范里安微观经济学现代观点中文版第八版答案3

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范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)笔记和课后习题详解-效用(圣才出品)

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)笔记和课后习题详解-效用(圣才出品)

第4章效用4.1复习笔记1.序数效用论(1)序数效用论序数效用论指用序数来表示消费者偏好次序的理论。

序数效用论者认为,效用不能用基数表示,而只能用序数第一、第二、第三等表示消费者的偏好顺序和效用水平。

(2)序数效用论的假设①消费者对两种商品的任意两个组合A、B 能明确地说出自己的偏好。

②消费者的偏好具有传递性。

③消费者对数量多的两种商品组合的偏好永远大于对数量少的两种商品组合的偏好。

(3)序数效用函数序数效用函数为每个可能的消费束指派一个数字(效用水平),当且仅当()()1212,,x x y y 时,()()1212,,u x x u y y > ;当且仅当()()1212,,x x y y 时,()()1212,,u x x u y y = 。

效用函数的数值,只在对不同商品束进行排列时才有意义;任意两个商品束之间的效用差额的大小是无关仅要的。

(4)无差异曲线无差异曲线是指所有具有相同效用水平的消费束构成的集合。

(5)效用函数的单调变换如果()f x 是单增的函数,则效用函数()()U'x f U x =⎡⎤⎣⎦就被称作是()U x 的单调变换。

(6)效用函数的单调变换原理效用函数的单调变换与原来的效用函数代表相同的偏好,如图4-1所示。

图4-1单调变换不改变消费者的无差异曲线的位置和形状(7)效用函数的存在性定理假定消费者的偏好具有完备性、反身性、传递性、连续性和强单调性,那么就存在一个能代表该偏好的连续效用函数。

(8)一般商品、厌恶品和中性品如果()U x 关于x 单增,则称x 是一般商品;如果()U x 关于x 单减,则称x 是厌恶品;如果()U x 关于x 不变,则称x 是中性品。

2.效用函数的几个例子(1)完全替代的效用函数如图4-2所示()1212U x x ax bx =+,图4-2完全替代的效用(2)完全互补的效用函数如图4-3所示(){}1212min ,U x x ax bx =,图4-3完全互补的效用(3)拟线性偏好的效用函数如图4-4所示()()1212U x x v x x =+,图4-4拟线性效用(4)柯布-道格拉斯效用函数()11212a aU x x x x -=,(5)不变替代弹性的效用函数()()11212,1u x x A x x ρρρδδ⎡⎤=+-⎣⎦特别地,当替代参数1ρ=时,CES 效用函数就变为完全替代的效用函数。

范里安微观经济学现代观点中文版第八版答案3

范里安微观经济学现代观点中文版第八版答案3

Intermediate Microeconomics:A Modern Approach (8th Edition)Hal R. Varian范里安中级微观经济学:现代方法(第8版)完美中文翻译版)含全部习题详细解答)第3章:偏好(含全部习题详细解答偏好(曹乾译(东南大学caoqianseu@)3偏好在第2章我们已看到,消费者行为的经济模型很简单:人们在能购买得起的商品束中选择最优的消费束最优的消费束......。

上一章说明了“能够买得起”的含义,本章则旨在说明“最优商品束”的概念。

我们把消费者选择的东西称为消费束...(consumption bundles )。

消费束是我们研究选择问题中涉及到的全部全部..商品(或服务)。

“全部”二字值得强调:当分析消费者选择问题时,一定要将涉及到的商品全部包含在消费束的定义中。

如果我们是在最宽泛的水平上研究消费者选择问题,我们不仅需要知道消费者可能消费的所有商品,还需要知道消费的时间,地点以及在什么样情形下消费的。

毕竟人们不仅关心今天的食物数量,还关心明天的食物数量。

大西洋里的小船和撒哈拉沙漠里的同样的小船,意义是不同的,类似的还有晴天的雨伞与阴雨天的雨伞。

通常将不同场所或环境中的“同种”商品视为不同的商品,因为消费者在这样的情形下对商品的评价会不同。

然而,当我们关注的是简单的消费选择问题时,相关的商品通常非常明显。

我们经常采用前面介绍过的思想:只使用两种商品进行分析,而将其中一种商品视为“所有其他的商品”。

这样做的好处是,我们可以重点关注一种商品和所有其他商品之间的权衡问题。

这样,在涉及很多商品的消费选择问题时,我们仍可以使用二维图形进行分析。

因此,可以假设消费束只包含两种商品,令),(21x x 表示消费束,其中1x 代表某种商品,2x 代表另外一种商品。

有时可将这个消费束简写为X 。

3.1消费者的偏好假设给定两个消费束),(21x x 和),(21y y ,消费者可按照他自己的意愿对这两个消费束排序。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(章节题库-选择)【圣才出品】

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(章节题库-选择)【圣才出品】

范⾥安《微观经济学:现代观点》(章节题库-选择)【圣才出品】第5章选择⼀、判断题 1.某消费者的效⽤函数为u (x ,y )=(x +2)(y +1),如果他所消费的商品x 和商品y 都增加⼀倍,那么商品x 和商品y 的边际替代率仍保持不变。

()【答案】F【解析】边际替代率为://u x MRS u y ??=-??当u (x ,y )=(x +2)(y +1)时,MRS =-(y +1)/(x +2);当u (x ,y )=(2x +2)(2y +1)时,MRS =-2(2y +1)/[2(2x +2)]=-(2y +1)/[2(x +1)]。

商品x 和商品y 的边际替代率发⽣变化。

2.在最优选择处,消费者的⽆差异曲线和预算线⼀定是相切的。

()【答案】F【解析】最优选择处,⽆差异曲线和预算线可以相切,也可以不相切。

在凸性偏好和内部最优的条件下,相切是最优选择的充分条件,即相切处⼀定是最优选择,但最优选择不⼀定是相切的。

在边界最优的情况下,如商品完全替代的情况下,⽆差异曲线与预算线是相交的,⽽不是相切的。

3.已知⼀元钱的边际效⽤为5个单位,⼀⽀钢笔的边际效⽤为35个单位,则消费者需要⽤6元来买这⽀钢笔。

()【答案】F 【解析】基数效⽤论中效⽤最⼤化条件为MU/P =λ,本题中35/6>5,消费者需要7元来购买这⽀钢笔。

4.某消费者的效⽤函数为u (x ,y )=x +4y 1/2,商品x 的价格为1元/单位,商品y 的价格为2元/单位。

如果他的收⼊从100元增加到150元,他对商品y 的消费将增加超过10%,但少于50%。

()【答案】F【解析】根据效⽤最⼤化的条件//x y P u x P u y= 可得:1/(2y -1/2)=1/2,即y =1。

当收⼊变动时,消费者对y 的消费不变。

5.某消费者效⽤函数为u (x ,y )=max{x ,y},如果商品x 的价格与商品y 的价格相等,该消费者会选择购买等量的x 和y 。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》章节习题精编详解(偏 好)【圣才出品】

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》章节习题精编详解(偏 好)【圣才出品】
2 / 11
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台

比于较为接近的三个分数,小王显然更喜欢具有至少一次成绩的分数组合。
6.当牛奶价格为 2 元/瓶,包子价格为 1 元/个时,小李买 3 瓶牛奶和 2 个包子,小张 买 2 瓶牛奶和 3 个包子。因此,小李对于牛奶和包子的边际替代率大于小张。( )
2.一个喜欢平均消费的消费者,如果他对(5,2)和(11,6)无差异,那么他应该 更偏好于(8,4)。( )
【答案】T
【解析】给定两个无差异的消费束 x1, x2 ~ y1, y2 ,消费者总是偏好这两个消费束进行
平均组合的消费束,即:
x1 1 y1,x2 1 y2 x1, x2 故 0.55, 2 0.511,6 8, 4 5, 2 和 11,6 。
表示更偏好的无差异曲线。下列哪一项是正确的?( ) A.小张喜欢商品 y ,讨厌商品 x B.小张偏好(12,16)于(16,12) C.小张偏好(8,5)于(5,8) D.小张喜欢商品 x ,讨厌商品 y 【答案】B
5 / 11
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台

【答案】F 【解析】由题意可知,小张和小李都在现行的包子、牛奶价格水平下选择了自己效用最 大化的组合,因此,他们二人对于包子和牛奶的边际替代率都应当等于包子、牛奶价格乊比, 因此,两人的边替代率是相等的。
7.那些丌能区分出一些细小差别的消费者在严格偏好关系上具有传递性,但在无差异 关系上则丌具有传递性。( )
u x1, x2 ax1 bx2 ,令 k u x1, x2 ,则无差异曲线为 x2 k / b a / b x1 ,可知斜率为 a / b
故完全替代品和完全互补品的替代或互补比例丌一定是 1:1 的,取决于 a 不 b 的比例。

微观经济学:现代观点(范里安 著)48题及答案[精品文档]

微观经济学:现代观点(范里安 著)48题及答案[精品文档]

第一部分 消费者选择理论1.有两种商品,x1和x2,价格分别为p1和p2,收入为m 。

当11x x ≥时,政府加数量税t,画出预算集并写出预算线2. 消费者消费两种商品(x1,x2),如果花同样多的钱可以买(4,6)或(12,2),写出预算线的表达式。

3.重新描述中国粮价改革(1)假设没有任何市场干预,中国的粮价为每斤0。

4元,每人收入为100元。

把粮食消费量计为x ,在其它商品上的开支为y ,写出预算线,并画图。

(2)假设每人得到30斤粮票,可以凭票以0。

2元的价格买粮食,再写预算约束,画图。

(3)假设取消粮票,补贴每人6元钱,写预算约束并画图。

4. 证两条无差异曲线不能相交5. 一元纸币(x1)和五元纸币(x2)的边际替代率是多少? 6. 若商品1为中性商品,则它对商品2的边际替代率?7. 写出下列情形的效用函数,画出无差异曲线,并在给定价格(p 1,p 2)和收入(m )的情形下求最优解。

(1)x 1=一元纸币,x 2=五元纸币。

(2)x 1=一杯咖啡,x 2=一勺糖, 消费者喜欢在每杯咖啡加两勺糖。

8. 解最优选择 (1)21212(,)u x x x x =⋅(2)12u x x =+9. 对下列效用函数推导对商品1的需求函数,反需求函数,恩格尔曲线;在图上大致画出价格提供曲线,收入提供曲线;说明商品一是否正常品、劣质品、一般商品、吉芬商品,商品二与商品一是替代还是互补关系。

(1)212x x u += (2)()212,m in x x u =(3)ba x x u 21⋅=(4) 12ln u x x =+,10. 当偏好为完全替代时,计算当价格变化时的收入效用和替代效用(注意分情况讨论)。

11. 给定效用函数 (,)x y xy =,p x =3,p y =4,m=60,求当p y 降为3时价格变化引起的替代效应和收入效应。

12. 用显示偏好的弱公理说明为什么Slutsky 替代效应为负。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)笔记和课后习题详解-成本最小化(圣才出品)

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)笔记和课后习题详解-成本最小化(圣才出品)
x1 w1, w2 , y x1s w1, w2 , x2 y , y
该式表明:如果厂商所选择的固定要素使用量恰好使其长期成本最小化,那么长期内使 成本最小化的可变要素使用量就是厂商在短期内所选择的使用量。
5.不变成本和准不变成本以及沉没成本 (1)不变成本 不变成本是指与产出水平无关的成本。特别地,不变成本和不变要素有关。 (2)准不变成本 准不变成本是指与产量水平无关的成本,但是只要厂商停产,它就无须支付这种成本。 特别地,长期内不存在不变成本,但是有可能存在准不变成本。 (3)沉没成本 沉没成本是指由厂商已经支出而无法收回的开支,这类成本对厂商的决策不产生影响。
②完全替代的技术(生产函数为 f x1, x2 x1 x2 ),成本函数为: c w1, w2 , y min w1, w2 y
条件要素需求是:
0
x1 0到y之间的任何数
y
w1 w2 w1 w2 w1 w2
0
x2 0到y之间的任何数
y
w1 w2 w1 w2 w1 w2
③柯布-道格拉斯生产函数(生产函数为 f x1, x2 Ax2a x2b ),成本函数为:
min
x1 , x2
w1 x1
w2
x2
s.t. f x1, x2 y
由于 w1 、 w2 和 y 是给定的参数,所以最小成本 c 可以表示成 w1 、 w2 和 y 的函数,从而
得到成本函数
c w1, w2 , y ,如图 20-1 所示。
图 20-1 成本最小化
(2)成本最小化的一阶必要条件

w1s x1s w2s x2s w1s x1t w2s x2t

就说厂商的行为满足显示成本最小化弱公理。
(2)显示成本最小化弱公理的应用:解释要素需求曲线向下倾斜的原因

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解-(效 用)

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解-(效 用)

第4章 效 用1.一个效用函数自乘奇数次是单调变换。

那么该效用函数自乘偶数次还是单调变换吗?(提示:考虑 ()2f u u =这种情况)答:一个效用函数自乘偶数次后还是不是单调变换取决于效用函数的取值。

分析如下: 通常情况下,()12,0u u x x =≥,因此()2f u u =是(正的)单调变换,也就是说()2f u u =是单调递增的函数。

但是,也有可能存在()12,0u u x x =≤的情况。

比如,给某消费者两种商品,但这两种商品都是厌恶品,在这种情形下,他的效用不可能为正,即()12,0u u x x =≤。

所以,该情形下()2f u u =就不是(正的)单调变换。

根据分析需要,不考虑负单调变换的情形。

2.下面哪些是单调变换? (1)213u v =-; (2)21/u v =-; (3)21/u v =; (4)ln u v =; (5)v u e -=-; (6)2u v =;(7)20u v v =>,; (8)20u v v =<,。

答:(1)是(正的)单调变换。

(2)在0v >时是单调变换,0v <时不是单调变换。

(3)在0v >时不是单调变换,0v <时是单调变换。

(4)是单调变换(此题暗含着0v >的假设,否则ln u v =无定义)。

(5)是单调变换。

(6)在0v >时是单调变换,0v <时不是单调变换。

(7)是单调变换。

(8)不是单调变换。

总结:单调变换的函数应是增函数;单调变换分为正单调变换和负单调变换,正单调变换后的效用函数能同样代表原偏好,负单调变换后的效用函数不能代表原偏好;单调变换不影响效用函数的边际替代率。

3.如果偏好是单调的,经过原点的射线与每一条无差异曲线只会相交一次。

请严格地证明。

(提示:如果它同某条无差异曲线相交两次,会出现什么情况呢?)证明:采用反证法,假设经过原点的射线方程为()()0f x ax a =>,它同某无差异曲线相交于两点()12,x x 和()12,y y ,由于()12,x x 和()12,y y 同在直线()f x ax =上,所以在1122x y x y >>,和1122x y x y <<,之中,必有其一成立,不妨假设是1122x y x y >>,,根据偏好的单调性,这就意味着()()1212,,x x y y ,这就和()12,x x 与()12,y y 在同一条无差异曲线上相矛盾。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)笔记和课后习题详解-行业供给(圣才出品)

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)笔记和课后习题详解-行业供给(圣才出品)

第23章行业供给23.1复习笔记1.短期市场(1)短期市场供给曲线假设市场上共有n 个厂商,令()i S p 代表厂商i 的供给曲线,那么,行业供给曲线或市场供给曲线就是:()()1ni i S p S p ==∑行业供给曲线为各个厂商的供给曲线的水平加总。

(2)短期市场均衡短期内,当需求等于供给时,就说明市场达到了短期均衡。

均衡价格和总产量由需求曲线和市场供给曲线的交点决定。

(3)短期均衡时厂商的利润短期均衡时,厂商的盈利情况有以下三种:零利润(如图23-1a 所示);正利润(如图23-1b 所示);亏损(如图23-1c 所示)。

图23-1短期均衡2.长期市场(1)长期竞争性均衡的实现条件第一,行业中的厂商都达到利润最大化;第二,所有厂商的经济利润为零;第三,产品的价格是厂商供给量与消费者需求量相等时的价格。

(2)长期竞争性均衡的实现途径及其动态分析一方面是行业内企业数量的调整,表现为厂商进入或退出某行业;另一方面是厂商对生产规模的调整。

3.长期供给曲线(1)长期供给曲线长期中,厂商基于长期成本函数和市场价格来选择是否进入该行业。

只要市场均衡价格高于长期平均成本的最低点,就会有新的厂商进入该行业并相应增加行业总供给。

因此,长期行业供给曲线逐渐由一个锯齿形状趋向于最低平均成本的水平线,如图23-2所示。

在一个竞争性市场中,单个厂商占市场总供给的份额非常小。

因此,可以把长期行业供给曲线就看为是等于最低平均成本的水平线。

图23-2近似的长期供给曲线完全竞争厂商的长期均衡出现在LAC曲线的最低点。

这时,生产的平均成本降到长期平均成本的最低点,商品的价格也等于最低的长期平均成本。

即完全竞争厂商的长期均衡条件为:==(利润最大化的条件,且是效率最优的)P LMC SMC==(经济利润为零)P LAC SAC(2)零利润的含义首先,这里的利润是指经济利润,而非会计利润;其次,经济利润为零,但会计利润有可能为正;再者,如果一个行业只能赚取零利润,并不是说该行业已经消失,而是说该行业不存在诱导新厂商进入的吸引力;最后,在利润为零的长期均衡中,该行业的生产是有效的(社会福利最大化),所以该行业是成熟的。

范里安-微观经济学现代观点-第8版-第八版-ch4-效用(含全部习题解答)-东南大学曹乾

范里安-微观经济学现代观点-第8版-第八版-ch4-效用(含全部习题解答)-东南大学曹乾

Intermediate Microeconomics:A Modern Approach (8th Edition)Hal R. Varian范里安中级微观经济学:现代方法(第8版)完美中文翻译版)含全部习题详细解答)第4章:效用(含全部习题详细解答效用(曹乾译(东南大学caoqianseu@)4效用在维多利亚时代,哲学家和经济学家轻率地把“效用”作为衡量一个人总体福利(well-being )的指标。

他们用效用数值衡量一个人的幸福程度。

在这种思想下,自然可认为消费者做出选择的目的是使他们的效用最大(使他们尽可能地幸福)。

问题在于这些古典经济学家从未真正地阐述过怎样衡量效用。

我们应该如何量化不同消费选择下的效用“数额”?某人的效用与另外一人的效用相同吗?额外一颗糖块的效用是额外一根胡萝卜效用的两倍,这句话到底是什么意思?效用是人们希望最大化的“东西”,这里的“东西”是指什么?由于这些概念难以准确界定,现代经济学家已经抛弃了上述老套的观点,即他们不再把效用看成幸福的衡量指标。

取而代之的是,他们用消费者偏好.....(consumer preferences )重新改写了消费者行为理论,效用仅仅被当作为一种描述偏好的方法一种描述偏好的方法.........。

经济学家逐渐认识到,对于选择行为而言,效用最要紧的事情是一个商品束的效用是否比另外一个商品束的高,至于高多少并不重要。

起初,偏好是用效用定义的:说一个商品束),(21x x 比另外一个商品束),(21y y 更受偏好,表示x 商品束比y 商品束效用更高。

但现在我们的观点正好反过来。

消费者的偏好偏好..是研究选择行为的最基本工具,效用只是描述偏好的一种方法。

效用函数....(utility function )是对每个可能的消费束都赋予数值的一种方法,这种方法要做到对于更受偏好的消费束,赋值更大。

也就是说,消费束),(21x x 比),(21y y 更受偏好当且仅当前者的效用值要比后者大:用符号表示,),(),(2121y y x x f 当且仅当),(),(2121y y u x x u >.效用赋值的唯一重要性能是它是如何对商品束排序排序..的。

范里安-微观经济学现代观点-第8版-第八版-ch36-公共物品(含全部习题解答)-东南大学曹乾

范里安-微观经济学现代观点-第8版-第八版-ch36-公共物品(含全部习题解答)-东南大学曹乾

范里安 中级微观经济学:现代方法(第 第 8 版)
完美中文翻译版
第 36 章:公共物品( 公共物品(含全部习题详细解答) 含全部习题详细解答)
曹乾 译
(东南大学 caoqianseu@)
1
曹乾(东南大学 caoqianseu@)
36 公共物品
36 公共物品
在第 34 章,我们认为对于某些类型的外部性,无效率的消除并不困难。例如,在两个 人的消费外部性的例子中,你要做的事情仅是明确规定初始财产权。这样,这两个人就向 交易其他商品一样,对产生外部性的权利进行交易。至于生产外部性,市场本身就提供了 解决财产权问题的最有效方法,因为市场可传递利润信号。对于公共财产来说,将财产权 赋予某些人就能消除无效率。 不幸的是,并非所有外部性都能通过这种方式解决。只要外部性涉及两个人以上,问 题将变得非常困难。例如,上一章抽烟的例子涉及两个人,现在假设三个 三个 人同居一屋,一 .. 人抽烟两人不抽。烟雾对于两个非抽烟者来说是负外部性。 假设财产权明晰,比如非抽烟者有权享受清洁空气。同以前的例子一样,尽管他们拥 有清洁空气的权利 权利 ,他们也有出卖部分清洁空气以换取适当补偿的权利。但现在有个新问 .. 题——两个非吸烟者需要商讨决定烟雾浓度和补偿金额。 也许一个人比另一个人对烟雾更敏感,或者一人比另一人更富有。尽管他们的偏好和 钱数都不同,他们还是要协商决定烟雾的数量。 不再考虑上述室友,我们考虑一国的所有居民。在该国应允许的污染数量为多少?如 果你认为仅三个室友达成协议已够困难,想象一下几百万的居民达成协议的困难程度! (public good)的一个例子。公共物 上述抽烟的外部性(涉及三个舍友)是公共物品 .... 品是指对所有受影响的消费者必须提供相同数量的物品。在抽烟的例子中,抽烟产生的烟 雾数量对于所有消费者是相同的,尽管每个人对此物品评价不同,但都必须面对同样的数 量。 很多公共物品由政府提供。例如,大街和人行道由当地政府提供。每个城镇都有某些 数量和质量的街道,每个人都可使用。国防是另外一个绝佳的例子,一国之内所有居民面 对的是国防水平是同一的。居民对国防服务的评价可能不同,有些人希望多点有些人希望 少点,但提供给他们的国防数量是相同的。 公共物品是消费外部性的一个特例:每个人必须消费相同数量的该种物品。这种外部 性非常麻烦,因为经济学家热衷的分散市场解决方案(decentralized market solutions) ,对 于公共物品的分配来说效果不佳。人们不能购买不同数量的国防,他们必须设法确定共同 的数量。 我们首先研究的问题是公共物品理想数量的确定。接下来我们将探讨某些评价方法, 以便使用这些方法对公共产品作出社会决策。

微观经济学第八版课后习题答案第三章

微观经济学第八版课后习题答案第三章

Chapter 3Consumer BehaviorQuestions for Review1. What are the four basic assumptions about individual preferences? Explain the significance ormeaning of each.(1) Preferences are complete: this means that the consumer is able to compare and rank all possiblebaskets of goods and services. (2) Preferences are transitive: this means that preferences are consistent, in the sense that if bundle A is preferred to bundle B and bundle B is preferred to bundle C, then bundleA is preferred to bundle C. (3) More is preferred to less: this means that all goods are desirable, andthat the consumer always prefers to have more of each good. (4) Diminishing marginal rate ofsubstitution: this means that indifference curves are convex, and that the slope of the indifference curve increases (becomes less negative) as we move down along the curve. As a consumer moves down along her indifference curve she is willing to give up fewer units of the good on the vertical axis in exchange for one more unit of the good on the horizontal axis. This assumption also means that balanced market baskets are generally preferred to baskets that have a lot of one good and very little of the other good.2. Can a set of indifference curves be upward sloping? If so, what would this tell you about thetwo goods?A set of indifference curves can be upward sloping if we violate assumption number three: more ispreferred to less. When a set of indifference curves is upward sloping, it means one of the goods is a “bad” so that the consumer pref ers less of that good rather than more. The positive slope means that the consumer will accept more of the bad only if he also receives more of the other good in return. As we move up along the indifference curve the consumer has more of the good he likes, and also more of the good he does not like.3. Explain why two indifference curves cannot intersect.The figure below shows two indifference curves intersecting at point A. We know from the definition of an indifference curve that the consumer has the same level of utility for every bundle of goods that lies on the given curve. In this case, the consumer is indifferent between bundles A and B because they both lie on indifference curve U1. Similarly, the consumer is indifferent between bundles A and C because they both lie on indifference curve U2. By the transitivity of preferences this consumer should also be indifferent between C and B. However, we see from the graph that C lies above B, so C must be preferred to B because C contains more of Good Y and the same amount of Good X as does B, and more is preferred to less. But this violates transitivity, so indifference curves must not intersect.Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.32 Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.4. Jon is always willing to trade one can of Coke for one can of Sprite, or one can of Sprite for onecan of Coke.a. What can you say about Jon’s marginal rate of substitution?Jon’s marginal rate of substitution can be defined as the number of cans of Coke he would bewilling to give up in exchange for a can of Sprite. Since he is always willing to trade one for one, his MRS is equal to 1.b. Draw a set of indifference curves for Jon.Since Jon is always willing to trade one can of Coke for one can of Sprite, his indifference curves are linear with a slope of -1. See the diagrams below part c.c. Draw two budget lines with different slopes and illustrate the satisfaction-maximizing choice.What conclusion can you draw?J on’s indifference curves are linear with a slope of -1. Jon’s budget line is also linear, and will have a slope that reflects the ratio of the two prices. If Jon’s budget line is steeper than his indifference curves, he will choose to consume only the good on the vertical axis. If Jon’s budget line is flatter than his indifference curves, he will choose to consume only the good on the horizontal axis. Jon will always choose a corner solution where he buys only the less expensive good, unless his budget line has the same slope as his indifference curves. In this case any combination of Sprite and Cokethat uses up his entire income will maximize Jon’s satisfaction.The diagrams below show cases where Jon’s budget line is steeper than his indifference curvesand where it is flatter. Jon’s indifference curves are linear with slopes of -1, and four indifferencecurves are shown in each diagram as solid lines. Jon’s budget is $4.00. In the diagram on the left, Coke costs $1.00 and Sprite costs $2.00, so Jon can afford 4 Cokes (if he spends his entire budget on Coke) or 2 Sprites (if he spends his budget on Sprite). His budget line is the dashed line. Thehighest indifference curve he can reach is the one furthest to the right. He can reach that level ofutility by purchasing 4 Cokes and no Sprites. In the diagram on the right, the price of Coke is $2.00 and the price of Sprite is $1.00. Jon’s budget line is now flatter than his indifference curves, andhis optimal bundle is the corner solution with 4 Sprites and no Cokes.Chapter 3Consumer Behavior335. What happens to the marginal rate of substitution as you move along a convex indifferencecurve? A linear indifference curve?The MRS measures how much of a good you are willing to give up in exchange for one more unit of the other good, keeping utility constant. The MRS diminishes along a convex indifference curve.This occurs because as you move down along the indifference curve, you are willing to give up less and less of the good on the vertical axis in exchange for one more unit of the good on the horizontal axis. The MRS is also the negative of the slope of the indifference curve, which decreases (becomes closer to zero) as you move down along the indifference curve. The MRS is constant along a linear indifference curve because the slope does not change. The consumer is always willing to trade the same number of units of one good in exchange for the other.6. Explain why an MRS between two goods must equal the ratio of the price of the goods for theconsumer to achieve maximum satisfaction.The MRS describes the rate at which the consumer is willing to trade off one good for another to maintain the same level of satisfaction. The ratio of prices describes the trade-off that the consumer is able to make between the same two goods in the market. The tangency of the indifference curve with the budget line represents the point at which the trade-offs are equal and consumer satisfaction is maximized. If the MRS between two goods is not equal to the ratio of prices, then the consumer could trade one good for another at market prices to obtain higher levels of satisfaction. For example, if the slope of the budget line (the ratio of the prices) is 4, the consumer can trade 4 units of Y(the good on the vertical axis) for one unit of X (the good on the horizontal axis). If the MRS at the current bundle is 6, then the consumer is willing to trade 6 units of Y for one unit of X. Since the two slopes are not equal the consumer is not maximizing her satisfaction. The consumer is willing to trade 6 but only has to trade 4, so she should make the trade. This trading continues until the highest level of satisfaction is achieved. As trades are made, the MRS will change and eventually become equal to the price ratio.7. Describe the indifference curves associated with two goods that are perfect substitutes. What ifthey are perfect complements?Two goods are perfect substitutes if the MRS of one for the other is a constant number. In this case, the slopes of the indifference curves are constant, and the indifference curves are therefore linear. If two goods are perfect complements, the indifference curves are L-shaped. In this case the consumer wants to consume the two goods in a fixed proportion, say one unit of good 1 for every one unit of good 2. If she has more of one good than the other, she does not get any extra satisfaction from the additional units of the first good.8. What is the difference between ordinal utility and cardinal utility? Explain why the assumptionof cardinal utility is not needed in order to rank consumer choices.Ordinal utility implies an ordering among alternatives without regard for intensity of preference. For example, if the c onsumer’s first choice is preferred to his second choice, then utility from the first34Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics,Eighth Editionchoice will be higher than utility from the second choice. How much higher is not important. An ordinal utility function generates a ranking of bundles and no meaning is given to the magnitude of the utility number itself. Cardinal utility implies that the intensity of preferences may be quantified, and that the utility number itself has meaning. An ordinal ranking is all that is needed to rank consumer choices. It is not necessary to know how intensely a consumer prefers basket A over basket B; it is enough to know that A is preferred to B.9. Upon merging with the West German economy, East German consumers indicated a preferencefor Mercedes-Benz automobiles over Volkswagens. However, when they converted their savings into deutsche marks, they flocked to Volkswagen dealerships. How can you explain thisapparent paradox?There is no paradox. Preferences do not involve prices, and East German consumers preferredMercedes based solely on product characteristics. However, Mercedes prices are considerablyhigher than Volkswagen prices. So, even though East German consumers preferred a Mercedes to a Volkswagen, they either could not afford a Mercedes or they preferred a bundle of other goods plus a Volkswagen to a Mercedes alone. While the marginal utility of consuming a Mercedes exceeded the marginal utility of consuming a Volkswagen, East German consumers considered the marginal utility per dollar for each good and, for most of them, the marginal utility per dollar was higher forVolkswagens. As a result, they flocked to Volkswagen dealerships to buy VWs.10. Draw a budget line and then draw an indifference curve to illustrate the satisfaction-maximizing choice associated with two products. Use your graph to answer the followingquestions.a. Suppose that one of the products is rationed. Explain why the consumer is likely to beworse off.When goods are not rationed, the consumer is able to choose the satisfaction-maximizing bundle where the slope of the budget line is equal to the slope of the indifference curve, or the price ratio is equal to the MRS. This is point A in the diagram below where the consumer buys G1 of good 1 and G2 of good 2 and achieves utility level U2. If good 1 is now rationed at G* the consumer will no longer be able to attain the utility maximizing point. He or she cannot purchase amounts ofgood 1 exceeding G*. As a result, the consumer will have to purchase more of the othergood instead. The highest utility level the consumer can achieve with rationing is U1 at point B.This is not a point of tangency, and the consumer’s utility is lower than at point A, so theconsumer is worse off as a result of rationing.Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.Chapter 3Consumer Behavior35b. Suppose that the price of one of the products is fixed at a level below the current price. As aresult, the consumer is not able to purchase as much as she would like. Can you tell if theconsumer is better off or worse off?No, the consumer could be better off or worse off. When the price of one good is fixed at alevel below the current (equilibrium) price, there will be a shortage of that good, and the goodwill be effectively rationed. In the diagram below, the price of good 1 has been reduced, and theconsumer’s budget line has rotated out to the right. The consumer would like to purchase bundle B, but the amount of good 1 is restricted because of a shortage. If the most the consumer can purchase is G*, she will be exactly as well off as before, because she will be able to purchase bundle C on her original indifference curve. If there is more than G* of good 1 available, the consumer will bebetter off, and if there is less than G*, the consumer will be worse off.11. Describe the equal marginal principle. Explain why this principle may not hold if increasingmarginal utility is associated with the consumption of one or both goods.The equal marginal principle states that to obtain maximum satisfaction the ratio of the marginal utility to price must be equal across all goods. In other words, utility maximization is achieved when the budget is allocated so that the marginal utility per dollar of expenditure (MU/P) is the same for each good. If the MU/P ratios are not equal, allocating more dollars to the good with the higher MU/P will increase utility. As more dollars are allocated to this good its marginal utility will decrease,which causes its MU/P to fall and ultimately equal that of the other goods.If marginal utility is increasing, however, allocating more dollars to the good with the larger MU/P causes MU to increase, and that good’s MU/P just keeps getting larger and larger. In this case, the36Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics,Eighth Editionconsumer should spend all her income on this good, resulting in a corner solution. With a corner solution, the equal marginal principle does not hold.12. The price of computers has fallen substantially over the past two decades. Use this drop in priceto explain why the Consumer Price Index is likely to overstate substantially the cost-of-living index for individuals who use computers intensively.The Consumer Price Index measures the cost of a basket of goods purchased by a typical consumer in the current year relative to the cost of the basket in the base year. Each good in the basket is assigneda weight, which reflects the importance of the good to the typical consumer, and the weights arekept fixed from year to year. One problem with fixing the weights is that consumers will shift their purchases from year to year to give more weight to goods whose prices have fallen, and less weight to goods whose prices have risen. The CPI will therefore give too much weight to goods whoseprices have risen, and too little weight to goods whose prices have fallen. In addition, for non-typical individuals who use computers intensively, the fixed weight for computers in the basket will understate the importance of this good, and will hence understate the effect of the fall in the price of computers for these individuals. The CPI will overstate the rise in the cost of living for this type of individual.13. Explain why the Paasche index will generally understate the ideal cost-of-living index.The Paasche index measures the current cost of the current bundle of goods relative to the base year cost of the current bundle of goods. The Paasche index will understate the ideal cost-of-living index because it assumes the individual buys the current year bundle in the base period. In reality, at base year prices the consumer would have been able to attain the same level of utility at a lower cost by altering his or her consumption bundle in light of the base year prices. Since the base year cost is overstated, the denominator of the Paasche index will be too large and the index will be too low, or understated.Exercises1. In this chapter, consumer preferences for various commodities did not change during theanalysis. In some situations, however, preferences do change as consumption occurs.Discuss why and how preferences might change over time with consumption of these twocommodities:a. CigarettesThe assumption that preferences do not change is a reasonable one if choices are independentacross time. It does not hold, however, when “habit-forming” or addictive behavior is involved,as in the case of cigarettes. The consumpt ion of cigarettes in one period influences the consumer’spreference for cigarettes in the next period: the consumer desires cigarettes more because he hasbecome more addicted to them.b. Dinner for the first time at a restaurant with a special cuisineThe first time you eat at a restaurant with a special cuisine can be an exciting new diningexperience. This may make eating at the restaurant more desirable. But once you’ve eaten there,it isn’t so exciting to do it again (“been there, done that”), and pre ference changes. On the otherhand, some people prefer to eat at familiar places where they don’t have to worry about new and unknown cuisine. For them, the first time at the restaurant would be less pleasant, but once they’veeaten there and discovered they like the food, they would find further visits to the restaurant more desirable. In both cases, preferences change as consumption occurs.Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.Chapter 3Consumer Behavior37 2. Draw indifference curves that represent the following individuals’ preferences for hamburgersand soft drinks. I ndicate the direction in which the individuals’ satisfaction (or utility) isincreasing.a. Joe has convex preferences and dislikes both hamburgers and soft drinks.Since Joe dislikes both goods, he prefers less to more, and his satisfaction is increasing in thedirection of the origin. Convexity of preferences implies his indifference curves will have thenormal shape in that they are bowed towards the direction of increasing satisfaction. Convexity also implies that given any two bundles between which the Joe is indifferent, any linear combination of the two bundles will be in the preferred set, or will leave him at least as well off. This is true of the indifference curves shown in the diagram below.b. Jane loves hamburgers and dislikes soft drinks. If she is served a soft drink, she will pour itdown the drain rather than drink it.Since Jane can freely dispose of the soft drink if it is given to her, she considers it to be a neutral good. This means she does not care about soft drinks one way or the other. With hamburgers on the vertical axis, her indifference curves are horizontal lines. Her satisfaction increases in theupward direction.c. Bob loves hamburgers and dislikes soft drinks. If he is served a soft drink, he will drink it tobe polite.Since Bob will drink the soft drink in order to be polite, it can be thought of as a “bad.” Whenserved another soft drink, he will require more hamburgers at the same time in order to keep his satisfaction constant. More soft drinks without more hamburgers will worsen his utility. Morehamburgers and fewer soft drinks will increase his utility, so his satisfaction increases as wemove upward and to the left.38 Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall.d. Molly loves hamburgers and soft drinks, but insists on consuming exactly one soft drink forevery two hamburgers that she eats.Molly wants to consume the two goods in a fixed proportion so her indifference curves areL-shaped. For a fixed amount of one good, she gets no extra satisfaction from having more of theother good. She will only increase her satisfaction if she has more of both goods.e. Bill likes hamburgers, but neither likes nor dislikes soft drinks.Like Jane, Bill considers soft drinks to be a neutral good. Since he does not care about soft drinks one way or the other we can assume that no matter how many he has, his utility will be the same. His level of satisfaction depends entirely on how many hamburgers he has, so his satisfactionincreases in the upward direction only.f. Mary always gets twice as much satisfaction from an extra hamburger as she does from anextra soft drink.How much extra satisfaction Mary gains from an extra hamburger or soft drink tells us something about the marginal utilities of the two goods and about her MRS . If she always receives twice the satisfaction from an extra hamburger then her marginal utility from consuming an extra hamburger is twice her marginal utility from consuming an extra soft drink. Her MRS , with hamburgers onthe vertical axis, is 1/2 because she will give up one hamburger only if she receives two softdrinks. Her indifference curves are straight lines with a slope of 1/2.Chapter 3 Consumer Behavior 393. If Jane is currently willing to trade 4 movie tickets for 1 basketball ticket, then she must likebasketball better than movies. True or false? Explain.This statement is not necessarily true. If she is always willing to trade 4 movie tickets for 1 basketball ticket then yes, she likes basketball better because she will always gain the same satisfaction from 4 movie tickets as she does from 1 basketball ticket. However, it could be that she has convex preferences (diminishing MRS ) and is at a bundle where she has a lot of movie tickets relative to basketball tickets. As she gives up movie tickets and acquires more basketball tickets, her MRS will fall. If MRS falls far enough she might get to the point where she would require, say, two basketball tickets to give up another movie ticket. It would not mean though that she liked basketball better, just that she had a lot of basketball tickets relative to movie tickets. Her willingness to give up a good depends on the quantity of each good in her current basket.4. Janelle and Brian each plan to spend $20,000 on the styling and gas mileage features of a new car.They can each choose all styling, all gas mileage, or some combination of the two. Janelle does not care at all about styling and wants the best gas mileage possible. Brian likes both equally and wants to spend an equal amount on each. Using indifference curves and budget lines, illustrate the choice that each person will make.Plot thousands of dollars spent on styling on the vertical axis and thousands spent on gas mileage on the horizontal axis as shown above. Janelle, on the left, has indifference curves that are vertical. If the styling is there she will take it, but she otherwise does not care about it. As her indifference curves move over to the right, she gains more gas mileage and more satisfaction. She will spend all $20,000 on gas mileage at point J . Brian, on the right, has indifference curves that are L-shaped. He will not spend more on one feature than on the other feature. He will spend $10,000 on styling and $10,000 on gas mileage. His optimal bundle is at point B .5. Suppose that Bridget and Erin spend their incomes on two goods, food (F ) and clothing (C ).Bridget’s preferences are repres ented by the utility function (,)10U F C FC =, while Erin’spreferences are represented by the utility function 22(,)0.20U F C F C =.40 Pindyck/Rubinfeld, Microeconomics, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. a. With food on the horizontal axis and clothing on the vertical axis, identify on a graph the setof points that give Bridget the same level of utility as the bundle (10,5). Do the same forErin on a separate graph.The bundle (10,5) contains 10 units of food and 5 of clothing. Bridget receives a utility of10(10)(5) = 500 from this bundle. Thus, her indifference curve is represented by the equation10FC = 500 or C = 50/F . Some bundles on this indifference curve are (5,10), (10,5), (25,2),and (2,25). It is plotted in the diagram below. Erin receives a utility of 0.2(102)(52) = 500 fromthe bundle (10,5). Her indifference curve is represented by the equation 0.2F 2C 2 = 500, or C =50/F . This is the same indifference curve as Bridget. Both indifference curves have the normal,convex shape.b. On the same two graphs, identify the set of bundles that give Bridget and Erin the samelevel of utility as the bundle (15,8).For each person, plug F = 15 and C = 8 into their respective utility functions. For Bridget, thisgives her a utility of 1200, so her indifference curve is given by the equation 10FC = 1200, orC = 120/F . Some bundles on this indifference curve are (12,10), (10,12), (3,40), and (40,3). Theindifference curve will lie above and to the right of the curve diagrammed in part a. This bundlegives Erin a utility of 2880, so her indifference curve is given by the equation 0.2F 2C 2 = 2880, orC = 120/F . This is the same indifference curve as Bridget.c. Do you think Bridget and Erin have the same preferences or different preferences? Explain.They have the same preferences because their indifference curves are identical. This means theywill rank all bundles in the same order. Note that it is not necessary that they receive the samelevel of utility for each bundle to have the same set of preferences. All that is necessary is thatthey rank the bundles in the same order.6. Suppose that Jones and Smith have each decided to allocate $1000 per year to an entertainmentbudget in the form of hockey games or rock concerts. They both like hockey games and rock concerts and will choose to consume positive quantities of both goods. However, they differ substantially in their preferences for these two forms of entertainment. Jones prefers hockey games to rock concerts, while Smith prefers rock concerts to hockey games.a. Draw a set of indifference curves for Jones and a second set for Smith.Given they each like both goods and they will each choose to consume positive quantities of both goods, we can assume their indifference curves have the normal convex shape. However sinceJones has an overall preference for hockey and Smith has an overall preference for rock concerts, their two sets of indifference curves will have different slopes. Suppose that we place rock concerts on the vertical axis and hockey games on the horizontal axis, Jones will have a larger MRS thanSmith. Jones is willing to give up more rock concerts in exchange for a hockey game since heprefers hockey games. Thus, indifference curves for Jones will be steeper than the indifferencecurves for Smith.b. Using the concept of marginal rate of substitution, explain why the two sets of curves aredifferent from each other.At any combination of hockey games and rock concerts, Jones is willing to give up more rock concerts for an additional hockey game, whereas Smith is willing to give up fewer rock concerts for an additional hockey game. Since the MRS is a measure of how many of one good (rock concerts) an individual is willing to give up for an additional unit of the other good (hockey games), the MRS , and hence the slope of the indifference curves, will be different for the two individuals.7. The price of DVDs (D ) is $20 and the price of CDs (C ) is $10. Philip has a budget of $100 to spend on the two goods. Suppose that he has already bought one DVD and one CD. In addition there are 3 more DVDs and 5 more CDs that he would really like to buy.a. Given the above prices and income, draw his budget line on a graph with CDs on the horizontal axis.His budget line is +=D C P D P C I , or 20D + 10C = 100. If he spends his entire income on DVDs he can afford to buy 5. If he spends his entire income on CDs he can afford to buy 10. His budget line is linear with these two points as intercepts.b. Considering what he has already purchased and what he still wants to purchase, identify the three different bundles of CDs and DVDs that he could choose. For this part of the question, assume that he cannot purchase fractional units.He has already purchased one of each for a total of $30, so he has $70 left. Since he wants 3 more DVDs, he can buy these for $60 and spend his remaining $10 on 1 CD. This is the first bundle below. He could also choose to buy only 2 DVDs for $40 and spend the remaining $30 on 3 CDs. This is the second bundle. Finally, he could purchase 1 more DVD for $20 and spend the remaining $50 on the 5 CDs he would like. This is the final bundle shown in the table below.Purchased Quantities Total Quantities DVDsCDs DVDs CDs 31 42 23 34 15 2 68. Anne has a job that requires her to travel three out of every four weeks. She has an annual travel budget and can travel either by train or by plane. The airline on which she typically flies has a frequent-traveler program that reduces the cost of her tickets according to the number of miles she has flown in a given year. When she reaches 25,000 miles, the airline will reduce the price of her tickets by 25% for the remainder of the year. When she reaches 50,000 miles, the airline will reduce the price by 50% for the remainder of the year. Graph Anne’s budget line, with train miles on the vertical axis and plane miles on the horizontal axis.The typical budget line is linear (with a constant slope) because prices do not change. In this case, the price of airline miles changes depending on how many miles Anne purchases. As the price changes, the slope of the budget line changes. Because there are three prices, there will be three slopes (and two kinks) to the budget line. Since the price falls as Anne flies more miles, her budget line will become flatter with each price change.。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解-(偏 好)

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解-(偏 好)

第3章 偏 好1.如果在()12x x ,和()12y y ,可以同时得到的情况下,消费者却选择了()12x x ,,那么,能否得出()12x x , ()12y y ,的结论?答:不能得出()12x x , ()12y y ,的结论。

理由如下:从最优化原理,消费者总是选择他们能够买得起的最佳商品束,就性状良好的偏好而言,即如果消费者的无差异曲线是严格凸性的,此时消费者的最优商品束是惟一的,消费者在()12y y ,可以消费得起的情况下选择了()12x x ,,那么就可以得出结论()12x x , ()12y y ,。

但就一般的情况而言,消费者的最优商品束并不一定是惟一的,消费者在()12y y ,可得的情况下选择了()12x x ,时,消费者也可能对二者是无差异的。

因此,对于一般的情况只能得出结论()12x x ,()12y y ,。

2.考虑一下包括A 、B 、C 的一组人,以及“A 至少与B 一样高”中的“至少一样高”的关系。

这种关系是传递的吗?是完备的吗?答:(1)这种关系是传递的。

比如说A 至少与B 一样高,B 至少与C 一样高,这就是说A 不会比B 矮,B 不会比C 矮,所以A 肯定不会比C 矮,即A 与C 至少一样高。

(2)这一关系也是完备的,因为任何两个人的身高都具备可比性。

3.在一组人中,“的确比……高”这种关系是传递的、反身的、完备的吗?答:这种关系是传递的,但不是反身的和完备的。

分析如下:在消费者理论中,对消费者的偏好有三个公理性假设,完备性(任何两个商品束之间都是可以比较的);反身性(任何商品束与同样的商品束相比至少是同样好的);传递性(如果消费者喜爱X消费束胜过Y,喜爱Y消费束胜过Z消费束,那么可以认为消费者喜爱X消费束胜过Z消费束)。

易知“的确比……高”这种关系满足传递性但不满足完备性与反身性。

因为不能说一个人“自己的确比自己高”,所以“的确比……高”这种关系不满足反身性;同时,并不是任意一个人的身高都高于另一个人,有可能它们两个一样高,所以“的确比……高”这种关系不满足完备性。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)笔记和课后习题详解-不确定性(圣才出品)

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)笔记和课后习题详解-不确定性(圣才出品)

第12章不确定性12.1复习笔记1.总论本章之前涉及的都是确定世界中的消费者行为,消费者掌握了关于影响其效用的所有变量的全部信息,然而在现实的世界中,消费者在进行决策时所面临的信息是不完备的,这意味着消费者在一个不确定的经济环境中进行决策,在这样一个不确定的世界中,消费者的决策会面临许多风险(比如通货膨胀、失业等等),本章所要研究的就是在一个什么事情都可能发生的环境中,消费者又是如何进行消费决策的。

2.不确定性和风险的描述(1)概率概率是对随机现象中某一事件(或状态)发生可能性大小的一种度量。

如果随机现象中某一事件(或状态)发生的概率是客观存在的,并有试验可作依据,则这种概率被定义为客观概率;如果随机现象中某一事件(或状态)发生的概率是根据决策者主观推测出来的(并无试验可作依据),则这种概率被定义为主观概率。

一般而言,不确定性是与客观概率相联系的随机现象,而风险是与主观概率相联系的随机现象。

(2)期望值期望值是对随机变量所有可能结果的一个加权平均,权数就是每一结果发生的概率。

i x 为变量值,i p 为概率,即:()11n nE x p x p x =++ 期望值仅仅刻画了某种随机变量可能结果的平均值,但并没有反映出随机特征,即没有反映随机变量波动程度的大小。

(3)方差方差是随机变量离差平方的数学期望,即:()21ni i i Var p x E x ==-⎡⎤⎣⎦∑。

比如:两种股票X 、Y 现在的价格均为10元,一年后可能的价格及其概率分布如表12-1所示。

表12-1两种股票一年后可能的价格及其概率分布从而:()0.480.5120.11510.7E X =⨯+⨯+⨯=;() 5.61Var X =。

()0.460.5120.12310.7E Y =⨯+⨯+⨯=;()24.81Var Y =。

方差越大,说明随机变量的波动性越大,因而风险也越大。

3.期望效用(1)期望效用设消费者的效用函数为()u u x =,其中x 为消费者可能得到的消费水平。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)配套题库【名校考研真题+课后习题+章节题库+模拟试题】

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)配套题库【名校考研真题+课后习题+章节题库+模拟试题】

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)配套题库【名校考研真题+课后习题+章节题库+模拟试题】目录第一部分名校考研真题第1章需求与供给第2章消费者行为理论第3章生产者行为理论第4章市场结构与竞争策略第5章博弈论及其应用第6章生产要素定价理论第7章一般均衡论与福利经济学第8章市场失灵和微观经济政策附录指定范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表第二部分课后习题第1章市场第2章预算约束第3章偏好第4章效用第5章选择第6章需求第7章显示偏好第8章斯勒茨基方程第9章购买和销售第10章跨时期选择第11章资产市场第12章不确定性第13章风险资产第14章消费者剩余第15章市场需求第16章均衡第17章拍卖第18章技术第19章利润最大化第20章成本最小化第21章成本曲线第22章厂商供给第23章行业供给第24章垄断第25章垄断行为第26章要素市场第27章寡头垄断第28章博弈论第29章博弈论的应用第30章行为经济学第31章交换第32章生产第33章福利第34章外部效应第35章信息技术第36章公共物品第37章不对称信息第三部分章节题库第1章市场第2章预算约束第3章偏好第4章效用第5章选择第6章需求第7章显示偏好第8章斯勒茨基方程第9章购买和销售第10章跨时期选择第11章资产市场第12章不确定性第13章风险资产第15章市场需求第16章均衡第17章拍卖第18章技术第19章利润最大化第20章成本最小化第21章成本曲线第22章厂商供给第23章行业供给第24章垄断第25章垄断行为第26章要素市场第27章寡头垄断第28章博弈论第29章博弈论的应用第30章行为经济学第31章交换第32章生产第33章福利第34章外部效应第35章信息技术第37章不对称信息第四部分模拟试题范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》模拟试题及详解(一)范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》模拟试题及详解(二)内容简介本书是范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》教材的配套题库,主要包括以下内容:第一部分为名校考研真题。

(NEW)范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解

(NEW)范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解

目 录第1章 市 场第2章 预算约束第3章 偏 好第4章 效 用第5章 选 择第6章 需 求第7章 显示偏好第8章 斯勒茨基方程第9章 购买和销售第10章 跨时期选择第11章 资产市场第12章 不确定性第13章 风险资产第14章 消费者剩余第15章 市场需求第16章 均 衡第17章 拍 卖第18章 技 术第19章 利润最大化第20章 成本最小化第21章 成本曲线第22章 厂商供给第23章 行业供给第24章 垄 断第25章 垄断行为第26章 要素市场第27章 寡头垄断第28章 博弈论第29章 博弈论的应用第30章 行为经济学第31章 交 换第32章 生 产第33章 福 利第34章 外部效应第35章 信息技术第36章 公共物品第37章 不对称信息第1章 市 场1假设在房屋租赁市场上,前25个消费者租用商品房的保留价格为500美元,第26个消费者租用商品房的保留价格为200美元,需求曲线呈什么形状?答:此时需求曲线呈阶梯状。

具体的讲,当价格高于500美元时,需求为0,价格介于200美元到500美元之间时,需求为25套,当价格小于等于200美元时,需求为26套。

相应的数学表达式为:相应的需求曲线如图1-1所示。

图1-1 租赁房屋的需求曲线2在第1题中,假如只有24套住房可以出租,均衡价格是多少?如果有26套住房可出租,均衡价格又是多少?如果有25套住房可出租,均衡价格是多少?答:(1)假如只有24套住房可以出租,那么均衡价格为500美元。

这是因为:均衡时,供给曲线和需求曲线相交,交点的纵坐标对应的就是均衡价格,如图1-2的点所示。

特别的,图1-2中的需求曲线和图1-1相同。

(2)如果市场上有26套住房出租,均衡价格为0美元(含)到200美元(含)之间的任意数值。

理由同(1),如图1-2的点所示。

(3)如果只有25套住房可以出租,均衡价格为200美元(含)到500美元(含)之间的任意数值。

理由同(1),如图1-2的点所示。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》配套题库【章节题库】(偏 好)【圣才出品】

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》配套题库【章节题库】(偏 好)【圣才出品】

第3章偏好一、单项选择题1.小张消费商品和,他的无差异曲线可以用方程来描述,更大的值表示更偏好的无差异曲线。

下列哪一项是正确的?()A.小张喜欢商品,讨厌商品B.小张偏好(12,16)于(16,12)C.小张偏好(8,5)于(5,8)D.小张喜欢商品,讨厌商品【答案】B【解析】,所以校长喜欢和。

当商品组合为(12,16),;当商品组合为(16,12),,因此小张偏好(12,16)于(16,12)。

当商品组合为(8,5),;当商品组合为(5,8),,因此小张偏好(5,8)于(8,5)。

2.小王消费苹果和香蕉。

他对苹果消费认为越多越好,但他可能会对香蕉厌烦。

如果每个星期消费少于29只香蕉,小王则认为一只香蕉与一个苹果是完全替代的。

但如果香蕉多于29只,那么要让小王多消费一只香蕉则必须多给他一个苹果。

小王的一条无差异曲线通过(30,39),其中横轴为苹果的消费量,纵轴为香蕉的消费量,这条无差异曲线同时也通过(A,21),则A等于()。

A.25B.28C.34D.36【答案】B【解析】效用函数方程为:。

如图3-1所示,在处有分界点。

取值为时,可得,又经过(,21),即,可得。

另解:消费束(,21)同(30,39)无差异,首先因为在香蕉不超过29时,两种商品完全替代,那么(,21)应该无差异于(,29)。

但是超过29时,香蕉变成了厌恶品,而且必须有苹果来补充,所以(,39)无差异于(30,39),即,解得。

图3-1 小王的无差异曲线3.如果两类商品的消费都是越多越好,并且偏好是良性的,则()。

A.无差异曲线上存在链点B.无差异曲线不一定是条直线C.对于两个不同但无差异的消费束,则它们的平均消费束比它们更糟D.沿着无差异曲线的边际替代率保持常数不变【答案】B【解析】两类商品的消费都是越多越好,并且偏好是良性的,那么消费者必然喜欢平均消费,无差异曲线可以是一条凸向原点的曲线,边际替代率递减。

4.对于两种完全互补的商品,下列哪一种说法正确?()A.存在一个餍足点,并且所有无差异曲线都围绕它B.消费者只买两个中便宜的那个C.无差异曲线斜率为正D.以上都不对【答案】D【解析】互补品的无差异曲线呈L形,离原点越远效用越大;完全互补的一个重要特点在于:消费者偏好以固定比例消费物品,因此不会因为价格便宜而多购买哪一种物品;厌恶品的无差异曲线斜率才为正,因为它们属于消费者不喜欢的商品。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解-(利润最大化)

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解-(利润最大化)

第19章 利润最大化1.在短期内,如果不变生产要素的价格提高,利润会发生什么变化?答:在短期内,如果不变生产要素的价格提高,利润会降低。

厂商利润()()()00max max x x pf x z wx rz pf x z wx rz π≥≥⎡⎤=-+=--⎢⎥⎣⎦,,,其中r 和z 分别是固定要素的数量和价格。

特别地,短期内z 固定不变,所以r 和z 会以参数的形式出现在利润的表达式中。

所以,r 的提高会引起利润的下降。

2.如果某企业的生产技术能做到对于任何产量水平都是规模报酬递增的,在价格保持不变并且经营规模扩大一倍的情况下,它的利润会发生什么变化?答:它的利润会扩大到原来的两倍以上。

这是因为:对于一个处处规模报酬递增的企业,其生产函数满足()()f tx tf x >,其中1t >。

对任意的产量x ,其利润为()0max x pf x wx π≥=-,所以当企业生产规模扩大一倍后,其利润是 ()()00max 222max x x pf x wx pf x wx π≥≥⎡⎤=->-⎢⎥⎣⎦,因此其利润是原来的两倍以上。

3.如果一个企业在各种产出水平上都显示规模报酬递减,那么,把这个企业划分为两个相等规模的较小企业,它的总利润会发生什么变化?答:通过把一个企业分拆为规模更小的企业可以提高其总利润。

这是因为:对于一个处于规模报酬递减的企业,其生产函数满足()()f tx tf x <,其中1t >。

该企业的利润为:()()()0max x p w pf x wx pf x wx π**≥=-=-,,其中*x 是最优要素投入量。

若把该企业分成两个规模相等的小企业,则这两个小企业的总利润为:()1222x pf wx pf x wx ****⎡⎤⎛⎫->-⎢⎥ ⎪⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ 分拆后的总利润大于原来一个企业的利润,所以通过把一个企业分拆为规模更小的企业有利于提高其利润,而且分拆后的规模越小,则这些小企业的总利润就越高(比如在本题中,把企业分拆后的两个小企业再次按同样的方法分拆)。

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解-(斯勒茨基方程)

范里安《微观经济学:现代观点》(第7、8版)课后习题详解-(斯勒茨基方程)

第8章斯勒茨基方程1.假设消费者对两种商品的偏好为完全替代型的,在此情形下,你能变动价格使得需求总变动全部由收入效应引起吗?答:如果两种商品是1∶1完全替代的,而且商品1的价格低于商品2的价格,则消费者只会消费商品1。

现在令商品1的价格下降,消费者仍然只会消费商品1,但商品1消费量的增加完全由收入效应引起,因为商品2的消费量原本已为0,不可能再用商品1替代商品2。

2.假定消费者的偏好是凹的,替代效应仍然是负的吗?答:在消费者的偏好是凹的情况下,替代效应是非正的。

替代效应为负是指替代效应的变化和价格变化方向相反。

在消费者的偏好是凹的情况下,消费者的最优选择是端点消费束。

这种情况有点类似于完全替代的偏好,消费者根据预算线的斜率与无差异曲线来决定购买哪种商品。

图8-1 凹偏好的替代效应在图8-1的情况下,当商品1的价格上涨时,最优消费束从A点移动到C点,消费者仍然把所有的收入拿来购买商品1,再从图中虚线的位置就知道替代效应等于0;而在图8-2的情况下,价格的变化使消费者由原来的只购买商品1变为只购买商品2,从图中虚线的位置就知道,此时只有替代效应,收入效应为零。

价格上涨,而消费减少至0,则替代效应为负。

因此,在偏好是凹性的情况下,替代效应不一定为负,还可能为0。

图8-2 凹偏好的替代效应3.在征收汽油税的例子中,如果不是根据最终消费的汽油量x',而是根据原先消费的汽油x向消费者退税,情况会发生怎样的变化?答:如果不是根据最终消费的汽油x',而是根据原先消费的汽油x向消费者退税,那么消费者的汽油消费量会减少,但他们的境况至少和以前一样好。

分析如下:假设消费者的预算线为px y m+=,其中p代表石油价格,x代表石油的消费量,y表示花在其他商品上的货币,m表示总收入,从而消费者的最优选择为()**,,如图8-3所x y示。

图8-3 退税对消费者的影响特别的,该选择必然满足:**+=px y m实行退税政策后,消费者的预算线变为:()*++=+p t x y m tx此时新的预算线过原来的最优点,但斜率不一样,新的预算集包括原来的最优消费束,所以现在消费者的境况至少和原来一样好。

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Intermediate Microeconomics:A Modern Approach (8th Edition)Hal R. Varian范里安中级微观经济学:现代方法(第8版)完美中文翻译版)含全部习题详细解答)第3章:偏好(含全部习题详细解答偏好(曹乾译(东南大学caoqianseu@)3偏好在第2章我们已看到,消费者行为的经济模型很简单:人们在能购买得起的商品束中选择最优的消费束最优的消费束......。

上一章说明了“能够买得起”的含义,本章则旨在说明“最优商品束”的概念。

我们把消费者选择的东西称为消费束...(consumption bundles )。

消费束是我们研究选择问题中涉及到的全部全部..商品(或服务)。

“全部”二字值得强调:当分析消费者选择问题时,一定要将涉及到的商品全部包含在消费束的定义中。

如果我们是在最宽泛的水平上研究消费者选择问题,我们不仅需要知道消费者可能消费的所有商品,还需要知道消费的时间,地点以及在什么样情形下消费的。

毕竟人们不仅关心今天的食物数量,还关心明天的食物数量。

大西洋里的小船和撒哈拉沙漠里的同样的小船,意义是不同的,类似的还有晴天的雨伞与阴雨天的雨伞。

通常将不同场所或环境中的“同种”商品视为不同的商品,因为消费者在这样的情形下对商品的评价会不同。

然而,当我们关注的是简单的消费选择问题时,相关的商品通常非常明显。

我们经常采用前面介绍过的思想:只使用两种商品进行分析,而将其中一种商品视为“所有其他的商品”。

这样做的好处是,我们可以重点关注一种商品和所有其他商品之间的权衡问题。

这样,在涉及很多商品的消费选择问题时,我们仍可以使用二维图形进行分析。

因此,可以假设消费束只包含两种商品,令),(21x x 表示消费束,其中1x 代表某种商品,2x 代表另外一种商品。

有时可将这个消费束简写为X 。

3.1消费者的偏好假设给定两个消费束),(21x x 和),(21y y ,消费者可按照他自己的意愿对这两个消费束排序。

即消费者可以认为一个消费束严格好于另外一个消费束,或者认为这两个消费束无差异。

我们用符号f 表示严格偏好....(strict preference),因此),(),(2121y y x x f 表示消费者严格偏好),(21x x 胜于),(21y y ,意思是说他肯定想要消费束X 而不是消费束Y 。

这种偏好关系提供了判断消费者选择哪个消费束的依据。

如果消费者偏好消费束X 胜于消费束Y ,那么他会选择消费束X 。

因此,偏好的思想是基于消费者行为行为..之上的。

为了判断某消费者是否偏好某个消费束胜于另一个消费束,我们可以提供给他这两个消费束,观察他的选择行为。

如果他原本可以选择),(21y y ,但他总是选择),(21x x ,那么可知他偏好),(21x x 胜于),(21y y 。

如果消费者认为两个消费束是无差异...的.(indifferent ),我们记为),(~),(2121y y x x ,其中符号~表示无差异。

无差异的意思是说消费者根据自己的偏好,认为这两个消费束提供的满足程度是一样的。

我们用符号−f 表示弱偏好...(weak preference ), ),(),(2121y y x x −f 意思是说消费者对前者的偏好胜于后者或者消费者对于这两个消费束无差异,简单地说就是消费者认为前者至少..和后者一样好。

严格偏好、弱偏好和无差异不是三个独立的概念,它们互相相关!例如,若果),(),(2121y y x x −f 并且),(),(2121x x y y −f ,则),(~),(2121y y x x 。

即,如果消费者认为消费束X 至少和消费束Y 一样好,并且并且..消费束Y 至少和消费束X 一样好,则消费者一定对这两个消费束是无差异的。

类似地,如果),(),(2121y y x x −f ,但),(~),(2121y y x x 不成立,则),(),(2121y y x x f 。

这只不过是说如果消费者认为消费束X 至少和消费束Y 一样好,但这两个消费束对他来说不是无差异的,则他认为消费束X 严格好于消费束Y 。

3.2关于偏好的假设经济学家通常对消费者偏好的“一致性(consistency)”作出一些假设。

例如,某情形下,既有),(),(2121y y x x f 又有),(),(2121x x y y f ,这样的偏好即使不说是矛盾的,也是不理性的。

因为这意味着消费者认为消费束X 比Y 好,但又反过来认为消费束Y 比X 好。

因此需要对偏好关系作出某些假设。

有些假设非常基本,通常被称为消费者理论的“公理”。

此处我们给出消费者偏好的三条公理。

完备性...(complete )公理。

假设任何两个消费束都可以比较,即给定消费束X 和消费束Y ,必有),(),(2121y y x x −f 或者),(),(2121x x y y −f ,或者二者都成立,在最后一种情形中,消费者对于这两个消费束是无差异的。

反身性...(reflexive )公理。

假设任何消费束都至少和它本身一样好,即),(),(2121x x x x −f 。

传递性...(transitive )公理。

如果),(),(2121y y x x −f 并且),(),(2121z z y y −f ,则),(),(2121z z x x −f 。

换句话说,如果消费者认为消费束X 至少和Y 一样好,而且消费束Y 至少和Z 一样好,则他认为消费束X 至少和Z 一样好。

第一个公理即完备性公理,几乎难以反驳,至少对于经济学家通常研究的选择问题来说是这样的。

我们说任何两个消费束可以比较,只不过想表明消费者能在这二者中作出取舍。

你也许会想到极端情形比如生或死的选择,这类问题中对选项的排序很困难甚至无法排序,幸好经济学基本不研究这样的选择问题。

第二个公理即反身性公理,是平凡的(trivial )(一)。

任何消费束当然和同样的消费束至少一样好。

父母偶尔会发现小孩的行为违背了反身性公理,但对于大多数成人的行为来说,这个假设似乎是合理的。

第三个公理即传递性公理,问题相对大些。

人们并没搞清偏好的传递性是否为偏好的必要..属性。

从纯逻辑的角度看,偏好的传递性假设无法做到让人信服。

事实上,传递性是对人们选择行为作出的假设,而不是纯逻辑的论断。

当然,这个假设是否符合基本逻辑事实并不是问题的关键,关键在于这个假设能否合理地准确刻画消费者的选择行为。

如果某个消费者说他认为消费束X 比Y 好,Y 比Z 好,Z 比X 好。

怎么评价他?我们通常认为他不正常。

更重要的是,如果给上述消费者三个消费束X ,Y 和Z ,他如何选出最喜欢的?他很难作出选择,因为无论他选哪个消费束,都还有比这个消费束更好的消费束。

如果我们想研究消费者的“最佳”选择问题,必须假设偏好满足传递性公理。

如果偏好不是传递的,就可能出现无法作出最优选择的情形。

3.3无差异曲线偏好的三个公理是消费者理论的基石,如果再加上其他一些技术性的假设,我们就能用数学构建起整个消费者理论的大厦。

然而,借助图形分析更加直观,但我们先要引入刻画偏好的一个工具,这就是无差异曲线.....(indifference curve )。

图3.1:弱偏好集弱偏好集。

阴影区域的所有消费束都至少和),(21x x 一样好。

(一)trivial (平凡的),数学用语,是指某东西(例如向量空间)的结构非常简单,不值一提(但又不得不提)。

有时我们也会遇到下列说法:某方程的某个解是平凡的。

这是说这个解非常简单。

请看图3.1,我们用横轴和纵轴分别表示商品1和商品2的消费数量。

任选一个消费束),(21x x ,用阴影标记出所有比),(21x x 更好或者一样好的消费束。

这些消费束称为弱偏好...集.(weakly preferred set )。

在弱偏好集边界上的消费束与),(21x x 一样好,这些消费束组成了无差异曲线.....。

对于任何一个消费束都可以画出经过这点的无差异曲线。

经过某个消费束的无差异曲线包含了所有与该消费束一样好的消费束。

使用无差异曲线刻画偏好时,在同一条无差异曲线上的消费束是无差异的。

不同无差异曲线上的消费束怎样比较?在图形上如果只给你几条无差异曲线,你无法比较不同无差异曲线上的消费束。

因此,有时候人们在无差异曲线上标记一些小箭头,指出哪个方向上的消费束更受偏好。

我们一般不这么做,除非在容易混淆的情形时,我们才用箭头标记。

如果我们对偏好不作出进一步的假设,你可以画出任意形状的无差异曲线。

即使如此,无差异曲线仍具有一个重要的性质:不同无差异曲线不同无差异曲线.......(代表不同偏好水平代表不同偏好水平))..........不能相交....。

也就是说,不可能出现类似图3.2的情形。

为了证明上述结论,在图形上任意选取三个消费束:X ,Y 和Z ,使得X 只位于其中一条无差异曲线上,Y 只位于另一条无差异曲线上,Z 位于上述两条无差异曲线的交点处。

由于不同无差异曲线代表不同的偏好水平,因此假设X 严格好于Y 。

由图可知,Z X ~以及Y Z ~,由传递性公理可知Y X ~。

但这与我们的假设Y X f 矛盾。

这就说明无差异曲线不能相交。

图3.2:无差异曲线不能相交无差异曲线不能相交。

如果相交,消费束X ,Y 和Z 必然两两无差异,因此这三个消费束就不能位于不同的无差异曲线上。

无差异曲线还有其他什么样的性质吗?一般来说,答案为:并不多。

无差异曲线是描述偏好的一种方法。

几乎任何“合理的”偏好都能用无差异曲线描述。

你要掌握的技巧是给你一种偏好类型,你能找到相应的无差异曲线形状来描述它。

下面我们就介绍这些知识。

3.4偏好的例子我们利用例子来考察偏好和无差异曲线之间的对应关系。

我们先给出一些偏好类型,然后看看什么样形状的曲线能描述这样的偏好。

给定偏好类型,构建相应无差异曲线的通用程序如下。

首先,画好横纵坐标,任意画出一个点,代表消费束),(21x x 。

现在假设给消费者一些商品1(1x ∆),则新消费束为),(211x x x ∆+。

你来回答怎样改变改变..商品2的数量才能恰好使消费者还在原来的无差异曲线上。

假设商品2的变化量为2x ∆。

现在问题变为“给定商品1的消费量变化1x ∆,2x ∆为多大时, ),(2211x x x x ∆+∆+和),(21x x 这两个消费束恰好无差异?”一旦你知道如何移动),(21x x ,你就画出了一小段无差异曲线。

再画出一个消费束,重复以上步骤…直到你画出比较全面的无差异曲线形状。

完全替代两种商品是完全替代....(perfect substitute )的,如果消费者愿意按固定固定..比率将一种商品替换为另一种。

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