应用语言学入门 Norbert Schmitt
词块理论在商务英语专业课程学习中应用
词块理论在商务英语专业课程学习中的应用词块是介于语法和词汇之间，整体习得并储存在记忆中的人类语言交际的最小单位，是构成语言的基础。
词块理论应用在商务英语各专业课程的学习中具有较强的有效性和可实施性。
本文拟以lewis 的词块理论为基础，探讨商务英语词块的特点及其在商务英语专业课程教学中的应用。
商务英语词汇词块理论词块特点专业教学近年来，商务英语随着国际经济活动的增多，在各种领域使用的愈来愈频繁。
从其类别来看，商务英语隶属于专门用途英语类，最大的特点是有自身的一套专业词汇和固定表达。
熟练掌握商务英语常用词汇及表达是学好商务英语各专业课程不可或缺的一大环节。
只有对词汇、常用表达有了很好的掌握，也才能将商务英语自如地应用到工作中。
目前，全国国际商务专业人员职业资格考试从业资格英语考试规定：考生认知词汇应达到5000 个以上，掌握运用的词汇和词组（包括国际商务词汇术语）应达到2500个以上。
这是初步在专业领域内使用英语进行有效沟通需具备的最基本的词汇量。
因此，有效地让商务英语专业的学生掌握专业英语词汇及相关表达是授课教师在专业教学中的一项主要任务。
一、商务英语专业课程学习存在的问题目前国内各院校商务英语专业主要的专业课程通常为：商务英语、工商导论、国际贸易实务、商务英语谈判、翻译、商务英语信函、写作等课。
在这些课程的学习中，由于教材全为英文编写，学生会碰到大量相关的专业词汇、术语需要记忆、理解和使用。
很多基础不好的学生在学习时困难很大，一些以前学过的词在新的环境中有了新的含义，让他们常常觉得混淆不清。
一些新增的词汇又太长、太难，总是记不住。
除此之外，长而复杂的句子、固定表达频频出现。
这些都增加了学生对于上下文理解的难度，专业课程的学习倍感吃力。
通过长期的教学观察，笔者认为，要解决学生面临的问题，授课教师首先应该从词汇及固定表达方面入手，让学生对商务英语的专业词汇、专业表达有了清晰而深刻的认识，接下来的其他问题才可迎刃而解。
世界图书出版公司北京公司语言学电子版书目-中国出版集团公
西方语言学与应用语言学视野～～系列丛书～～第一系列：第二语言习得前沿书系书名：第二语言习得的语言学视角原书名: Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language AcquisitionSusan M. Gass, Jacquelyn Schachter原出版社：Cambridge University Press书号：7-5062-8214-3简介：本书是一部从语言学角度阐述二语习得问题的经典文集，所选文章展示了不同的语言学理论，注重二语习得与语言学理论之间的潜在关系，是研习二语习得的必读书，适合二语习得以及语言学领域的研究者阅读。
书名：探索第二语言心理词汇原书名:Exploring the Second Language Mental LexiconDavid Singleton原出版社：Cambridge University Press书号：978-7-5062-8212-3定价：简介：本书是一本深入研究二语心理词汇的专著，研究主要集中于第一语言心理词汇和第二语言心理词汇的关系上。
本书内容充实，文献综述与实证研究结合，引证前人观点与作者批判分析结合，适合语言学专业和心理学专业的研究生、学者、教师以及其他对词汇习得感兴趣的读者阅读。
书名：第二语言阅读研究的交互模式原书名:Interactive Approaches to Second Language ReadingPatricia L. Carroll et al.原出版社：Cambridge University Press书号：978-7-5062-8217-8定价：26.00简介：本文集所选文章都出自阅读研究领域中知名学者之手。
可使读者了解第二语言阅读模式的研究概貌和开展轨迹。
对从事阅读教学的外语教师以及从事外语阅读教学大纲设计和教材编写的专业人士具有重要的参考价值。
书名：第二语言习得论著选读原书名: Readings on Second Language AcquisitionH. Douglas Brown, Susan T. Gonzo原出版社：Pearson Education Inc.书号：7-5062-8245-3简介：本书为课堂语言教学提供了一批原始的、有代表性的论著，使读者能看到学术研究的原貌,并且为每一篇入选文章提供了研究和思考的指导意见，以提高读者理解和评价研究成果的能力。
语块教学法在西班牙语本科教学中的应用
语块教学法在西班牙语本科教学中的应用词汇作为语言三要素之一，是外语教学中的重要环节。
学生的词汇水平会直接影响其在听力、阅读等环节中对语篇的理解和口语表达的流利性。
对吉林师范大学西班牙语专业本科二、三年级80名学生所做的调查问卷结果显示，在关于“你认为在外语学习过程中最大的学习障碍是什么？”这一问题的回答中，有33名同学的答案主要集中在词汇量不足或无法熟练掌握词汇用法等词汇相关问题上，占比41.3%。
由此可见，词汇已经成为西班牙语本科生在语言学习中面临的重要问题。
受传统教学法影响，国内现阶段外语教学中仍存在对语法和词汇进行割裂的分项教学模式，课程的讲授被划分为课文、词汇、语法和练习等部分，学生则将语法视为二语习得的核心内容，尝试使用语法将单词连接起来以构成句子。
语言学家Michael Lewis（1993）提出：“语言是语法化的词汇，而非词汇化的语法”[1]。
这既说明了在语言学习中占主体地位的应该是词汇而非语法，同时又表明两者之间并非对立关系，而是存在紧密联系。
词汇承担着表明语义的核心作用，语法则对词汇的使用起到规范和限定的次要作用。
这意味着在外语教学中应当将更多的时间用于引导和帮助学习者扩大词汇量。
1 语块的定义和语块教学法的优势1.1 语块的定义Lewis作为语块教学法创始人之一，在其语言学著作The Lexical Approach一书中首先提出了“语块”和“语块教学法”的概念。
他认为词是语言学习的核心，这里的词既包含单词，也包含词组短语，这便构成了语块（亦译为“词块”，英语：lexical chunks，西班牙语：el enfoque léxico）的概念。
在此书中，Lewis根据句法功能将语块分为以下四类：单词和聚合词：单词即传统意义上的词汇，如palabra,paraguas,paracaída,correveidile等不可变化、不可分割的词块；搭配词：如ganar el premio,ir a trabajar,ver al médico等在使用中共同出现的频率较高的词语搭配，其中以动名词搭配结构最为常见；结构性短语：如no…sino…,es verdad que…,es imposible que…存在于书面语和口语中，且可能是连续性或非连续性的短语。
应用语言学简介ppt课件
为深入学习习近平新时代中国特色社 会主义 思想和 党的十 九大精 神,贯彻 全国教 育大会 精神,充 分发挥 中小学 图书室 育人功 能
in the 1940s In 1946, the University of Michigan founded the English
Language Institute. Under the guidance of Charles C. Fries and Robert Lado, people there studied problems of teaching English to foreigners. They published the famous journal Language Learning, subtitled Journal of Applied Linguistics（1949）. It was the first journal in the world to have the term ― applied linguistics in its title.
为深入学习习近平新时代中国特色社 会主义 思想和 党的十 九大精 神,贯彻 全国教 育大会 精神,充 分发挥 中小学 图书室 育人功 能
in the 1960s Generally speaking, people thought the mid-1960s
was the developing period of applied linguistics. In 1964, the first world conference of Applied Linguistics was held in Nancy, France, and the International Association of Applied Linguistics was set up. This marked the recognition of the status of applied linguistics as an independent discipline.
research methods in applied linguistics文秋芳
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Applied linguistics (History)
• 1950s
– Language Learning: A Journal of Applied Linguistics" published from the University of Michigan in 1948. – Concerned itself with principles and practices on the Language Learning: a journal of research in basis of linguistics.
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Major branches of AL
Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, computermediated communication (CMC), conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, lexicography, language planning and policies, pragmatics, forensic linguistics, and translation.
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Applied linguistics
• Applied linguistics and methodology
– Contrastive linguistics and Error analysis – Language evaluation, Assessment and Testing – Educational technology and language learning – Multimodality in discourse and text – Lexicography and lexicology
情态
[6]Leech, Geoffrey.Semantics: The Study of Meaning[M].England: Penguin Books, 1981.
（四）语言哲学的研究
西方语言哲学家对语言的关注体现在句法、语义学、隐喻、言语行为等，而对于情态的关注还很少。
二国内研究现状
对于传统语法中的情态意义研究，国内相关研究主要体现为对国外理论的引进和诠释。传统语法的情态研究可见于任何一种语法教科书，大家也比较熟悉，因此不再赘述。下面，主要介绍系统功能语言学和语言哲学的情况。
（二）批评语言学的研究
在近年来的批评话语分析中，人们提出多模态话语分析。朱永生在《外语学刊》发表的《多模态话语分析的理论基础与研究方法》就是典型代表。概括起来说，批评话语分析的情态观认为，话语在多种模态的作用下形成。不过，这种研究才刚刚开始，距离形成自己的特点还有相当距离。
（三）语言哲学的研究
在谈到语言哲学的研究之前，我们先来介绍一下哲学方面关于情态的研究情况。StephenkMeleod在2001年出版了Modality and AntiMetaphysics(《情态与反形而上学》)。他从哲学角度研究情态，谈到情态中的现实主义、反现实主义等内容。作者在书中支持形而上学，反对逻辑实证主义，支持客观非逻辑的必要性和可能性，反对经验主义者所持的观点。他认为观念是可以理解的，同意存在基于本体论的情态的看法。
（二）系统功能语法对情态的研究
随着现代语言学的发展，特别是系统功能语法的形成和发展，为我们提供了一套可行的情态分析模式。系统功能语法认为，情态包含4个子系统：类别( type)、取向(orientation)、量值(value)、归向(polarity)。在类别上，情态分为情态化(modalization)和意态化(modulation)。Halliday扩大了情态的研究范围，增加了情态的表达方式。在2004年第三版的《系统功能语法引论》中，Halliday谈到情态评价，但是没有像马丁那样明确地提出“介入”。此外，比较有代表性的学者及其研究还有：Thompson提出我们应该将注意力集中到情态领域，因为情态可以帮助我们进行语篇分析，同时他以小说和短篇语料进行情态分析。Fowler指出，批评语篇分析应该注意及物性和情态。David Hodge通过对情态的分析看到权利和知识的关系。得出了这样的结论，分析言语的情态部分能够使我们敏锐地捕捉到说话人对言语的态度。韦伯侧重分析小说中人物的情态和意识的关系，并表明，情态的分析能够更清楚地看到叙事者所表明的意识形态和他所暗含的意识形态之间的张力。McCarthy也曾把情态看做是话语产生的一个基本条件，所有的信息都选择一定程度的情态，哪怕是中性的直陈也是一种选择。可见，研究情态意义是很有价值的。
应用语言学复习资料
应用语言学复习资料注意：1. 另一个TERM 是silent way2. 对比关系是听说法和直接法3. 关系是应用语言学与语言学的关系ACT----active control of thoughtAILA/IAAL----international association of applied linguisticsAL----applied linguisticsALAA----applied linguistics association of AustraliaALANA----applied linguistics association of New ZealandALM----the audio-lingual methodASTP----the army specialized training programBAAL----British association of applied linguisticsBICS----basic interpersonal communicative skillsCA----contrastive analysisCAAL/ACLA----Canadian association of applied linguisticsCAGR----compound annual growth rateCAH----the contrastive analysis hypothesisCAL----critical applied linguisticsCALL----computer aided language learningCALP----cognitive/academic language proficiencyCDA----critical discourse analysisCDS----child-directed speakerCLL----community language learningCLT----communicative language teachingCP----co-operative principleCUP----Cambridge University PressESF----the European science foundationEUROSLA----European second language associationFLT----foreign language teachingFLA----first language acquisitionFSI----the Foreign Service institute‟sFUO-finite utterance organizationGCSE----general certificate of second educationGB----government and bindingGUFS----Guangdong University of foreign studiesICT----information and communication technologyIDC----international data corporationInJAL----international Journal of Applied LinguisticsIP----input processingIRAL----international review of applied linguistics in language teaching ISBU----interlanguage studies bulletinIUO----infinite utterance organizationLAD----language acquisition deviceMME----the micro-momentary expression testMLAT----modern language aptitude testNS----native speakerNNS----non-native speakerNUO----nominal utterance organizationOPI----oral proficiency interviewOUP----Oxford University PressPDP----parallel distributed processingPDAQ----the professed difference in attitude questionnaireSLA----second language acquisitionSLI-----special language impairmentSLL----second language learningSLR----second language researchS-R----stimulus-responseSSLA----studies in second language acquisitionTESOL-----teachers of English to speakers of other languageTG----transformational grammar/ transformational-generative grammarTL----theoretical languageTLU----target-like useTOEFL----theTest of English as a Foreign LanguageTRR----total physical responseU of C----University of CalgaryUCLA----university of California Los AngelesUG----universal grammarWCAL----world congress of applied linguisticsZPD----zone of proximal developmentMayes Briggs character types: E/I----extroversion-introversionS/N----sensing-intuitionT/F----thinking-feelingJ/P----judging-perceivingNP----noun-phrase VP----verb-phrase DP----determiner-phraseCP----complementizer phrase IP----infection phrase TP----tense phraseAgrP----agreement phrase PP----prepositional phraseTerms:Language----language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. / A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture. / A language is “a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements”. / Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols”.Language is an emotional subject: it belongs to everyone, so most people feel they have a right to hold an opinion about it. Languages are equal on having developed to express the needs of their users, all languages meet the social and psychological needs of their speakers. Language is magical, a mystery which, esp. in its written form, is thought to contain special powers, which only theinitiated are allowed to understand or control.Linguistics----it is the scientific study of human language in all its aspects, providing a methodology for exploring the structure of particular languages and investigates what is universal to all human languages; how languages are different, how language varies over time and between different societies, how language is learnt, and how language is used for human communication.Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language. This definition is well accepted because it succinctly pinpoints the objects and methods of linguistics as a discipline.Applied linguistics----it can be defined in a broad sense or in a narrow sense. Broadly speaking, applied linguistics covers more than the teaching and learning of languages. It includes speech pathology and therapy, translation, machine translation and language policy, etc.. In one word, it includes anything to which linguistics could be applied. Foreign and second language learning and teaching research is a central part of applied linguistics. So narrowly speaking, applied linguistics means the application of linguistics findings to language teaching and learning. It is concerned with approaches to language teachers, with language learning, with syllabus design, with materials development and with the assessment and testing of language learning, with the educational policy in general and language learning and teaching policy in particular of a country.Psycholinguistics----it is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics in abroad sense, but psycholinguistics has become an independent discipline through recent developments. Generally speaking, psycholinguistics studies language in relation to the properties of the human mind. As such it studies the relationship between linguistics behavior and psychological processes that are hypothesized to underlie such behavior. In other words, psycholinguistics studies the mental process that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and how humans learn language. There have beenQuestions:1. Why does the examination of social relationships play a crucial role in applied linguistics?1) The first reason is that in the partial move from linguistics applied to applied linguistics, it has been accepted that the social aspect is essential to all understanding of language in use, that in the specific case of language teaching all formal language learning must take account of the context in which that learning takes place and further-more that the context determines and affects that learning.2) The second reason is that there is noticeable now a loss of confidence in the techniques offered by Cordor and widely used in the 1960s and 1970s as general statements of how to proceed. When talking about the change of applied linguistics practice, Davies (1999) argues that it is a move from the linguistics applied to the applied linguistics models.2. The relation between applied linguistics and second language acquisition.Applied linguistics draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives o address real world issues and problems in which language is central. SLA draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives to address the specific issue of how people acquire a second language and eh specific problem of why everyone dose not do so successfully.3. The relationship between psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.Psycholinguistics can or should play a role in applied linguistics. The acquisition and use of a second language seem to be the appropriate chunk of applied linguistics in this context. Thepsycholinguistics interest would be in the processing mechanisms involved in using more than one language and the acquisition of additional languages. The applied linguistics interest would be in understanding why language learners behave the way they do. This interpretation means that multilingual processing can be defined as the intersection or shared by interest across psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.4. The relationship between applied linguistics and linguistics.Linguistics and applied linguistics is inherently a multidisciplinary study, drawing on methodologies and theories from many fields, including archaeology, psychology, anthropology, history, literature, philosophy, sociology, social theory, education, the mathematical sciences and computer science. Thus it has contributions to make to a range of study and professional practice areas. Applied linguistics is doing with the Internalized language, and linguistics is doing with the Externalized language. Applied linguistics is really still linguistics happening to be involved in application, which they may label as applied linguistics. Applied linguistics is just another area, part of linguistics. Linguistics differs from applied linguistics, for linguistics focuses on language, while applied linguistics focuses on language practice. Applied linguistics contains linguistics, applied linguistics and linguistics are automated entities, applied linguistics is part of linguistics.5. The relationship between language and applied linguistics.Applied linguistics maintains a close relationship to language. Language is part of applied linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, while applied linguistics is an approach to understanding language issues in the real world, and therefore applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.6. The sub-field of applied linguisticsApplied linguistics can cover a very large area, such as: language acquisition, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, ethno linguistics, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, text linguistics, etc.. All the sub-branches of linguistics could be called applied linguistics except the theoretical linguistics.Assessments:Assessment of grammar-translation or traditional methodIn spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made, the grammar translation or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. As we have already noted in our study of language learning, the first language as a reference system is indeed very important for the second language learner. Therefore, translation in one form or another, or other cross lingual techniques can play a certain part in language learning. Moreover, some learners endeavor to understand the grammatical system of the second language. Hence grammar teaching, too, may have some importance for them. Furthermore, thinking about formal features of the second language and translation as a practice technique put the learner into an active problem-solving situation. In the terms of the basic strategies already set out it forms part of the “academic”(explicit) learning strategy. Finally, grammar- translation appears didactically relatively easy to apply. The major defect of grammar-translation lies in the overemphasis on the language as a mass of rules (and exceptions) and in the limitations of practice techniques which never emancipate the learner from the dominance of the first language. In addition, the sheer size of the task of memorization and the lack of coherence with which the language facts have been presented to the learner invalidate the claim, made in the nineteenth century, that this method provides a safe, easy, and practical entry into a second language.Assessment of the direct methodThe direct method was the first of the methods in which the impetus came both from the inventiveness of a few practitioners and from the critical and theoretical thought about the nature of language learning situation one of language use and to train the learner to abandon the first language as the frame of reference. It demanded inventiveness on the part of teachers and led to the development of new non-translational techniques of language instruction. The use of a text as a basis of language learning, demonstrations of pictures and objects, the emphasis on question and answer, spoken narratives, dictation, imitation, and a host of new types of grammatical exercises have resulted from the direct method. Language pedagogy in the present century, for example, Palmer in the twenties and the audio-lingual and audiovisual methods in the fifties and sixties, adopted many of the techniques first developed by direct method teachers. On the L1-L2 issue, the direct method constitutes a radical attempt to exclude L1 in L2 learning.Two major problems have persistently troubled direct method teaching. One has been how to convey meaning without translating, and how to safeguard against misunderstanding without reference to the first language. Another has been how to apply the direct method beyond elementary stages of language learning. The direct method—has extended the repertoire of language instruction in the early stages of teaching, but has added relatively little to the teaching of advanced learners. In a way, particularly because of the insistence on the use of the second language in classroom communication, the direct method can legitimately be looked upon as a predecessor of present-day …immersion‟ techniques.Assessment of the audio-lingual methodIn the early sixties audiolingualism had raised hopes of ushering in a golden age of language learning. By the end of the decade it became the whipping boy for all that was wrong with language teaching. Its theoretical basis was found to be weak. But also in practical terms its hopes had not been fulfilled. Empirical research did not conclusively establish its superiority, and teachers, using audio-lingual materials and applying the audio-lingual method conscientiously, complained about the lack of effectiveness of the techniques in the long run and the boredom they engendered among students.In view of these criticisms, it is necessary to remind oneself of the major contributions of audiolingualism to language teaching. First, it was among the first theories to recommend the development of a language teaching theory on declared linguistic and psychological principles. Second, it attempted to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. In other words, this theory proposed that language teaching should be organized in such a way as not to demand great intellectual feats of abstract reasoning to learn a language. Third, it stressed syntactical progression, while previously methods had tended to be preoccupied with vocabulary and morphology. Fourth, it led to the development of simple techniques, without translation, of varied, graded, and intensive practice of specific features of the language. Last, it developed the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device. The audio-lingual method introduced specifically designed techniques of auditory and oral practice, while previously oral practice had been simply textbook exercises read aloud, and the sequencing of different language skills had not been treated consistently as pedagogically relevant.1. The oral approach and situational language teaching----Harild Palmer & A.S. Hornby, teacher‟s role is ________________2. The audio-lingual method----Bloomfield, teacher‟s role is the dominator of the whole process.3. Communicative language teaching----Noam Chomsky, the role is the facilitator, participator, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager.4. Total physical response----James Asher, the role is the instructor of the whole process.5. The silent way----Caleb Gattegno, the role is dramatist.6. Community language learning----Charles A., the role is the counselor.7. The natural way----Tracy Terrell, the role is the provider of the target language, the classroom atmosphere and the rich activities.8. Suggestopedia----Georgi Lozanov, the role is to create situations.Comparing TPR & CLL:Differences:1) At the level of design, TPR typically has a written syllabus with paced introduction of structures and vocabulary; CLL has no syllabus and operates out of what learners feel they need to know.2) At the level of teacher‟s role, in TPR the teachers‟role is one of drill master, director, and motivator; in CLL the teacher/knower is counselor, supporter, and facilitator.3) About the learners, in TPR learners are physically active and mobile; CLL learners are sedentary and in a fixed configuration4) About the relationship, TPR assumes no particular relationship among learners and emphasizes the importance of individuals acting alone; CLL is rooted in a communal relationship between learners and teachers acting supportively and in concert.5) At the level of procedure, TPR language practice is largely mechanical, with much emphasis on listening; CLL language practice if innovative, with emphasis on production.Similarities:1)In approach, both TPR and CLL see stress, defensiveness, and embarrassment as the majorblocks to successful language learning.2)They both see the learners‟commitment, attention, and group participating as central toovercoming these barriers.3)They both view the stages of adult language learning as recapitulations of the stages ofchildhood learning.4)Both CLL and TPR consider mediation, memory, and recall of linguistic elements to be centralissues.5)They both hold that learning is multimodal.6)At the level of design, both of them assumed that materials can be locally produced as needed.。
应用语言学概论(绪论)lesson
1 2
文化适应
指在跨文化交际中，逐渐适应新文化的过程。
文化休克
指在跨文化交际中，由于文化差异和语言障碍等 原因，导致的不适应、困惑甚至恐惧等心理状态。
3
应对策略
在跨文化交际中，应尊重对方的文化习俗，学习 并理解对方的语言和价值观，以促进有效的沟通 和交流。
06 总结与展望
应用语言学的未来发展趋势
应用语言学的应用领域
教育领域
应用语言学在语言教学、教材 编写、教师培训等方面发挥重
要作用。
翻译领域
应用语言学为翻译理论和实践 提供了语言学基础，提高翻译 质量和效率。
跨文化交际领域
应用语言学有助于促进不同文 化背景的人们之间的有效沟通 。
媒体与传播领域
应用语言学在新闻报道、广告 文案、公共关系等领域具有实
01
02
03
目标导向
语言教学应以教学目标为 导向，根据不同的教学目 的制定相应的教学计划和 内容。
实践性
语言教学应注重实践性， 通过大量的语言实践培养 学生的语言运用能力。
互动性
语言教学应注重师生互动、 生生互动，通过交流和合 作提高学生的语言交际能 力。
语言教学方法与实践
传统教学法
01
以教师为中心，注重语法和词汇知识的传授，常见于课堂教学。
应用语言学概论(绪论)PPT大纲
目录
• 绪论 • 语言与语言学的基本概念 • 应用语言学的研究内容与方法 • 语言学习与教学 • 语言与文化的关系 • 总结与展望
01 绪论
应用语言学的定义与重要性
01
基础概念
02
应用语言学是一门研究语言在各个领域中 实际应用的语言学分支。
03
vocabulary level test
/Language Testing/content/18/1/55The online version of this article can be found at: DOI: 10.1177/026553220101800103 2001 18: 55Language Testing Norbert Schmitt, Diane Schmitt and Caroline Clapham Vocabulary Levels Test Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Published by: can be found at:Language Testing Additional services and information for/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:/subscriptions Subscriptions:/journalsReprints.nav Reprints:/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions: /content/18/1/55.refs.html Citations:What is This? - Jan 1, 2001Version of Record >>Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels TestNorbert Schmitt University of Nottingham,Diane Schmitt Nottingham Trent Universityand Caroline Clapham University of LancasterThe Vocabulary Levels Test has been widely used in language assessment and vocabulary research despite never having been properly validated.This article reports on a study which uses a range of analysis techniques to present validity evidence,and to explore the equivalence of two revised and expanded versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test.I IntroductionVocabulary is an essential building block of language and,as such, it makes sense to be able to measure learners’knowledge of it.This is equally true whether we are interested in pedagogical assessment in classrooms or in language acquisition research.Given this,one might expect there to be an accepted vocabulary test available for these uses.Unfortunately,this is not the case.The closest thing the field has to such a vocabulary test is the Vocabulary Levels Test (Nation,1983,1990).Different versions have been employed in both assessment and research,but despite this widespread use this test has never been properly validated.This article aims to begin to address this shortcoming by describing an initial validation of two revised and expanded versions.The Vocabulary Levels Test is designed to give an estimate of vocabulary size for second language(L2)learners of general or aca-demic English.The rationale for the test stems from research which has shown that vocabulary size is directly related to the ability to use English in various ways.For example,knowledge of the most fre-quent2000words in English provides the bulk of the lexical resources required for basic everyday oral communication(Schonell et al., 1956).The next1000words provide additional material for spokenAddress for correspondence:Norbert Schmitt,Department of English Studies,University of Nottingham,Nottingham,NG72RD,UK;email:norbert.schmittȰLanguage Testing200118(1)55–880265-5322(01)LT197OA©2001Arnold56Two versions of the Vocabulary Levels Testdiscourse but,additionally,knowledge of around3000words is the threshold which should allow learners to begin to read authentic texts. Most research indicates that knowledge of the most frequent5000 words should provide enough vocabulary to enable learners to read authentic texts.Of course many words will still be unknown,but this level of knowledge should allow learners to infer the meaning of many of the novel words from context,and to understand most of the communicative content of the text.L2learners with a knowledge of the most frequent10000words in English can be considered to have a wide vocabulary,and Hazenberg and Hulstijn(1996)found that a vocabulary of this magnitude may be required to cope with the chal-lenges of university study in an L2.For L2learners of English who wish to engage in an English-medium academic environment,knowl-edge of the sub-technical vocabulary that occurs across a range of academic disciplines(academic vocabulary)is also necessary.(For an overview of vocabulary size research,see Nation and Waring,1997.) The Vocabulary Levels Test provides an estimate of vocabulary size at each of the above four frequency levels and also provides an estimate of the size of the examinees’academic vocabulary.This information can be utilized by teachers and administrators in a peda-gogical context to inform decisions concerning whether an examinee is likely to have the lexical resources necessary to cope with certain language tasks,such as reading authentic materials.The information can also be used to identify possible lexical deficiencies which might need addressing.Similarly,results from the Vocabulary Levels Test can be used in research studies where an estimate of lexical size at the relevant frequency levels is considered informative(e.g.,Cobb, 1997;Schmitt and Meara,1997;Laufer and Paribakht,1998).(An extended discussion of the implications of vocabulary size for vocabulary pedagogy is beyond the scope of this article;for details, see Coady and Huckin,1997;Schmitt and McCarthy,1997;Read, 2000;Schmitt,2000;and Nation,2001.)II History of the Vocabulary Levels TestThe Vocabulary Levels Test(‘Levels Test’for short)was originally designed by Paul Nation as a diagnostic vocabulary test for use by teachers.Itfirst appeared in1983and was later republished in his 1990book.Read(1988)did some initial validation work on the test,finding it to be reliable andfinding that subject scores on the different frequency levels tended to fall into an implicational scale(i.e.,know-ing lower-frequency words tended to imply knowing higher-fre-quency ones).However,this work was not followed up by any further studies.Despite this,the test began to be used internationally asNorbert Schmitt,Diane Schmitt and Caroline Clapham57 Nation’s book became increasingly used as a key vocabulary refer-ence source.In1993,while visiting the Victoria University of Wel-lington,the lead author of this article revised the Levels Test in Nation’s book(Version A)and wrote three additional versions (Versions B,C and D).However,at that time he was unable to run a validation study on them.Since then,these four versions,as well as the original version from Nation’s book,have been used in various institutions as an assessment tool(for examples,see Beglar and Hunt, 1999).They have also been used in a number of vocabulary research studies(e.g.,Cobb,1997;Schmitt and Meara,1997;Laufer and Pari-bakht,1998).Recently,Laufer and Nation(1999)created a pro-ductive Levels format,based on Versions A–D.The result is that the Levels Test has become widely used in vocabulary research and as a vocabulary test in situations where English for general or academic purposes is taught to speakers of other languages.Recently,there have been some preliminary moves to explore the validity of the test.Beglar and Hunt(1999)looked at and revised the (unattributed)2000and University Word List sections of Versions A–D(see below for a description of the test),and found that they were essentially measuring a single construct.Beglar and Hunt also reported that scores on their Levels sections correlated with TOEFL scores,and items within sections were strongly related to one another. (We come back to these issues below.)In addition,Kudo(personal communication)is attempting to validate a translated version of the test for the Japanese context.However,given that the Levels Test is being used globally in both assessment and research,a more substan-tial study of some of the test’s characteristics is required.The present study is based on the responses of learners of general or academic English from a number of different nationalities at a number of differ-ent test sites.Messick(1989)suggests that a demonstration of the validity of a test should include both logical argumentation and empirical evidence based on quantitative and qualitative data.The authors therefore administered versions of the Levels Test to801learners of English and explored the results via item analysis,profile analysis,factor analysis and an examination of these tests’reliability and equivalence. They also investigated the concurrent validity of the tests by correlat-ing the results with the results of an interview(see the section below on the interview with examinees).In addition to these quantitative procedures,more qualitative procedures were also employed:a num-ber of examinees were interviewed to discover what they thought of the tests.They were also asked retrospectively to report the steps they went through in answering the items.Taken together,we believe the results give at least initial evidence that the Levels Test provides58Two versions of the Vocabulary Levels Testaccurate estimates of the vocabulary size of students at the targeted frequency levels.III Design aspects of the Levels TestThe Levels Test derives its name from the fact that separate sections measure learners’knowledge of words from a number of distinct fre-quency levels.In this way,it can provide a profile of a learner’s vocabulary,rather than just a single-figure estimate of overall vocabu-lary size.As mentioned above,the levels addressed are the2000, 3000,5000and10000frequency levels.In addition,there is a section for academic vocabulary.(For a fuller description of the format,see Nation,1990.)The frequency counts used were ones commonly available in1993: Thorndike and Lorge(1944),Kucˇera and Francis(1967)and the Gen-eral Service List(GSL)(West,1953).Words were taken in a strati-fied sampling from the Thorndike and Lorge list,with reference to frequency data from Kucˇera and Francis and the GSL.The only exception to this is the2000section,where words from the1000 level and the2000level were sampled at a1:2ratio.(Thefirst thou-sand words of the GSL are usually those with a frequency higher than 332occurrences per5million words,plus months,days of the week, numbers,titles(Mr,Mrs,Miss,Ms,Mister),and frequent greetings (Hello,Hi etc).)The words in the Academic section were sampled from the University Word List(Xue and Nation,1984).(Because the University Word List was not yet available when Nation wrote the original Levels Test,the Academic section of the original test was sampled from Campion and Elley,1971.)Reflecting the distribution of these word classes in English,the words from the stratified sample tended to fall into a3(noun):2 (verb):1(adjective)ratio.This ratio was maintained in the test,with each section containing three noun clusters,two verb clusters and one adjective cluster.The following illustrates the format of a noun clus-ter:You must choose the right word to go with each meaning.Write the number of that word next to its meaning.1concrete2era circular shape3fiber top of a mountain4hip a long period of time5loop6summit[Note:the test is written with American English spellings,but test users are free to change these if they wish.]Norbert Schmitt,Diane Schmitt and Caroline Clapham59 Each cluster was written with the following considerations in mind:1)The options in this format are words instead of definitions.2)The definitions are kept short,so that there is a minimum ofreading,allowing for more items to be taken within a given per-iod of time.3)Words are learned incrementally,and tests should aim to tap intopartial lexical knowledge(Nagy et al.,1985).The Levels Test was designed to do this.The option words in each cluster are chosen so that they have very different meanings.Thus,even if learners have only a minimal impression of a target word’s mean-ing,they should be able to make the correct match.4)The clusters are designed to minimize aids to guessing.The tar-get words are in alphabetical order,and the definitions are in order of length.In addition,the target words to be defined were selected randomly.5)The words used in the definitions are always more frequent thanthe target words.The2000level words are defined with1000 level words and,wherever possible,the target words at other levels are defined with words from the GSL(essentially the2000 level)(for more details,see Nation,1990:264).This is obvi-ously important as it is necessary to ensure that the ability to demonstrate knowledge of the target words is not compromised by a lack of knowledge of the defining words.6)The word counts from which the target words were sampled typi-cally give base forms.However,derived forms are sometimes the most frequent members of a word family.Therefore,the fre-quency of the members of each target word family was checked, and the most frequent one attached to the test.In the case of derivatives,affixes up to and including Level5of Bauer and Nation’s(1993)hierarchy were allowed.7)As much as possible,target words in each cluster begin withdifferent letters and do not have similar orthographic forms.Likewise,similarities between the target words and words in their respective definitions were avoided whenever possible.IV Issues in vocabulary testingBefore reporting the study,it isfirst necessary to address several vocabulary testing issues.In particular,we feel that some of the methods commonly used for test validation need to be carefully scrut-inized before they are used with vocabulary tests.An accepted way of exploring validity is to examine correlations of test scores with several other measures,each having varying60Two versions of the Vocabulary Levels Testdegrees of similarity and difference with regard to the test being vali-dated.In this way one can look for both convergent and discriminant patterns of relationship.However,the measures providing convergent evidence each need to address the same construct.To provide this evidence,vocabulary tests are often correlated with proficiency tests, particularly the TOEFL.However,since the TOEFL is more a meas-ure of general proficiency than vocabulary,we do not feel that it addresses the construct of vocabulary knowledge sufficiently well to be a satisfactory criterion.It would be more informative to compare the test with other accepted tests of vocabulary size.However,as mentioned before,the Levels Test is the closest thing we have to an accepted measure(although see the Eurocentres IOK Vocabulary Size Test by Meara and Jones,1990),and it is the one which gives fre-quency profile information instead of a singlefigure for overall vocabulary size.We,therefore,needed to develop a suitable criterion to explore convergent concurrent validity.Although time-consuming, a relatively dependable way of probing vocabulary knowledge is through personal interview,so we designed a post-test interview with examinees to help establish whether the target words were actually known or not,and we compared these results with the examinees’responses on the Levels Test.One of the standard techniques in examining both tests and individ-ual items is the comparison of responses to an individual item with scores on the overall test.This technique forms the basis of a number of procedures,including point-biserial coefficients and discrimination indices such as E1–3.Where a number of items address the same underlying construct,then these procedures should work well because all the items are intended to relate to the construct in the same way. But vocabulary items are discrete items.Of course they may be added together to form an estimate of vocabulary size,but just because one target word is known does not necessarily mean that another will be. Even if most words in a frequency level are known,this does not guarantee that any particular word in that level will be;the fact that this is not the case is precisely why we test vocabulary in thefirst place.In addition,words are likely to have varying degrees of dif-ficulty for learners from differentfirst languages(Laufer,1997),even if they are taken from the same frequency level.Thus,although it makes sense to select words in a level according to frequency criteria, it does not make sense to judge an individual item’s validity accord-ing to how well other items(words)at the same level are answered. In short,item/global comparisons can be informative in drawing a test-writer’s attention to potentially problematic items,but may not be the best means of establishing the soundness of those items. Rasch analysis has become a standard way of analysing languageNorbert Schmitt,Diane Schmitt and Caroline Clapham61 tests.However,one of the assumptions that must be met is that of ‘local independence’.With the Levels Test,this raises the issue of whether the individual items within each cluster or‘testlet’are inde-pendent.Strictly speaking,the vocabulary items presented together in clusters cannot be considered independent.However,we feel that independence/nonindependence is unlikely to be a dichotomy,but is more likely to exist along a continuum.This is because independence stems not only from the item format itself,but also from the exam-inees’test-taking behaviour.Retrospective protocols(see Interview section below)indicate that when examinees know a target word, they usually answer the item directly without considering alternative options.On the other hand,if an examinee does not know the word or is uncertain,all of the options are generally reviewed.This means that if the words in a cluster are known,they are answered in an essentially independent manner.If one or more are not known,they will be dependent to varying degrees.For examinees with higher vocabulary sizes,the test overall will tend towards more inde-pendent behaviour.This implies that examinees with lower vocabulary sizes will induce a tendency towards more dependence in the Levels Test.How-ever,this may not always be the case.The rubric of the test discour-ages examinees from guessing blindly.As a result,in our study,we found that examinees generally left items blank if they did not know the answers.We found it very rare for examinees to choose the same distractor for all three answers in a cluster in order to improve the odds on answering items correctly.In cases where only‘known’words were attempted,the trend was towards relative independence, as above.In sum,although it is virtually impossible to determine precisely,we would cautiously suggest that there is at least a degree of independence within the clusters.Whether this is enough to meet the assumptions of Rasch analysis is debatable.An initial Rasch analysis of the tests’performance looking at the standardized residual correlations(using BIGSTEPS Table10.6,Wright and Linacre,1998) suggests that there is no evidence of dependence among the items in a cluster,but this needs to be investigated further.Vocabulary knowledge is many-faceted(Richards,1976;Schmitt, 1998;Nation,2001),and no vocabulary test format currently avail-able is able to tap into all forms of lexical knowledge.Likewise,it is difficult even to measure the degree of knowledge of single types of word knowledge confidently(e.g.,meaning,collocation, appropriateness).Tests which attempt to do this(depth of knowledge tests)are currently being researched,but the Levels Test should be seen as a breadth of knowledge test(vocabulary size)with a much62Two versions of the Vocabulary Levels Testmore modest aim.(For more on tests of vocabulary size and vocabu-lary depth,see Read,2000.)Because the words within a cluster have very different meanings,even a small amount of knowledge about a target word’s meaning should enable a student to make a correct response.The Levels Test should,therefore,be seen as providing an indication of whether examinees have an initial knowledge of the most frequent meaning sense of each word in the test.(Many of the target words are polysemous,and this test does not address other meaning senses.)In addition,it is a receptive test and,as such,does not provide direct information about the ability to use the target words productively.V The validation study1The preliminary stageThefirst step was to investigate the item discrimination and test reliability indices of the existing Versions A–D when they were given to learners from a variety of backgrounds.Versions A and B were combined into a single test(Test E)and Versions C and D into Test F.Within Test E,Versions A and B were counterbalanced to create four variants,in order to control for any order effect.The same was done for Test F.Test E was given to a mixed group of106inter-national students studying at a British university,with Test F being given to the same students one week later.The majority of students came from France(29),Germany(15),Spain(15),Malaysia(13), Japan(10)and China(7),with the rest coming from13other coun-tries.The results were then analysed using ITEMAN(1989).In parti-cular,we looked for clusters where items had distractors which attracted too many responses.Because we could not be sure that changing single items within a cluster would not affect the behaviour of the other items in the cluster,any poor item resulted in the com-plete cluster being discarded.The Cronbach alpha reliabilityfigures (for dichotomously scored items)suggested that10clusters(30 items)per level would produce reliabilityfigures above.90.(The original Levels Test and Versions A–D had only6clusters[18items] per level).Because we discarded poor clusters and needed more items per version,we decided to combine the well-performing clusters and develop only two revised versions forfinal validation.The revised forms of Versions E and F were called Versions1and2respectively. There were two main differences between these revised versions and Versions E and F.First,at the2000level,both new versions have28words from thefirst1000frequency level and32from the second1000level,so the proportion is closer to1:1than the1:2ratioNorbert Schmitt,Diane Schmitt and Caroline Clapham63 of the earlier versions.Second,since Versions A–D were written,an improved listing of academic vocabulary has been compiled from a new carefully-balanced academic corpus,the Academic Word List (AWL;Coxhead,1998,2000).The AWL has the advantage of giving better coverage of academic texts whilst listing fewer words than the University Word List(UWL;Xue and Nation,1984).Rather than use the academic sections from the older versions,which were based on the outdated UWL,the lead author wrote new academic sections based on the AWL.Because the main study would be thefirst time these new sections could be analysed,a total of24clusters were written to allow for the discarding of poor clusters.The facility values for the three items in each cluster were averaged to obtain a difficultyfigure for each cluster.After thefirst trial the clusters were allotted to Versions1and2in a way which,we hoped, made the two versions equivalent in terms of difficulty.(Because changing any definition or target word in a cluster might have an effect on the behaviour of the other definitions or target words in that cluster,we worked once again with whole clusters rather than trying to move individual items between clusters.)At this point,we had two new versions of the test.There were10clusters in each section with the exception of the Academic section which had12.For thefinal trial,the two versions were combined into a single instrument,which had two counterbalanced variants.It was then administered to the sub-jects.Once the results were analysed,we swapped one or two clusters per section between the two versions in order that the two versions should be of the same level of difficulty.In addition,four clusters were discarded from the Academic section,so that it now contained10 clusters per version.Versions1and2of the Levels Test were then in theirfinal form.(See Appendixes1and2for full renderings of Version2;Version1is available in Schmitt,2000.)2SubjectsBecause the test population for the Levels Test is mainly envisaged as being learners of English for general or academic purposes,it was important to explore the test’s behaviour with examinees from a var-iety offirst languages and cultures.(A preliminary validation study by Beglar and Hunt(1999)included only Japanese subjects.)Overall, the researchers attempted to gather a sample population of learners of general and academic English that was as large and diverse as possible,even though this meant that the sample was not balanced. There was no attempt to select students according to their background knowledge,since Clapham(1996)has shown how difficult,if not impossible,it would be to do this.A total of801subjects were testedin13groups at three sites in England,two in New Zealand,one in Slovakia,one in Brazil and two in Spain(see Table1).Each subject was given all items from both Versions1and2,with the exception of56subjects in Group3,who took only the Academic sections.The subjects came from a variety of countries:Spain(322),Taiwan(142), Slovakia(103),Japan(68),Yugoslavia(40),countries in Southeast Asia(39),China(15),Brazil(12);the remaining60subjects came from20different countries.All subjects were learning English for general purposes or academic purposes,often with the goal of study at an English-medium university.Because the intended test popu-lation of the Levels Test can vary widely in proficiency,it was desir-able to include a wide spectrum of proficiency levels in the sample population.Judging by the resulting vocabulary size scores,this goal was largely achieved.It is possible that the Levels Test is also suitable for other popu-lations than those explored here.A study is currently being planned to examine its use with young teenage learners of English as an additional language(EAL)in the British school system(Schmitt and Cameron,in preparation).As validation is an ongoing process,suchTable1Description of subject groupsGroup n First language Location Learning context/purpose ofEnglish1192mixed England1General English summer school222mixed England2MA–ELT course364mixed/England2Pre-sessional course preparing for Japanese entrance to English-mediumuniversity418mixed England3MA-level language testing course 557mixed New Zealand1EOP/pre-sessional coursespreparing for entrance to English-medium universities629mixed New Zealand2EAP/pre-sessional coursespreparing for entrance to English-medium universities7102Slovak Slovakia Foreign language at secondaryschool811Portuguese Brazil Large private language school998Spanish Spain11st year university:general English 1068Spanish Spain21st year university:Englishtranslation1150Spanish Spain22nd year university:Englishtranslation1256Spanish Spain23rd year university:Englishtranslation1334Spanish Spain24th year university:Englishtranslationsubsequent studies can further explore appropriate test populations and provide additional evidence about the test’s characteristics.VI ValidityCurrent views of test validity tend to conceive of it as a unitary notion encapsulating numerous aspects which contribute to acceptable test behaviour(Messick,1989).However,in order to make this account as clear as possible,this validity section will present the various aspects of validity as separate entities.1Native speaker resultsAn initial requirement of most L2tests is that they must be answer-able by persons proficient in the language(see Davies et al.,1999). In this case we used native speakers to explore whether there were any indications that proficient English speakers would have problems with the Levels Test.Nation(1990)reports a native speaker subject achieving100%on the original version of the Levels Test.For this study,nine native speakers(four British undergraduates andfive postgraduates)took Versions1and2.Their scores ranged from307 to312with a mean of309(the maximum score was312).Thus the Levels Test format appeared to pose no problems for these L1speak-ers;all of them reached maximum or near-maximum scores.2Item analysisThe results from the801subjects were analysed using ITEMAN (1989),and each cluster’s behaviour was explored.Although we sus-pect that the items in each cluster are not independent of each other, Rasch analysis suggests that the items do perform independently of one another,so we calculated the facility and discrimination indices (point-biserial)for each item.Table2gives the mean facility and discrimination indices for each of the levels.It can be seen that the mean facility value decreases as the levels contain words that are progressively less frequent.To give some sense of this,a typical clus-ter at the2000level included lovely,slight and popular with facility values of.84,.60and.86,respectively;a typical5000level cluster included mound(.44),eve(.70)and cavalry(.63);while a typical 10000level cluster contained keg(.15),alabaster(.35)and rasp (.20).The one section that is not frequency-based,academic words, has a relatively high mean facility value,which would place it between the2000and3000levels in terms of difficulty.This raises the interesting question of where to locate it in regard to the other。
《应用语言学定量研究方法与实例解析》记录
《应用语言学定量研究方法与实例解析》阅读记录目录一、内容概览 (2)1. 背景介绍 (2)2. 本书概述 (3)二、应用语言学基础知识 (5)1. 应用语言学定义与特点 (6)1.1 应用语言学的定义 (7)1.2 应用语言学的特点 (8)2. 应用语言学的研究范围 (9)2.1 语言学与社会生活 (10)2.2 语言学与跨学科研究 (11)三、定量研究方法介绍 (12)1. 定量研究基本概念 (13)1.1 定量研究的定义 (14)1.2 定量研究的特点 (14)2. 定量研究方法的应用步骤 (15)2.1 确定研究问题与目标 (16)2.2 收集与分析数据的方法 (17)2.3 数据处理与结果呈现 (19)四、定量研究方法在语言学中的应用实例解析 (20)一、内容概览本书主要介绍了应用语言学的定量研究方法，包括实验设计、数据收集、统计分析等方面，并通过具体案例进行详细解析。
定量研究方法概述：介绍了定量研究方法在应用语言学中的重要性，以及与其他研究方法的区别。
实验设计：详细讲解了实验设计的基本原则，如随机抽样、控制变量等，并通过实例展示了如何进行实验设计。
数据收集：介绍了数据收集的方法和工具，如问卷调查、访谈、观察法等，并强调了数据质量的重要性。
统计分析：详细讲解了各种统计分析方法，如描述性统计、推断性统计、多变量分析等，并通过实例展示了如何进行数据分析。
案例解析：通过具体案例，详细解析了如何运用定量研究方法进行分析，包括实验设计、数据收集、统计分析等环节。
结论与建议：总结了本书的主要内容，并对未来应用语言学定量研究方法的发展提出了建议。
1. 背景介绍随着社会科学研究方法的不断发展，定量研究方法在语言学领域中的应用越来越广泛。
应用语言学定量研究方法与实例解析这本书详细阐述了如何运用统计学、计算机科学等定量方法来分析和解决语言学中的各种问题。
本书旨在帮助读者了解应用语言学定量研究的基本原理、方法和技巧，以及如何将这些方法应用于实际的语言学研究中。
应用语言学简介课件
忽闻岸上踏歌声 声响推进 不及汪伦送我情 由所想直喻
传统的语文教学中，从对李白浪漫主义、醉心山水、有伟大抱负的性 情中人“先入为主”的观念出发，就现有的语言材料，分析其清新自然 的特点，而忽视了诗人为什么用这样话语，这些语言的音韵美和形式美
是怎样体现的这一关键性问题。
二、帮助并指导使用者更好的运用语言工具
笔记 3、应用语言学的理论构成 它建设时间较短，基础理论薄弱，但不是没有 理论。其基本理论构成也是四大部分： （1）交际理论——居于最高层次的理论，具有总纲 性质，是本体语言学和应用语言学结合的纽带。 （2）动态理论——社会人及其群体、集团的交际， 是一种社会活动，语言是这种交际活动的工具， 因此，动态性是语言的本质。长期以来，在结构 主义的影响下，一直把静态性看作语言的本质， 认为动态是静态的使用。语言的动态论认为，动 态是语言的主导方面。
笔记
语言应用研究的意义
一、通过应用语言学研究更加科学地认识语言
李白有两首写离别的诗 一首写人送我 赠汪伦 李白乘舟将欲行 桃花潭水深千尺 主题一样切入点不同 立意是谢友人 叙事开篇 景色推进 由所见暗喻 凭借比喻 因虚而实 恋友人 一首写我送人 送孟浩然之广陵 故人西辞黄鹤楼 烟花三月下扬州 孤帆远影碧空尽 唯见长江天际流。
（3）中介理论—— 由语言教学中的中介理论而来，社会语 言学也重视中介，如语言交流用什么媒介、什么方式交流 等等。在大众语言传播的今天，中介理论研究更显得重要。 （4）人文理论 —— 语言应用以人为主体，离不开人文环 境、人文科学。 另外还有层次理论、潜显理论等。 4、应用语言学研究方法 兼容法 交互使用其它学科的方法； 综合法 科学研究的基本方法； 比较法 由本体语言学沿用而来； 实验法 应用语言学的基本方法，我国用得较少； 计量法 我国用得较好的方法； 调查法 用得最多的方法，也是我国用得最好的方法。 应用语言学的方法论主要是实证论。
应用语言学研究现状和发展趋势
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六、应用语言学的发展趋势 2. 了解国际应用语言学大会主题
AILA 2012 大会主题：多样中的和谐：语言、文化、社会（Harmony in diversity: language, culture, society ）
A. 语言习得与加工： 1.母语习得 2.二语习得 3.识字研究 4.心理语言学 B. 语言教学 ：5.母语教育 6.标准语教育 7.外语教学与教师发展 8.语
《外语教学与研究》（1999）
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六、应用语言学的发展趋势 1. 阅读应用语言学核心期刊
TESOL Quarterly Language Learning Applied Linguistics Studies in Second Language Acquisition ELT Journal
外语教学与研究 外国语 现代外语 当代语言学
六、应用语言学的发展趋势
中国第一届应用语言学大会主题（2007）
• 主题：信息时代的语言、教育与社会
Language, Education and Society in the Digital Age 分主题包括：
• 语言政策、教学改革、英语教学法（含网络、电大、函授等远 • 程英语教学、课程设计与教材评估、英语专业教学、大学英语 • 教学、专业英语教学ESP、中小学英语教学）、二语习得、计 • 算机辅助教学、双语教育、教师教育与发展、评估与测试、词 • 典学、计算语言学、跨文化交际学、语料库语言学、翻译理论与实践、社 • 会语言学、民族语言学、对外汉语教学等
D.社会中的语言：16.社会语言学 17.语言政策 18.多语言与多语言文化 19.跨文化传播 20.亚洲语境下的应用语言学
课程名称：19世纪英国女作家
课程名称：19世纪英国女作家课程类型：选修课授课语言：英语课时：周课时2，总课时34考核方式：平时测验+期末论文学分：2课程内容简介：本课通过研读妇女作家的作品，用文学批评理论探讨妇女作家在文学史中的地位、价值和意义，着重探讨和认识在女性生活中面临的历史和现代问题，同时探讨小说中倡导的社会法则带给女性在家庭生活、工作、社会地位的变化。
通过对具体作家、作品的介绍，指导学生深刻理解其作品，了解作品反映的历史、社会、文化问题，提高对文学作品的理解力和欣赏水平。
课堂讨论将联系中国女性的生存环境并结合作家为读者确立的道德观念，学习和掌握文学批评理论和方法，提高从理论和批评角度对作品的诠释，识别文学和其他学科的关系，提高个人独立研究的能力。
使用教材：女作家作品参考书目：文学导论、他们自己的文学、文学术语和文学理论。
外国文学评论、讲授文学、英国小说史授课教师简介：石晓杰，女，公共管理学硕士研究生毕业，英语学院副教授，硕士生导师。
主要研究方向为英语语言文学和妇女作家，现为本科生开设“英国文学史”必修课。
为研究生开设“19世纪英国妇女作家”选修课。
课程名称：企业文化（英）课程类型：选修课授课语言：英语课时：周课时 2 ，总课时 34考核方式：陈述（presentation）+ 论文学分：2课程内容简介：本课通过探讨企业文化的本质及相关的理论，研究企业文化的模式，分析典型的企业文化案例，使学生通过对本课程的学习，不但能够了解企业文化及其在企业经济活动中的重要作用，而且能够了解共同的价值观和那些未成文的规则是如何深深地影响企业经营的成与败。
本课程最终的目的是使学生意识到企业文化的复杂性和多样性，并了解强大的企业文化能够创造出优秀的企业业绩。
使用教材：《Corporate Culture and Performance》参考书目：《Corporate Instinct》《 Corporate Culture》《The Soul of an Organization》《Corporate Cultures》《Corporate Communication》授课教师简介：王丽娟，女，管理学硕士，应用英语学院副教授，主要研究方向为文化，现为本科生教授英汉、汉英翻译、英语视听说、商务沟通原则与实践等课程。
情境教学法在小学英语词汇教学中的应用开题报告
情境教学法在小学英语词汇教学中的应用开题报告二0一五年十月一、选题的背景与意义选题背景:随着经济全球化和生活信息化的发展，英语作为最重要的信息载体之一，其重要性日益突显受到越来越多国家的重视。
如果把英语比作一栋大楼的话，那么英语词汇就好比一块块盖楼的砖块。
它们是这座大厦不可或缺的部分。
因此，英语词汇教学在小学英语教学中是一个必不可少的环节。
但从目前小学生的英语词汇学习情况来看，词汇记忆困难，遗忘率高等问题一直困扰着广大教师和学生。
对此国内外专家和学者对词汇教学的重要性及情境教学法法进行了一定的研究，词汇教学重要性方面，国外专家D.A.Wilkins(1972)在其《语言学与外语教学》中写到“没有语法，能表达的内容很少，没有词汇，则什么也表达不了。
”论述词汇在交际中的重要性。
也有年Wilkins(1976)的《意念教学大纲》提出的对交际教学法的发展起到了至关重要的作用。
国内方面，对于词汇研究比较突出的有王宗炎(2001)提出词汇教学要处理好词汇与语法、速度与效果、教师与学生以及泛读与熟记四种关系。
黄冬芳(2001)论述和分析了记忆和兴趣的关系，在此基础上，提出了兴趣和记忆规律对我们词汇教学的启示。
情境教学方面，研究突出的有美国学者J.B.Carrol(1964)主张学习外语应在理解的基础上，让学生在生活实践中和交际情景中进行操练，在操练中发挥逻辑记忆能力。
语言和情景相结合创造出类似语言习得的学习过程，像小孩子学说话一样学英语，在情景中先学会口语，然后再学会书面语。
国内学者钱宏伟(2003)则归结了创设情境进行教学的具体步骤:“理解一模仿一记忆一表演一读一写。
这种教学步骤不仅符合学生二语习得的科学规律，也全面的锻炼了学生的听说读写的能力，是课堂教学的一种合理安排”。
陈建林(2009)在论文《情境式教学法在初中英语课堂中的应用》中指出情境教学模式教学过程的一个主要特征是它是在所创的情境中呈现新句型，而且它还是一种以训练为主的课堂模式。
Applied Linguistics(2007.8,,1
Distribution of the Credits 1)Presentation loss of 5 points for each absence 2)Minipaper (千字论文) 15×2=30% 3)Final Paper 70%
Assignment
Reading practice: “The role of applied linguistics” “Theoretical bases” “The Nature of applied linguistics” “Applied linguistics and the language teacher” Questions: What is language? Do all the “discussion questions” of Chapter One in the textbook.
Reference for further study: 1）H.Douglas Brown “Principles of Language Learning & Teaching” 2)Norbert Schmitt “Applied Linguistics” 3)Pastsy M.Lightbown & Nina Spada “How languages are learned” 4)Jane Arnold “Affect in Language Learning”《情感与学习》 5）于根元“应用语言学理论纲要” 6）刘涌泉、乔毅“应用语言学” 7）S·皮特·科德“应用语言学导论”（译本） 8）桂诗春“应用语言学”（Implications to Brown’s）
What is applied linguistics?
Apply= to bring or put into use to have an effect to cause to work hard with careful attention
应用语言学第一章.
第一章什么是应用语言学？⏹研究语言在各个领域的实际应用问题的学科。
⏹狭义的应用语言学是语言教学，特指外语教学、第二语言教学。
⏹广义的应用语言学是指应用于各实际领域的语言学。
研究如何用语言学的知识、理论、方法和成果来阐释其他应用领域所遇到的跟语言有关的问题。
应用语言学的学科地位⏹我国学位教育体系中，应用语言学属于文学大类，文学类共设有4个一级学科，其中2个一级学科中设有应用语言学专业。
⏹应用语言学属于文学类的二级学科。
学位教育体系⏹哲学历史学文学教育学经济学法学理学工学农学医学军事学管理学⏹文学有4个一级学科1、中国语言文学：古代文学、现当代文学、比较文学与世界文学、文艺学、文献学、汉语言文字学、语言学及应用语言学、少数民族语言文学（8个二级学科）2、外国语言文学：（11个二级学科）包括外国语言学及应用语言学3、新闻传播学：（2个二级学科）4、艺术学：（8个二级学科）应用语言学简史⏹应用语言学正式形成的标志：1964年第一届国际应用语言学大会的召开（法国），国际应用语言学协会的成立。
⏹中国应用语言学形成的标志：1984年语言文字应用研究所的成立。
⏹“语用所”属于中国社科院和中国文字改革委员会领导，研究语言政策、语言规划，研究语言文字的规范化、标准化，开展语言文字培训、测试工作及网络建设、信息服务。
国际应用语言学发展简史：⏹直到1870年，波兰语言学家——博杜恩·德·库尔特内首先提出“应用语言学”这一术语，主张区分理论语言学和应用语言学，但是他没有明确界定应用语言学的研究对象和范围，没有提出理论概念体系。
⏹二十世纪40—50年代，美国大力发展外语教学，出于政治、军事、科技、文化战略的需要，研究如何教授英语，对外英语教学，出版著名杂志《Language Learning》(《语言学习》)；1957年—1962年，美国建立了5000多间语言实验室，开展外语学习；1959年在华盛顿成立“应用语言学中心”。
浅谈英语词汇学习策略
浅谈英语词汇学习策略沈敬萍【摘要】策略的使用有助于提高英语词汇学习的效率.英语词汇学习策略是:将词汇学理论引入课堂,用词汇学理论指导词汇学习实践,鼓励学习者课下广泛阅读英语材料,主动记忆词汇.【期刊名称】《九江职业技术学院学报》【年(卷),期】2016(000)001【总页数】2页(P27-28)【关键词】英语;词汇;学习策略【作者】沈敬萍【作者单位】新乡学院,河南新乡453000【正文语种】中文【中图分类】H319在很长一段历史时期内，语言研究者和教师们都以英语语音和句法为重点，忽视英语词汇的学习和教学。
上世纪80年代后，英语词汇学习策略和教学技巧开始得到语言学家们的重视。
语言学家McCarthy指出，无论学习者的语法知识掌握的有多好，无论发音有多正确，若没有足够的词汇来表达较为广泛的意义，他就无法用第二语言进行有意义的交际活动(McCarthy，1990)。
在长期的语言教学实践中，我们发现语言学习者往往对词汇的学习存在以下现象。
第一，学习者对词汇的学习缺乏兴趣，认为词汇的学习难度较大，特别是面对长词时。
第二，词汇学习主要局限于课本生字表。
第三，掌握词汇的方法只是简单孤立的读与记，效果不佳。
在一线教学工作中，笔者发现：帮助学习者掌握词汇的方法和策略是多种多样的，绝不是单一的，比如策略的应用、学习时间的安排、教材的选择等，都会对学习有所帮助，并且因为策略不同也有可能导致学习效果的不同。
因此，在教学过程中应根据不同的情况选择不同的学习策略。
词汇学理论的引入能帮助学习者从宏观的角度认识词汇的结构、发展以及规律，从一定程度上抵消对词汇学习的恐惧心理。
但该项专业理论的学习应在合适的时间涉及，笔者在教学中发现：一个学期中同时教授本科及专科专业的英语词汇学课程，其中本科生为大学二年级学生，专科生为三年级的毕业生，使用的教材同为张维友编著的《英语词汇学教程》，同样的学时，同样的教学进度，同样的教授方法，专科生学得津津有味，本科生却表现出明显的吃力。
应用语言学入门3
The tasks of the L2 learner
Rechards
delimits the task of second language learning to the acquisition of a new set of systematic and phonological rules and transformational rules for the realization of the language-independent deep structures.
Differences between child and adult L2 learner Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and
morphological development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant) Older children acquire faster than younger children (again in early stages of syntactic and morphological development where time and exposure are held constant) uirers who begin natural exposure to second languages during childhood generally achieve higher levels of second language proficiency than those beginning as adults. That is, children as a group will catch up, and surpass more adults. In other words, adults and older children in general initially acquire the second language faster than younger children, but child second language acquirers will usually superior in terms of ultimate attainment.