新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备

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戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第二语言习得)【圣才】

language’(e. g. tense, words or expressions etc.), contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across the two languages to spot the mismatches or differences.
第一语言习得与第二语言习得之间的联系 2. Contrastive analysis
对比分析 3. Error Analysis
错误分析 4. Interlanguage
中介语 5. The role of native language in second language learning.
本族语在第二语言学习中的作用 6. Second language learning models and input hypothesis
1. Overgeneralization 2. Cross-association V. Interlanguage VI. The role of native language in second language learning VII. Second language learning models and input hypothesis VIII. Individual differences 1. Language aptitudes 2. Motivation 3. Learning strategies 4. Age of acquisition 5. Personality IX. Second language acquisition and its pedagogical implications
第二语言习得(SLA )在二十世纪七十年代左右被正式确立为一门学科，是指对一个人习得其母语之后如何习得一门第二语言的系统研究。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记引言《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本全面介绍英语语言学的教材。

本文是根据该教材的内容整理出的复习笔记，旨在帮助读者复习和巩固所学知识。

本文将从语音学、形态学、句法学、语用学等方面进行总结和回顾。

一、语音学语音学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究语音的产生、传播和接收。

在英语语音学中，我们学习了音素、音节、音变等概念，以及发音方式和音系结构。

其中，音素是语音的最小单位，音节是由音素组成的单位，音变是音素在特定环境中发生的变化。

在语音学的学习中，我们还学习了国际音标的使用和表示方法。

国际音标是一种标记语音的符号系统，其中每个音素都有一个唯一的符号来表示。

通过学习国际音标，我们可以准确地记录和描述语音。

二、形态学形态学是研究词素和词法规则的学科。

在形态学中，我们学习了词的构成规则和形态变化。

英语中的词缀是词的构成要素，可以分为前缀、后缀和中缀。

词缀的加入或删除可以改变词的意思、词性或词态。

此外，我们还学习了各种词的形态变化规则，如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语气等。

了解形态学规则对于理解和运用英语词汇是非常重要的。

三、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和句子成分之间关系的学科。

在句法学的学习中，我们学习了句子的基本成分，如主语、谓语、宾语和定语等。

我们还学习了句子的结构、成分之间的语法关系，以及句法规则的应用。

在英语句法学中，我们学习了句子的短语结构分析和句子树的表示方法。

通过短语结构分析和句子树，我们可以准确地分析句子的结构和成分关系。

四、语用学语用学研究的是语言的使用和交际。

在语用学的学习中，我们学习了语言的交际功能、意义和上下文的影响。

我们还学习了言语行为和语用规则，如请求、邀请、命令等。

了解语用学对于理解和运用英语是非常重要的。

结论《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第二版）是一本重要的英语语言学教材，其内容涵盖了语音学、形态学、句法学和语用学等方面的知识。

本文对该教材的内容进行了复习总结，并通过Markdown文本格式进行了输出。

《戴炜栋新编简明英语语言学教程第2版笔记和课后习题含》读书笔记PPT模板思维导图下载

4.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.2 课后习题详解
5.1 复习笔记
5.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.2 课后习题详解
6.1 复习笔记
6.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.2 课后习题详解
7.1 复习笔记
7.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
《戴炜栋新编简明最新版读书笔记，下载可以直接修改英语语言学教程
第2版笔记和课后习题含》
思维导图PPT模板
01 第1章导言
目录
02 第2章音位学
03 第3章形态学
04 第4章句法学
05 第5章语义学
06 第6章语用学
目录ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
07 第7章语言变化
08 第8章语言与社会
8.2 课后习题详解
8.1 复习笔记
8.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.2 课后习题详解
9.1 复习笔记
9.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第10章语言习得
10.2 课后习题详解
10.1 复习笔记
10.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第11章第二语言习得
11.2 课后习题详解
11.1 复习笔记
11.3 考研真题与典型题详解
第12章语言与大脑
12.2 课后习题详解
12.1 复习笔记
12.3 考研真题与典型题详解
读书笔记
谢谢观看
第1章导言
1.2 课后习题详解
1.1 复习笔记
1.3 考研真题与典型题详解

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（音位学）【圣才出品】

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（⾳位学）【圣才出品】第2章⾳位学2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech Organs发⾳器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅⾳和元⾳的区别、分类及描写规则3. Phonemes and Allophones⾳位和⾳位变体4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features⾳系规则和区别特征5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation⾳节结构、重⾳和语调本章考点：1. 语⾳学语⾳学的定义；发⾳器官的英⽂名称；英语辅⾳的定义、发⾳部位、发⾳⽅法和分类；英语元⾳的定义和分类、基本元⾳；发⾳语⾳学；听觉语⾳学；声学语⾳学；语⾳标记，国际⾳标；严式与宽式标⾳法。

2. ⾳系学⾳系学的定义；⾳系学与语⾳学的联系和区别；⾳素、⾳位、⾳位变体、最⼩对⽴体、⾃由变体的定义；⾃由变体；⾳位的对⽴分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段⾳位学；⾳节；重⾳(词重⾳、句⼦重⾳)；⾳⾼和语调。

本章内容索引：I. The phonic medium of languageII. Phonetics1. The definition of phonetics2. Three research fields3. Organs of speech▼4. Voiceless sounds▼5. Voiced sounds6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions7. Classification of English speech sounds(1) Definition(2) Classification of English consonants(3) Classification of English vowelsIII. Phonology1. Relationship between Phonology and phonetics2. Phone, phoneme3. Allophone4. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rules(2) Assimilation rule(3) Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation(1) Stress(2) Tone(3) IntonationI. The phonic medium of language（语⾔的语⾳媒介）II. Phonetics（语⾳学）1. The definition of phonetics（语⾳学的定义）Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语⾳学被定义为对语⾔的语⾳媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语⾔中的声⾳。

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的表达。

新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记赶考秘籍)

1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学)Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions,which is prior in modern linguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actualuse): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modern linguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音)close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音)e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black birdtone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbsclosed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional …-mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesuch as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elementsthat make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, awareNouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstract category encodedin a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8 do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface:NP VPDet Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be movedlimits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C positionno element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are relatedbut different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.”refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father),syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalerelational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEpredication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication(meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austin in late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five general types of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee.Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy.The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic changemorphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词),Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),Acronyms (首字构词e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the pastsemantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years agorecent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English,influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs,the way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration &complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of languagelive. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself fromthe rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age ,of the ethnic affiliation of its members.speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect (characteristic of a particular socialclass---different social conditions), language and gender (female speech is less assertive andthus sounds more polite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like usingold words more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect of a languagecutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation): field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono. & gramm. features), tenor of discourse (语旨who the participants are and the relationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing) Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu. institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech of political or commercial centers,for official purposes or any formal occasions)Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang.of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together.Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is and affects a culture’s way ofthinking. Language is to culture what part is to whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talking Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are bound with cultural encodings orassociations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers, words andcultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors Culture contact--- acculturation(文化移入political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收immigration), amalgamation (合并ethnical mix / synthesis rather than the elimination orabsorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguistic nationalism Chap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively and according to their ownunderstanding of the sounds or patterns, which is based on what the children have alreadyknown instead of what is “available” in the environment. This theory fails to explain howthey acquire more complex grammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain.It is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical systemChildren ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter andsimpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways:First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, theirlanguage development also helps in the formation and enhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic systemhimself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulated at the righttime—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty ----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisitionStages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stage before proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extensionVocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of the environment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it. likely to occur later Grammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering(口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreignlanguage (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreign language in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate target language learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Analysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and compare the two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interferenceat different levels—phonological, lexical…), intralingual errors (语内错误result from faultyor partial learning of the TL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situationsCross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciationEA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become apermanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. fossilized pronunciation leads to accent) Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious effortsLearners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personalitymotivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish toidentify with the target culture), resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsicmotivation (for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitive strategies (元认知策略the techniques inplanning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning), affect/social strategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by either side of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干shared by all animals to keep the body alive by maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstemneuron神经元Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissure The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse” of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the。

笔记-新编简明英语语言学教程-复习资料

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

笔记_新编简明英语语言学教程_复习资料讲解

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性Prescriptivebehavior, to tell people what they should say and what It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖　should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点a social activity carried out in a certain socialnguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘senvironment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章期末复习

Chapter one Introduction1.1什么是语言学1.1.1定义语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3（1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.（2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.（3）Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.（4）Langue and parole 语言和言语必考名解P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.（5）Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

戴伟栋新编简明英语语言学教程笔记【精选文档】

戴版语言学Chapter One——--IntroductionPart one——-—What is linguistics？1. Definition-——-linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。

Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure。

No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists’ task： basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built。

I nterest of linguists is “what is said”2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics--—-the study of language as a whole--—--the core of linguisticsPhonetics-—-—the study of sounds used in linguistic communication。

Phonology--——the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology-———the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题考研真题

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
全国547所院校视频及题库全收集
考研全套>视频资料>课后答案>往年真题>职称考试
第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。

新编简明英语语言学教程chapter2笔记

Chapter 2 Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language (Lead in)Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.Language is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing system. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view:(Speech production-----------------speech transmission---------------speech perception)⏹Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）----from the speakers‟point of view, “how speakers produce speechsounds”⏹Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）----from the hearers‟ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”⏹Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from oneto another.2.2.2 Organs of speechSpeech organs, also known as V ocal organs, are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The diagram of speech organs:1. Lips 7. Tip of tongue2. Teeth 8. Blade of tongue3. Teeth ridge (alveolar) 9. Back of tongue4. Hard palate 10. V ocal cords5. Soft palate (velum) 11.Pharyngeal cavity6. Uvula 12. Nasal cavityThe important cavities:☆The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔---- the throatLarynx: at the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam‟s apple. This is the first place where sound modification might occur. The larynx contains the Vocal folds, also known as Vocal cords or Vocal bands. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally with their front ends joined together at the back of the Adam‟s apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move to various positions. The vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, (c) totally closed.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.V oiced (V oicing): when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.☆The oral cavity 口腔---- the mouthThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification of the air stream. ([k]/[g], [t]/[d], [θ]/[δ], [f]/[v], [p]/[b])☆The nasal cavity 鼻腔---- the noseThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized. If the passage is left open to allow air to exit through the nose, the sounds produced are nasalized sounds.2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds--- broad and narrow transcriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only（代表字母的符号）e.g. clear [l]Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] (Diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.)E.g. : [l]→[li:f]--→ a clear [l] (no diacritic); [l]→[bild]--→a dark [l] (~)[p]→[pit]--→an aspirated [p h](h表示送气)[p]→[spit]--→an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:⏹V owels⏹ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air stream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified either in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation根据发音方法分(the manner in which obstruction is created)① Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]② Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant)③ Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз]④ Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]→a lateral sound; [r]→ retroflex⑤ Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]→ approximants⑥ Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m], [n], [η]By place of articulation根据发音部位分(the place where obstruction is created)①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]→(velar)②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v]③dental齿音:the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ]④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the p alate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j]⑥velars软腭音:the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η]⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h]Conclusion: Factors to describe a consonant(1) State of vocal cords (VL/VD)(2) Manner of articulation (MA)(3) Place of articulation (PA)2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsV owel sounds are classified according to: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.Highest Part of the tongue (front, central, back)Front vowels are the ones in the production of which the front part of the tongue is raised the highest such as [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a].When the central part of the tongue maintains its highest position, the vowels thus produced are central vowels such as [3:] [Ə] and [ ] .If the back of the tongue is held the highest, the vowels thus produced are back vowels such as [u:][u] Openness of mouthRounded or unrounded lipsrounded vowels: All the back vowels in English are rounded except [ɑ:].unrounded vowels: All the front vowels and central vowels in English are unrounded.Length of the vowellong vowels: They are usually marked with a colon such as [i:] and [ɑ:]short vowels: other vowels in English are short vowels such as [e], [ə] and [æ].monophthongs: individual vowelsdiphthongs: produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. (集中/合口)2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsWhat does English phonetics deal with?English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how these sounds are produced and how they are described and classified.What does English phonology deal with?English phonology investigates the sound system of English. Different from English phonetics, English phonology is not interested in the actual production of English sounds, but in the abstract aspects:A. the function of sounds--- whether a sound can differentiate the meanings of wordsB. their patterns of combination--- how sounds are combined to form a permissible sound sequence⏹Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approachand focus.⏹Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims toanswer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used toconvey meaning in linguistic communication.(Speaker‟s mind--- Mouth--- Ear--- Listener‟s mind)2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhoneme: minimal distinctive unit in sound system of a language; a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit; not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment; the realization of phoneme in general. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‟t. For example, in the words feel[fi:ł], leaf[li:f], tar[t h a:], star[sta:],there are altogether 7 phones: [f],[i:],[ł], [l], [t h]. [t], [a:], but [ł] and[l] do not distinguish meaning, [t h] and [t] do not distinguish meaning as well.Allomophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme; realizations of a particular phoneme.2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they‟re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin → /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe → /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution:two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.E.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.E. g. mail vs. nail beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat2.3.4 Some rules in phonology2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.⏹If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.⏹If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey thefollowing three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, screama) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.⏹The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ]are not to be followed by anothersibilants.2.3.4.2 Assimilation ruleAssimilation: articulatory adaptation of one sound to a nearby sound with regard to one or more features.Nasalization: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/[-nasal]→ [+nasal]/_______ [+nasal]Dentalization: /ð/, /θ/[-dental]→[+dental]/______[+dental]V elarizatio n: /k/, /g/, / ŋ/: Word-final /n/ becomes velar before velar plosives/k, g/: ten cups; ten girls[-velar]→ [+ velar]/______[+velar]2.3.4.3 Deletion ruleDeletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音2.3.5 Suprasegmental features--- stress, tone, intonationsegmental features（切分特征）--- the distinctive features which can only have an effect on one sound segment are called segmental features.Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that involve more than single sound segments (larger than phoneme)2.3.5.1 StressWord stress⏹The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part ofspeech of a word:verb: im‟port; in‟crease; re‟bel; re‟cord …noun: …import; …increase; …rebel; …record …⏹Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the sameelements:compound: …blackbird; …greenhouse; …hotdog…noun phrase: black …bird; green …house; hot …dog…⏹The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms andnouns:modifier: …dining-room; …reading room; …sleeping bag…doer: sleeping …baby; swimming …fish; flying …plane…Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.2.3.5.2 T oneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.⏹English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.ma 妈(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 马(the third rise)ma 骂(the fourth fall)2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used (first three types):falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the rise-fall toneHe is not ↘ there. What did you put in my ↗ drink, ↘ Jane?He is not ↗ there? What did you put in my ↘ drink, ↗ Jane?For instance,“That’s not the book he wants.”Ss exercise: Explain the meaning of the following words or phrases or sentences when marked with different stress or with different intonation.Assignments1. Ss complete the review questions during the classes.2. Ask students to do the exercises 1-10 on Page 30.。

新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第二章笔记和习题

新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第二章笔记和习题Chapter 2 PhonologyLanguage is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Phonetics----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Three branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”the production of speech sounds. It is of our major concern Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.the physical properties of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the three cavities?Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Transcription of speech soundsA standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ ], [ pit ] Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:Voicing---- voiced & voiceless (Two consonants sharing the same place and manner of articulation become a pair, which is distinguished by voiceless or voiced. )Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasalAspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: V owels and Consonants Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: The manner of articulationThe place of articulationThe manner of articulationstops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];fricatives: [ ], [v], [s], [z], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [h];affricates: [ ], [ ];liquids: [l](lateral), [ ];nasals: [ ], [ ], [ ];glides/semivowels: [w], [ ].The place of articulationbilabial: [p], [b], [ ], [w];labiodental: [ ], [v];dental: [ ], [ ];alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];palatal: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];velar: [k], [g], [ ];glottal: [h].The place of articulation1.Bilabial;biodental;3.Dental or interdental;4.Alveolar;5.Palatoalveolar;6.Palatal;7.Velar;8.Uvular;9.Glottal.The description of English consonants Page 20 (textbook)Classification of vowelsDifferent vowels are determined by the position of the tongue and the relative opening of the lips.The criteria of vowel description1.the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back2.the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open3.the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded4.the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧，松)Monophthongs or pure/single vowelsDiphthongs or gliding vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]central vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ];back vowels: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].According to the openness of the mouthClose: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].Semi-close: [ ], [ ];Semi-open: [ ], [ ];Open: [ ],[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip roundingrounded: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ];unrounded: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].According to the length of the vowels[ ]long: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ],short: [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].Diphthongs/gliding vowels[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ].Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had ladA velar consonant: nod god cod pod rodLabiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat patAn alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quickA palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zipA dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie ryeA glide: one war yolk rushUnderline the words that end with a sound as required:A fricativepay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave messageA nasaltrain bang leaf limbA stopdrill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tipAn affricate: rack such ridge boozeUnderline the words that contain the sound as required:A central vowel:mad lot but boot wordA front vowel:reed pad load fate bit bed cookA rounded vowel:who he bus her hit true boss bar walkA back vowel:paid reap fool top good fatherDescribe the underlined consonants according to threedimensions:vd/vl place mannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobberEitherPhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questionslike: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhoneA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ b t ] & [ b t ], [sp t] & [sp t].PhonemeA phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [p t], [t p] and [sp t].AllophoneAllophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g./b/ and /p/ in [ b t ] and [p t].Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts,e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pairMinimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonologySequential rulesAssimilation ruleDeletion ruleSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a p articular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.a) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.* [ ] never occurs in initial position in English and standard Chinese,but i t does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “牛肉，我，俄语……”Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in is pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:indiscreet alveolar [ n]inconceivable velar [ ]input bilabial [ ]Assimilation in Mandarin好啊hao wa海啊hai ya看啊kan na唱啊chang跳啊tiao wa……Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.Syllable (what is syllable?)Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, the CODA, e.g. [m n].The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowel. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”.Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme): Stress: word stress and sentence stressWord stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g.a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:verb: im port; in crease; re bel; re cord …noun: import; increase; rebel; record …Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:compound: blackbird; greenhouse; hotdog…noun phrase: black bird; green house; hot dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: modifier: dining-room; readingroom; sleepingbag…doer: sleeping baby; swimming fish; flying plane…Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.ToneTones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.ma 妈(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 马(the third rise)ma 骂(the fourth fall)IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)For instance,“That’s not the book he wants.”Grammatical functions of intonations----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into differen t int onation units, e.g. “John didn’t come because of Marry”Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John didn’t come.Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:“Those who bought quickly made a profit.”c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g.Jack came yesterday by train.d) Its attitudinal functions.Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement,downright assertion, commands.Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,pleading.Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.Summary:Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.These features are distinctive features.Stress◆Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.◆Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.◆If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.◆In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress isunpredictable.Intonation◆When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.◆Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.◆The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.◆In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.Tone◆Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.◆The same sequence of segments can be different words ifuttered with different tones.◆Ch inese is a typical tone language.●Discovering phonemesContrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vo wels represented by the English phoneticalphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds aredistinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones ofthe same phoneme.Free variation◆If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change ofmeaning, they are said to be in free variation.●Distinctive and non-distinctive featuresFeatures that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctivefeatures.Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.本章重点：Phonology is a major branch of linguistics. It is the study of the sound systems of languages and of the general properties of sound systems.The differences between phonetics and phonologyPhonetics is regarded as the linguistic study to identify and describe the characteristics of all the speech sounds that occur in all human languages, whereas phonology is the description of the sound systems and patterns of individual languages. Phonetics provides the means for phonological description. And in a sense, phonology is really the application of phonetics to the process of communication in a particular language or languages. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.listener’s mindPhonetics PhonologySounds of language functioning of sounds as part of a languageParole, speech act language, language systemUniversal language-specificConcrete abstractPhone [ ] phoneme / /Although both are related to the study of sounds, phonetics studies the production, transmission, and reception of sounds while phonology focuses on the linguistic patterns of speech sounds and how they are used to conveyA phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. The different phones representing a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called its allophones (音位变体)The definitions of phone, phoneme, allophone, minimal pair and free variation, theories on phoneme, phonemic contrast and complementary distribution, feature on phonetic similarity and distinction; assimilation rule, deletion rule, suprasegmetnal features (syllables, stress, tone, intonation, pitch, etc.)If you have two words which are with respect to sounds except for one sound, and the different sounds are at the same position, and the two words have different meanings, then you have a minimal pair.Phonetics-----the study of speech soundsPhonology-----the study of sounds systemsPhoneme vs. phone/ allophone/ phoneme/ ----------------------abstractActual sound/t/ ---------------------phonemePhoneTwo phones never occur in the same environment -------complementary distributionTwo phones can occur in the same environment-------free variationAlthough we generalize some rules for word stress, it should be born in mind that sometimes the exceptions may well make one give up the ideal of rules.Exercises:plementary distribution2.what is articulatory phonetics, explain the primacy of speech over writing,3.divide the following words into morphemes. For each morpheme, identify the type (lexical or grammatical, free or bound, prefix or suffix, inflectional or derivational), where applicable.1)restate2)strongest4.what is illustrated with the following pronunciations?1)cap [kap] can2)tent, tenthanswer: 1) restate={re}+{state}{re}=grammatical, bound, prefix,derivational{state}=lexical, free3)strongest={strong}+{SUP}{strong}=lexical, free{SUP}=grammatical, bound, suffix, inflectional1)nasalization 2) dentalizationthey are examples of regressive assimilation (逆同化)Page 60 by Hu5.the phrase French literature teacher constitutes a case of lexical ambiguity6.syntax is made up of one morpheme.7.artificial satellite is a case of loanblending. (P102 by Hu)8. a single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, so they are identical9.derivational affixes often change the lexical meaningFFFFT10.for each of the following words transcribe phonetically and account for the allomorphs of the past tensemorpheme: waited, waved, waded, wiped11.illustrate assimilation with two examples.12.describe the initial sounds of the following words: toe, chin, thank, goat, moon13.what are the terms used to describe the word-formation processes of the following words?Vaseline, carelessness, football, car-phone, AIDSAnswers: 10. /id/ (/d/ would merge with another alveolar plosive if not separated by a vowel)/d/ (voiced /v/ is followed by voiced /d/)/t/ ( voiceless /p/ is followed by voiceless /t/)11. assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sounds12. voiceless alveolar stop, voiceless palato-alveolar stop, voiceless dental fricative, voiced velar stop, voiced bilabial nasal.13. invention, derivation, compounding, clipping and compounding, acronym14. the phonology or pronunciation of a specific regional dialect is called_____15. ___________is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds16. phones which never occur in the same phoneticenvironment are said to be in_____17. A bound grammatical morpheme is called_____18. the word formation process, _______is exemplified by the word “brunch”19. the IPA chart contains a set of _____ for the purpose of transcribing the minute difference between variations of the same soundAccent, acoustic phonetics, complementary distribution, inflectional morpheme, blending, diacritics20. compare the two terms: morpheme and allomorph, distinctive features and semantic featuresA phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. On the analogy of distinctive features in phonology, some linguists suggest that there are semantic features. The meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.21. give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds: [l], [v], [e], [u:][l] voiced alveolar lateral; [v] voiced labiodental fricative; [e] central front lax ungrounded vowel; [u:] high back tense rounded vowel22. Is stress a phonological property? Why?Stress is one of suprasegmental features which are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress plays the meaning-distinctive role.23. Affricates consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation24. the assimilation rule doesn’t account for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations25. prefixes not only modify the meaning of a stem but also change the part of speech of the original wordT F F26. in what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes27. what kind of evidence could be used to argue that action and package each contain two morphemes: {act}+ {ion} and {pack}+ {age}?(hint: a morpheme can appear independently in other words.) Answers: {act} occurs in act, actor, active, react{ion} occurs in construction, projection,, inflection, rejection {pack} occurs in pack, packs, packed, packing, packer{age} occurs in wreckage, baggage, breakage28. a(n)_____ is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity29. in the production of _____sounds, such as [p], the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction.30. ______is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound.31. all syllables must have a ____ but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. ( 核心，节首辅音，结尾音节)（page 69 by Hu）Root, bilabial, assimilation, nucleus32. compare phonology and phonetics.33. account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost, boast mostthe words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter. Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, /b/ being bilabial, /m/ being nasal.34. what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and whyWhat are three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differWhat criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptionsGive the phonetic features of each of the following sounds What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language? Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Supplementary ExercisesChapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True orFalse:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speakerissues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results ina change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur。

新编简明英语语言学(第二版)学习笔记

1、 Linguistics studies languages in general, but nit any particular language ,eg .English,Chinese,Arabic,and Latin,etc.2、 By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.3、 Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.4、The meaning of the word “seal” in the sentence “the seal could not be found” cannot be determined unless the context in which the sentence occurs is restored.5、 An lnnatist view of language acquisition holds that human beings are biologically programmedfor language.6、 The same word may stir up different association in people under different cultural background.7、 A child who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four can learnthe new language without the trace of an accent,8、Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.9、Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principle and theories to language teaching and learning.10、A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element, and the second element receives secondary stress.11、All the affixes belong to bound morphemes.12、A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word.13、When a child acquires his mother tongue, he also acquires a language-specific cultureand becomes socialized in certain way.14、Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.15、Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme16、The meaning of an utterance is ,in a sense, richer than the meaning of the sentence from which it is derived.17、People in the west tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and they tend to accept thanks and compliments more than we Chinese do.18、Auditory phonetics studies the perception of sound s by the human ear.19、Synonymy and polysemy are relations between form and meaning.20、People in the West tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that they tend to accept thanks and compliments more than we Chinese.21、A broad transcription is used generally in dictionaries and language textbooks.22、The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.23、Strictly speaking, according to F.palmer, there are no real synonyms and no two words have exactly the same meaning.24、The standard dialect is not related to any particular group of language users.25、A children who enters a foreign language speech community by the age of three or four learns the new language without the trace of an accent.26、One learns his first language directly from relity.1.Modern linguistics regards the written language as the natural or primary medium of human language.2.In narrow transcription, we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols only while in broad transcription we transcribe the speech sounds with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.3.Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.4.According to co-operative principle, the conversational participants have to strictly observe the four maxims, so that the conversation can go on successfully.5.In communication it will never be the case that what is grammatical is not acceptable, and what is ungrammatical may not be inappropriate.6.Since there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, language is absolutely arbitrary.7.Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back according to the manner of articulation.8.Accoring to the innatist view of language acquisition, only when the language is modified and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do they process and internalize the language items.9.According to Austin, the performative utterance is used to perform an action, it also has truth value.10,Children can learn their native language well whenever they start and whatever kinds of language samples they receive.11.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense.12.We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.13.More than often we use bound morpheme alone.14.Human children everywhere develop a language with instruction, unless they suffer from extreme mental deficiency.15.The first language is acquired consciously.16.All vowels in English are voiceless.17.The inflectional morphemes are morphemes which add lexical meaning to the words they are attached.18.According to semantic theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.19.In acquiring their first language. children always concentrate on structure.20.Children must have parents to instruct them in order to learn to speak.第一章语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of study of language.语音学phonetics:it studies of sounds used in linguistic communication音位学phonology:it studies how sounds are put together and used to conveymeaning in communication语言学内部形态学morphology:it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds 的主要分支are arranged and combined to form words句法学syntax:it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to fromgrammatically permissible sentences in languages.语义学semantics:it studies meaning conveyed by language.语用学pragmatics:it studies the meaning in the context of language use.社会语言学sociolinguistics:The studies of all these social aspects of language and itsrelation with society form the core of the branch call sociolinguistics. 跨学科分支心理语言学psycholinguistics:relates the study of language to psychology.应用语言学applied linguistics:The study of such applications is generally known asApplied linguistics.规定性与描写性Prescriptive & DescriptivePrescriptive:If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use.Descriptive:If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language.共时性与历时性Synchronic & DiachronicSynchronic:The description of a language at some point of time in history is asynchronic study.Diachronic:The description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic study.言语与文字Speech & Writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. 语言学中的一些重要语言与语言Langue & Parole区分Langue:refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole:refers to the realization of language in actual ues.语言能力与语言运用Competence & PerformanceCompetence:is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance:is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.传统语法与现代语言学Traditional grammar & Modern linguisticsThe different between Traditional grammar and Modern linguistics1.Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive2. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written.3. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it 语言的识别from any animal system of communication.的特征作者：Charles Hockett (查尔斯·霍凯特)（1）Arbitrariness:It means that there is no logical connection between meaningsand sounds（2）Productivity:Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.（3）Duality:Linguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels（4）Displacement:Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker.（5）Cultural transmission:While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but insteadhave to be taught and learned.语言的功能Three main functions are often recognized of language:(1) The descriptive function,also referred to differently as the cognitive,or referential,orpropositional ,is assumed to be the primary function of language.Eg.The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.(2) The expressive function, supplies information about the user’sfellings.preformances,prejudices ,and values.Eg.I will never go camping with Mike again.(3) The social function,also referred to as the interpersonal funcation,seves to establishand maintain social relations between people.Eg.How can I help you,sir?There are six elements of a speech event specified by Jakobson are:Addresser,Addressee,Context,Message,Contact,Code.They are associated with six basic functions of language as shown below:(1)Addresser---EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.Eg.I hate whatever they are planning for me.(2)Addressee---ConativeThe addressee aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking.Eg.Why not go and see another doctor?(3)Context---ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Eg.As far as I know,(4)Message---PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty oflanguage itself. Eg.poetry.(5)Contact---Phatic communionThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with theaddressee.Eg.Hi.How are you this morning?(6)Code---Metalinguistic’s experience of the real or第二章语音学的定义:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Three branches of phonetics articulatory phonetics语音学分支：auditory phoneticsacoustic phoneticsThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas:Organs of speech: pharyngeal cavity----the throatOral cavity---the mouthNasal cavity---the noseOrthographic representation of speech sounds:Broad transcription:The transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription.Narrow transcription:The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics iscall narrow transcriptionThe speech sounds in English into two broad categories: Vowels and Consonants音素phone:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.音位phoneme:A phoneme is a phonological unit.it is a unit that is of distinctive value.音位变体allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.音位对立phonemic contrast:[pit]和[bit]，[rəup]和[rəub] 中的/p/./b/互补分布complementary distribution:清晰的舌边音[ l ],模糊舌边音[ㄨ]最小对立体minimal pair:pill&bill,除了词首的辅音外形式完全相同序列规则Sequential rules：This indicates that there are rules that governthe combination of sound in a particular language.Some rules in phonology 同化规则Assimilation rules:This assimilation rule assimilates one soundto another by “copying” a sequential phoneme,thus making thetwo phones similar.省略规则Deletion rule:Another phonological rule is the deletion rule.Ittells us when a sound is to be deleted although it isorthographically represented.Suprasegmental features---The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments arecalled suprasemental features;these are the phonological properties ofsuch units as the syllable ,the word,and the sentence.(1) Stress:(2) Tone: are pitch variations, which are called by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords(3) Intonation:When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they are collectively known as intonation.第三章形态学morphology：refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.Open class word: nouns,verbs,adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary.They are content words of a language.Closed class word:conj,perp.art and pron consist of the “grammatical” and “functional” words.free morpheme: A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morphemebound morpheme: A morpheme must attached to another one is a bound morpheme.Allomorphs定义:The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.（The allomorphic variation involves different pronunciations of the plural morpheme –s.）–ic are thus called derivational morphemes.morphological rules: un + accept + able]Derivation定义：is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.Compounds复合词：Syntax定义：is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentencs.Categories范畴：refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfil the name or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.句法范畴syntactic categories: A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Here word level categories are divided into Two kinds:1) major lexical categories 2)minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s category,three criteria are usually employed:1)Namely, 2)meaning 3)inflection and distributionPhrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following element:1)head 2)specifier 3)complementThe word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiersThe words on the right side of the heads are complements.Phrase structure rule:Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.(specifier)X(complement)X*Con XPhrase elements1.specifiersplements3.modifiersSentencDes Transformations Auxiliary movement Do insertionDeep structure: The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub categorizationproperties, is called deep structure.(D-structure)Surface structure: The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which语义学的定义：1. The naming theorySome views concerning 2.The conceptualist viewthe study of meaning 3.Contextualism关于意义研究的一些观点 4.BehaviorismSense :is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form.Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic word of experience.,1.dialectal synonyms2.Stylistic synonymsSynonymy .3.emotive or evaluative meaning4.Collocational synonyms5.Semantically different synonymsPolysemy: While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.1.homophoneHomonymy 2.homographsplete homonyms1.superodinateHyponymy 2.hyponyms3.co-hyponyms1.Gradable antonymsAntonymy plementary antonyms3.relational opposites1.X与Y同义X is synonymous with Y句子之间的关系 2.X与Y不一致X is inconsistent with Y3.X预设Y X presupposes Y（Y是X的先决条件）Y is a prerequisite of X4.X自我矛盾X is a contradiction5.X语义反常X is semantically anomalous1.成分分析法Componential analysis-----is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyzeword meaning,意义分析 2.述谓结构分析法Predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning.Pragmatics定义：A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication,Context定义：It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer,Austin’s model of speech acts(论述)Eg.You have left the door wide open.1.Locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words“you”,have”,”door”,”open”,etc.thus expressing what the words literally mean,2.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking,i,e.asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.3.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real word he has intended to ,then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.Searle’s classification of speech acts(赛尔对言语行为的分类)The five types of illocutionary acts are:1.阐述类representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.2.指令类directive: trying to get the hearer to do something.3.承诺类commissive: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4.表达类expressive: expressing feeling or attitude towards an existing state.5.宣告类declaration: bring about immediate changes by saying something.(新内容-论述)Searle’s indirect speech actAccording to Searle,when a speaker is using indirect language,he is performing two speech acts simultaneously;One is the primary speech cat and the other is the secondary speech act.The primary speech act is the speaker’s goal of communication.The secondary speech act is the means by which he achieves his goal.The example provided by Searle to illustrate his idea is the following brief exchange between two students:Student X:Let’s go to the movies tonightStudent Y:I have to study for an examObviously, by saying“I have to study for an exam “student Y is saying ‘NO’ to student X’s suggestion to go to the movies. According to Searle’s indirect speech act theory. The primary speech act student Y performs with his utterance is the act of rejecting student X’s suggestion and the secondary speech act he performs is the act of making a statement about the fact that he has to study for an exam. So the relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.The four maxims of the CP:1) the maxim of quantity2) the maxim of qyalityWhat is CP?In Grice’s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP.（新内容）Pragmatic failure语用失误Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication. Pragmatics failure may occur inintra-cultural background.Pragmatics is assumed to have two dimensions:Pragmalinguistics: is applied to the more linguistic and of pragmatics. i, e. how the linguistic forms of a language are used to serve specific pragmatic purposes.Sociopragmatics：is the sociological interface of pragmatics; it is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose.第七章Historical linguistics: as a branch of linguistic, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.Morphological and syntactic change1)Addition of affixesFusion: refers to this type of grammaticalization in which words develop into affixes,either prefixes or suffixes.2) Loss of affixes3) Change of word order4) Change in negation ruleAddition of new words(要记例子)P981.创新词Coinage: A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects.2.缩写词Clipped words: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.3.紧缩词Blending:A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4.词首字母缩略词Acronyms: are words derived from the initials of several words.5.逆词构法Back-formation：New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting ”an affix thought to be part of the old word.6.功能转换Functional shift: Word may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, which is also called conversion.7.借用Borrowing: When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another.Semantic changes1. Semantic broadening2. Semantic narrowing3. Semantic shift第八章(定义)Sociolinguistics is the subfield of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society,between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.(言语社区)speech community : the social group that singled out for any special study is called the speech community.(言语变体)speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.(地域方言)a regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.(个人言语)idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.(语域)register: Thy type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:Field of discourse: refers to what is going on,Tenor of discourse: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question.Mode of discourse: refers to the means of communication.(标准方言)The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language.(洋泾浜语)Pidgin: is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.(克里奥耳语)Creole: When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to that become a creole.(双语现象)Bilingualism: It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.第九章Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that Characterizes the life of the human community.Culture, in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis(SWH): Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way the categorize their experiences.This interdependence of language and thought is now knows as Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.The hypothesis is now interpreted mainly in two different ways:A strong version and a weak one.While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior, the weak on holds that the former influence the later.Contacts: between peoples with different cultures usually lead to change in one or both systems. Traditionally, three forms of culture contact are indentified:1)acculturation: is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when on group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.2)assimilation: is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society---not always completely.3)amalgamation: occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by another.(文化重叠)Cultural overlap: between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.(文化传播)Cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about culture diffusion, which has been shaped gradually and unceasingly,(语言帝国主义)Linguistic imperialism: is a kind of linguicism which can be defined sa the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.(跨文化交际)Intercultural communication: also known as cross—cultural communication, is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.第十章(语言习得)Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.儿童语言习得理论（theories of child language acquisition）1)the behaviorist view行为主义者观Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.2)the innatist view天赋主义者观The linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.3)the interactionist view互动主义者观The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and environment in which the child develops.Critical period Hypothesis(CPH)Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time---a specific and limited time period for language acquisition---which is refered to as the Critical Period Hypothesis.(外延缩小)Under-extension: Children do not learn the meaning of a word “all at once”. When a child learns a new word, he may well under-extend it or overextend it.(过度延伸)Over-extension: Overextension happens when a children takes a property of a object and generalizes it. It is likely to occur later rather than immediately following the acquisition of a word.(听力损伤)Hearing impairment:which can be slight or severe and may lead to minor loss or total lack of language.(智力障碍)Mental retardation：which may cause a delayed language acquisition(自闭症)Autism: language impairment from the very beginning(口吃)Stuttering:repetition of sound, syllables, or phrases where the speaker can not “release” the words.(失语症)Aphasia: partial or total loss of language due to brain damage第十一章Second Language Acquisition(SLA)第二语言习得Formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s,refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.(错误分析)Error analysis involves, first independently or objectively, describing the learner’s interlanguage.(that is, their version of the target language and the target language itself),then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches)(中介语)Interlanguage：is defined as an abstract system of learner’s target language system, it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones,.(过渡概括)Overgeneralization: is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situation.第十二章(神经语言学)Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between brain and language.(心理语言学)Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing.。

(NEW)戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

目　录第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记1.2　课后习题详解1.3　考研真题与典型题详解第2章　音位学2.1　复习笔记2.2　课后习题详解2.3　考研真题与典型题详解第3章　形态学3.1　复习笔记3.2　课后习题详解3.3　考研真题与典型题详解第4章　句法学4.1　复习笔记4.2　课后习题详解4.3　考研真题与典型题详解第5章　语义学5.1　复习笔记5.2　课后习题详解5.3　考研真题与典型题详解第6章　语用学6.1　复习笔记6.2　课后习题详解6.3　考研真题与典型题详解第7章　语言变化7.1　复习笔记7.2　课后习题详解7.3　考研真题与典型题详解第8章　语言与社会8.1　复习笔记8.2　课后习题详解8.3　考研真题与典型题详解第9章　语言与文化9.1　复习笔记9.2　课后习题详解9.3　考研真题与典型题详解第10章　语言习得10.1　复习笔记10.2　课后习题详解10.3　考研真题与典型题详解第11章　第二语言习得11.1　复习笔记11.2　课后习题详解11.3　考研真题与典型题详解第12章　语言与大脑12.1　复习笔记12.2　课后习题详解12.3　考研真题与典型题详解第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

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Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period oftime.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langueThe abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语paroleThe realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

提出了语言的识别特征design features3.the word ’language’ preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。

最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。

三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in theA typical example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。

traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language.传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。

4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? whyModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。

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