or situational contexts change,the implicature will also change.⏹A: Do you want some coffee?⏹B: Coffee would keep me awake.⏹I do not like coffee.⏹B: Coffee would keep me awake. I want to stay up.⏹I will have some coffee.⏹Non-detachability: implicature is attached to the semantic content of whatis said, not to the linguistic form; implicatures do not vanish if the words of an utterance are changed for synonyms.⏹A: Shall we go to the cinema tonight?⏹B: There’ll be an exam tom orrow.I’ll take an exam tomorrow.Isn’t there an exam tomorrow?⏹Non-conventionality: implicature is different from its conventional meaningof words. It is context-dependent. It varies with context.⏹A1：下午踢球去吧！⏹A2：老王住院了？B：上午还在换草皮。