克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第21章 全球资本市场：运行和政策问题)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第19章宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调19.1复习笔记1．支持浮动汇率制的观点（1）货币政策自主性在布雷顿森林体系的固定汇率制度下，除美国以外的其他国家极少有机会运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡。
由于要抵消资本流动的影响，货币政策的作用被弱化了。
但是，如果各国中央银行不再为固定汇率而被迫干预货币市场，各国政府就能够运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡，并且各国不再会因为外部因素导致本国出现通货膨胀或通货紧缩。
浮动汇率制的提倡者认为，如果中央银行不必再承担稳定其币值的义务，那么它们将恢复对货币的控制。
货币贬值会降低本国产品的相对价格，从而使外国对本国产品的需求增加，进而减少本国的失业。
同样，在经济过热的国家中，中央银行可以通过压缩货币供给来抑制过热的经济活动，而不必担心过多的国际储备流入会破坏其稳定币值的努力。
通过加强对货币政策的控制，各国可以排除那些扭曲国际支付的障碍。
浮动汇率制的提倡者还认为，各国如果使用浮动汇率，就能够选择自己愿意接受的长期通货膨胀率，而不再会被动地引进国外的通货膨胀率。
支持浮动汇率最为有力的理论之一就是认为它能够通过汇率的自动调整来隔绝国外持续性通货膨胀带来的影响。
产生这种隔绝的机制是购买力平价。
（2）对称性浮动汇率制的支持者认为：浮动汇率制可以消除类似布雷顿森林体系所造成的不对称。
由于各国不再将本国货币钉住对美元的汇率，也就不必因此而持有美元作储备。
所以，各国都可以自主决定本国的货币状况。
同样，美国在运用货币政策或财政政策改变美元汇率时，不会再遇到特别的阻碍。
最后，在全球范围内，所有国家的汇率都将由市场而不是由政府决定。
（3）汇率自动稳定器功能与固定汇率相比，浮动汇率相对减少了需求冲击对就业的影响，从而有利于经济稳定。
当对本国产品和劳务的需求下降时，浮动汇率下的货币贬值，会使本国产品和劳务的价格下降，部分地减轻了这种需求下降的不利影响。
《克鲁格曼 国际经济学 第8版 笔记和课后习题详解》读书笔记思维导图
《克鲁格曼 国际经 济学 第8版 笔记 和课后习题详解》
思维导图PPT模板
本书关键字分析思维导图
经济学
克鲁格曼
名校
笔记
教材
贸易
经济
பைடு நூலகம்
国际
习题
政策 汇率
国际贸易
第章
第版
模型
货币
参考书目
答案
精华
01 第1章 绪 论
目录
02 第1篇 国际贸易理论
03 第2篇 国际贸易政策
第1章 绪 论
第1篇 国际贸易理论
01
第2章 世 界贸易概览
02
第3章 劳 动生产率和 比较优势： 李嘉图模型
03
第4章 资 源、比较优 势与收入分 配
04
第5章 标 准贸易模型
06
第7章 国 际要素流动
05
第6章 规 模经济、不 完全竞争和 国际贸易
第2篇 国际贸易政策
第8章 贸易的政 策工具
05
第4篇 国际宏观经济 政策
04
第3篇 汇率与开放经 济的宏观经济学
本书特别适用于参加研究生入学考试指定考研参考书目为克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》（第8版）的考生。 克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》（中国人民大学出版社）被列为“十一五”国家重点图书出版规划项目，是我国 众多高校采用的国际经济学权威教材，也被众多高校指定为“国际经济学”等专业考研（含复试）参考书目。为 了帮助考生复习备考，我们精心编著了它的配套辅导用书（均提供免费下载，免费升级）：1．克鲁格曼《国际经 济学》（第8版）笔记和课后习题详解2．克鲁格曼《国际经济学》名校考研真题与典型题详解3．克鲁格曼《国 际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解4．克鲁格曼《国际经济学》配套题库【名校考研真题+课后习题+章节练习+ 模拟试题】本书是克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）教材的配套e书，严格按照克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8 版）教材内容进行编写，共分22章，主要包括以下内容：（1）整理名校笔记，浓缩内容精华。每章的复习笔记 以克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》（第8版）为主，并结合国内其他国际经济学经典教材对各章的重难点进行了整 理，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。（2）解析课后习题，提供详尽答案。本书参考大量相关 辅导资料对克鲁格曼所著的《国际经济学》（第8版）的课后习题进行了详细的分析和解答，并对相关重要知识点 进行了延伸和归纳。另外，还提供英文版原题，以便于学员复习备考。（3）最新笔记和课后习题答案，可免费升 级获得。本e书每年都会进行修订完善，补充最新的笔记和课后习题答案。对于最新补充的笔记和课后习题答案， 均可以免费升级获得。
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？6．答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
7．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
8．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案
Chapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income DistributionChapter OrganizationA Model of a Two-Factor EconomyPrices and ProductionChoosing the Mix of InputsFactor Prices and Goods PricesResources and OutputEffects of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies Relative Prices and the Pattern of TradeTrade and the Distribution of IncomeFactor Price EqualizationTrade and Income Distribution in the Short RunCase Study: North-South Trade and Income InequalityThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThe Gains from Trade, RevisitedOptimal Trade PolicyIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsBox: Income Distribution and the Beginnings of Trade Theory Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelTesting the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelImplications of the TestsSummaryAppendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input Choices Choice of TechniqueGoods Prices and Factor PricesChapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade which will arise when countries have different endowments of factors of production, such as labor, capital, and land. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are intensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources, and tends to lead to equalization across countries of prices of the factors of production. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods which are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (The appendix develops the model when the production functions have variable coefficients.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good which uses that factor intensively.The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the “Baby Boom” generation differ from the pattern of production for post Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior?The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. This is demonstrated by showing that, using the relative supply and relative demand analysis, the country relatively abundantly endowed with a certain factor will produce that factor more cheaply than the other country. International trade leads to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the results from the Stolper-Samuelson effect demonstrate that owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but ownersof a country’s scarce factors lose. The extension of this result is the important Factor Price Equalization Theorem, which states that trade in (and thus price equalization of) goods leads to an equalization in the rewards to factors across countries. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.The chapter also introduces some political economy considerations. First, it briefly notes that many of the results regarding trade and income distribution assume full and swift adjustment in the economy. In the short run, though, labor and capital that are currently in a particular industry may have sector-specific skills or knowledge and are being forced to move to another sector, and this involves costs. Thus, even if a shift in relative prices were to improve the lot of labor, for those laborers who must change jobs, there is a short run cost.The core of the political economy discussion focuses on the fact that when opening to trade, some may benefit and some may lose, but the expansion of economic opportunity should allow society to redistribute some of the gains towards those who lose, making sure everyone benefits on net. In practice, though, those who lose are often more concentrated and hence have more incentive to try to affect policy. Thus, trade policy is not always welfare maximizing, but may simply reflect the preferences of the loudest and best organized in society.Empirical results concerning the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, beginning with the Leontief paradox and extending to current research, do not support its predictions concerning resource endowments explaining overall patterns of trade, though some patterns do match the broad outlines of its theory (e.g., theUnited States imports more low-skill products from Bangladesh and more high-skill products from Germany). This observation has motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be exploredin later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries as well if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between another country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose.2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the lengthof the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray from each of the two cornersrepresenting the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the questionconcerning the ratios of the production coefficients. The question states that a LC/a TC= 20 anda LF/a TF= 5.Since a LC/a TC= (L C/Q C)/(T C/Q C) =L C/T C we have L C= 20T C. Using the same reasoning,a LF/a TF= (L F/Q F)/(T F/Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F= 5T F. We cansolve this algebraically since L=L C+ L F= 600 and T=T C+ T F= 60.The solution is L C= 400, T C= 20, L F= 200 and T F= 40.b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor, but the slopes of the raysfrom the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different cases are as follows.L= 800: T C= 33.33, L C= 666.67, T F= 26.67, L F= 133.33L= 1000: T C= 46.67, L C= 933.33, T F= 13.33, L F= 66.67L= 1200: T C= 60, L C= 1200, T F= 0, L F= 0. (complete specialization).c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, orthere would be unemployment.3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter 3. What matters is not the absolute abundanceof factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. Thisresult does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on theowners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses fromtrade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from theHeckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. In the short run, certainunskilled unions may gain or lose from trade depending on in which sector they work, but in theory, in the longer run, the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin model will dominate.5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistentwith skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goodsoverall. In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector specific skills who will facetransition costs. There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the U.S., making the entire country better off on average.Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade which is making the nation as a whole better off. In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the U.S. blocked the programming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensivein factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, whichhas a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found for the world as a whole the correlation between factorendowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ e xports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7. If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be moresuccessful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled workercould earn twice what lower-skilled workers do, and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.。
国际经济学第八版课后答案
国际经济学第八版课后答案国际经济学是当代世界上重要的一门学科，在全球经济不断发展的今天，在不同国家和地区间进行国际贸易和投资已成为一种常态，而这种现象的背后，正是国际经济学的基础理论支撑，因此学习国际经济学的重要性日益凸显。
而对于国际经济学这门学科来说，了解、掌握相关的知识点和要点，完成课后习题，是非常重要的。
国际经济学第八版通过对国际贸易、投资、汇率、国际收支等一系列问题进行系统讲述，对学生进行全方位的培养，涉及到的知识点也十分广泛，因此，在完成课后习题时，可能会遇到一定的问题，需要一定的帮助和指导才能完成。
因此，对于国际经济学第八版课后答案的研究也显得尤为重要。
在研究国际经济学第八版课后答案时，我们需要注意以下几点：1.仔细阅读教材，掌握理论基础课后习题的主要目的就是帮助学生巩固课堂上所学的知识点和理论基础，因此在完成课后习题时，学生需要仔细阅读教材，掌握理论基础。
只有对教材中所介绍的理论和分析方法有了充分的理解和把握，才能更好地完成课后习题，理解其中的思想和要点。
2.注重实践应用，锻炼思维能力国际经济学的学习需要注重实践应用，在完成课后习题时也应该如此，尤其是在解决实际问题的时候，需要更注重实践应用，并且要灵活运用学到的理论知识，通过对问题的分析、解答、讨论，锻炼自己的思维能力和创新意识。
3.积极参与交流讨论，锻炼合作能力课后习题的完成，不是个人的事情，而是需要学生之间相互交流、讨论、合作实现的，因此，在完成课后习题时，学生需要积极参与交流讨论，通过与同学之间的互动和交流，可以加深对问题的理解和认识，锻炼自己的合作能力。
4.注意答案的准确性和合理性在完成课后习题时，需要注意答案的准确性和合理性，只有在确认自己所得出的答案是准确的、合理的，才能对所学到的内容有充分的理解和掌握。
综上所述，国际经济学第八版课后答案对于学生的学习来说具有非常重要的作用，同时也需要注意一些问题。
最后，我们希望广大学生能够通过认真学习、积极思考、有效交流，掌握好国际经济学的相关知识点，为将来更好地服务国家和世界经济发展做出自己的贡献。
克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版答案
克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版答案【篇一：克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案英语版】labor productivity and comparative advantage: the ricardian modelanswers to textbook problems1. a. the production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400(1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2).b. the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. it takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. if one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. these 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest 1.5 bananas.c. labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas.2. a. the production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1).b. the world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. the lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. the relative supply curve is flat at this price. the maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by home while, at this price, foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. this relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. at the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. the relative supply curve is again flat at 5. thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relativesupply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 risingfrom 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity.3. a. the relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2).b. the equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. this is the point (1/2, 2), where the relativedemand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. thus the equilibrium relative price is 2.c. home produces only apples, foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some of its product for the product of the other country.d. in the absence of trade, home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. each country is better off with trade.4.the increase in the number of workers at home shifts outthe relative supply schedulesuch that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). in this case, foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for home is the same whether or not there is trade, so home neither gains nor loses from trade.5.this answer is identical to that in 3. the amount of effective labor has not changedsince the doubling of the labor force is accompanied by a halving of the productivity of labor.6.this statement is just an example of the pauper labor argument discussed in the chapter.the point is that relative wage rates do not come out of thin air; they are determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. the box in the chapter providesdata which shows the strong connection between wages and productivity. koreas low wage presumably reflects the fact that korea is less productive than the united states in mostindustries. as the test example illustrated, a highly productive country that trades with a less productive, low-wage country will raise, not lower, its standard of living.7.the problem with this argument is that it does not use all the information needed fordetermining comparative advantage in production: this calculation involves the four unit labor requirements (for both the industry and service sectors, not just the two for the service sector). it is not enough to compare only services unit labor requirements. if als als*, home labor is more efficient than foreign labor in services. while this demonstrates that the united states has an absolute advantage in services, this is neithera necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining comparative advantage. for this determination, the industry ratios are also required. the competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries.8.while japanese workers may earn the equivalent wages of u.s. workers, the purchasingpower of their income is one-third less. this implies that although w=w* (more or less), pp* (since 3p=p*). since the united states is considerably more productive in services, service prices are relatively low. this benefits and enhances u.s. purchasing power. however, many of these services cannot be transported and hence, are not traded. this implies that the japanese may not benefit from the lower u.s. services costs, and do not face an international price which is lower than their domestic price. likewise, the price of services in united states does not increase with the opening of trade since these services are non-traded. consequently, u.s. purchasing power is higher than that of japan due to its lower prices on non-traded goods.9.gains from trade still exist in the presence of nontraded goods. the gains from tradedecline as the share of nontraded goods increases. in other words, the higher the portion of goods which do not enter international marketplace, the lower the potential gains from trade. if transport costs were high enough so that no goodswere traded then, obviously, there would be no gains from trade.10.the world relative supply curve in this case consists of a step function, with as manysteps (horizontal portions) as there are countries with different unit labor requirement ratios. any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. if the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.chapter 3specific factors and income distributionanswers to textbook problems1.texas and louisiana are states with large oil-producing sectors. the real wage of oil-producing factors of production in terms of other goods falls when the price of oil falls relative to the price of other goods. this was the source of economic decline in these states in 1986.2.to analyze the economys production possibility frontier, consider how the output mixchanges as labor is shifted between the two sectors.a. the production functions for goods 1 and 2 are standard plots with quantities on the vertical axis, labor on the horizontal axis, and q1= q1(k1,l1) with slope equal to the mpl1, and on another graph, q2= q2(k2,l2) with slope equal to thempl2.figure 3-1b. to graph the production possibilities frontier, combine the production function diagrams with the economys allocation of labor in a four quadrant diagram. the economys ppf is in the upper right hand corner, as is illustrated in the four quadrant diagram above. the ppf is curved due to declining marginal product of labor in each good.3. a. to solve this problem, one can graph the demand curve for labor in sector 1,represented by (w=mpl1=demand for l1) and the demand curve for labor in sector 2, represented by (w=mpl2=demand for l2) . since the total supply of labor is given by the horizontalaxis, the labor allocation between the sectors is approximately l1=27 and l2=73. the wage rate is approximately $0.98.wl127l2figure 3-2 100lb. use the same type of graph as in problem 2b to show that sectoral output is q1=44 and q2=90. (this involves combining the production function diagrams with the economys allocation of labor in a four quadrant diagram. the economys ppf is in the upper right hand corner, as illustrated in the text.)e a graph of labor demands, as in part a, to show that the intersection of the demand curves for labor occurs at a wage rate approximately equal to $0.74. the relative decline in the price of good 2 caused labor to be reallocated: labor is drawn out of production of good 2 and enters production of good 1 (l1=62, l2=38). this also leads【篇二：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-ch18】monetary system, 1870–1973? chapter organizationmacroeconomic policy goals in an open economyinternal balance: full employment and price-level stabilityexternal balance: the optimal level of the current accountinternational macroeconomic policy under the gold standard, 1870–1914origins of the gold standardexternal balance under the gold standardthe price-specie-flow mechanismthe gold standard “rules of the game”: myth and realitybox: hume v. the mercantilistsinternal balance under the gold standardcase study: the political economy of exchange rate regimes: conflict over america’s monetary standard during the 1890sthe interwar years, 1918–1939the fleeting return to goldinternational economic disintegrationcase study: the international gold standard and the great depressionthe bretton woods system and the international monetary fundgoals and structure of the imfconvertibility and the expansion of private capital flowsspeculative capital flows and crisesanalyzing policy options under the bretton woods systemmaintaining internal balancemaintaining external balanceexpenditure-changing and expenditure-switching policiesthe external-balance problem of the united statescase study: the decline and fall of the bretton woods systemworldwide inflation and the transition to floating ratessummarychapter 18 the international monetary system, 1870–1973 95 ? chapter overviewthis is the first of five international monetary policy chapters. these chapters complement the preceding theory chapters in several ways. they provide the historical and institutional background students require to place their theoretical knowledge in a useful context. the chapters also allow students, through study of historical and current events, to sharpen their grasp of the theoretical models and to develop the intuition those models can provide. (application of the theory to events of current interest will hopefully motivate students to return to earlier chapters and master points that may have been missed on the first pass.) chapter 18 chronicles the evolution of the international monetary system from the gold standard of 1870–1914, through the interwar years, andup to and including the post-world war ii bretton woods regime that ended in march 1973. the central focus of the chapter is the manner in which each system addressed, or failed to address, the requirements of internal and external balance for its participants. a country is in internal balance when its resources are fully employed and there is price level stability. external balance implies an optimal time path of the current account subject to its being balanced over the long run. other factors have been important in the definition of external balance at various times, and these are discussed in the text. the basic definition of external balance as an appropriate current-account level, however, seems to capture a goal that most policy-makers share regardless of the particular circumstances. the price-specie-flow mechanism described bydavid hume shows how the gold standard could ensure convergence to external balance. you may want to present the following model of the price-specie-flow mechanism. this model is based upon three equations:1.2.3. the balance sheet of the central bank. at the most simple level, this is just gold holdings equals the money supply: g ? m. the quantity theory. with velocity and output assumed constant and both normalized to 1, this yields the simple equation m ? p.a balance of payments equation where the current account is a function of the real exchange rate andthere are no private capital flows: ca ? f(e ? p*/p)these equations can be combined in a figure like the one below. the 45? line represents the quantity theory, and the vertical line is the price level where the real exchange rate results in a balanced current account. the economy moves along the 45? line back towards the equilibrium point 0 whenever it is out of equilibrium. for example, the loss of four-fifths of a country’s gold would put that country at point a with lower prices and a lower money supply. the resulting real exchange rate depreciation causes a current account surplus which restores money balances as the country proceeds upthe 45? line from ato 0.figure 18.1the automatic adjustment process described by the price-specie-flow mechanism is expedited by following “rules of the game” under which governments contract the domestic source components oftheir monetary bases when gold reserves are falling (corresponding to a current-account deficit) and expand when gold reserves are rising (the surplus case).in practice, there was little incentive for countries with expanding gold reserves to follow the “rules of the game.” this increased the contractionary burden shouldered by countries with persistent current account deficits. the gold standard also subjugated internal balance to the demands of external balance. research suggests price-level stability and highemployment were attained less consistently under the gold standard than in the post-1945 period.the interwar years were marked by severe economic instability. the monetization of war debt and of reparation payments led to episodes of hyperinflation in europe. an ill-fated attempt to return to the pre-war gold parity for the pound led to stagnation in britain. competitive devaluations and protectionism were pursued in a futile effort to stimulate domestic economic growth during the great depression. these beggar-thy-neighbor policies provoked foreign retaliation and led to the disintegration of the world economy. as one of the case studies shows, strict adherence to the gold standard appears to have hurt many countries during the great depression.determined to avoid repeating the mistakes of the interwar years, allied economic policy-makers met at bretton woods in 1944 to forge a new international monetary system for the postwar world. the exchange-rate regime that emerged from this conference had at its center the u.s. dollar. all other currencies had fixed exchange rates against the dollar, which itself had a fixed value in terms of gold. an international monetary fund was set up to oversee the system and facilitate its functioning by lending to countries with temporary balance of payments problems.a formal discussion of internal and external balance introduces the concepts of expenditure-switching and expenditure-changing policies. the bretton woods system, with its emphasis on infrequent adjustment of fixed parities, restricted the use of expenditure-switching policies. increases in u.s. monetary growth to finance fiscal expenditures after the mid-1960s led to a loss of confidence in the dollar and the termination of the dollar’s convertibil ity into gold. the analysis presented in the text demonstrateshow the bretton woods system forced countries to “import” inflation from the united states and shows that the breakdown of the system occurred when countries were no longer willing to accept this burden. ? answers to textbook problems1. a. since it takes considerable investment to develop uranium mines, you would want a larger currentaccount deficit to allow your country to finance some of the investment with foreign savings.b. a permanent increase in the world price of copper would cause a short-term current accountdeficit if the price rise leads you to invest more in copper mining. if there are no investmenteffects, you would not change your external balance target because it would be optimal simply to spend your additional income.c. a temporary increase in the world price of copper would cause a current account surplus. youwould want to smooth out your country’s consumption by saving some of its temporarily higher income.d. a temporary rise in the world price of oil would cause a current account deficit if you were animporter of oil, but a surplus if you were an exporter of oil. chapter 18 the international monetary system, 1870–1973 972. because the marginal propensity to consume out of income is less than 1, a transfer of income from bto a increases savings in a and decreases savings in b. therefore, a has a current account surplus and b has a corresponding deficit. this corresponds to a balance of payments disequilibrium inhume’s world, which must be financed by gold flows from b to a. these gold flows increase a’s money supply and decrease b’s money supply, pushing up prices in a and depressing prices in b.these price changes cease once balance of payments equilibrium has been restored.3. changes in parities reflected both initial misalignments and balance of payments crises. attempts toreturn to the parities of the prewar period after the war ignored the changes in underlying economic fundamentals that the war caused. this made some exchange rates less than fully credible andencouraged balance of payments crises. central bank commitments to the gold parities were also less than credible after the wartime suspension of the gold standard, and as a result of the increasingconcern of governments with internal economic conditions.4. a monetary contraction, under the gold standard, will lead to an increase in the gold holdings of thecontracting country’s central bank if other countries do not pursue a similar policy. all countriescannot succeed in doing this simultaneously since the total stock of gold reserves is fixed in the short run. under a reserve currency system, however, a monetary contraction causes an incipient rise in the domestic interest rate, which attracts foreign capital. the central bank must accommodate the inflow of foreign capital to preserve the exchange rate parity. there is thus an increase in the central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves equal to the fall in its holdings of domestic assets. there is no obstacle to a simultaneous increase in reserves by all central banks because central banks acquire more claims on the reserve currency country while their citizens end up with correspondingly greater liabilities.5. the increase in domestic prices makes home exports less attractive and causes a current accountdeficit. this diminishes the money supply and causes contractionary pressures in the economywhich serve to mitigate and ultimately reverse wage demands and price increases.6. a “demand determined” increase in dollar reserve holdings would not affect the world supply ofmoney as central banks merely attempt to trade their holdings of domestic assets for dollar reserves.a “supply determined” increase in reserve holdings, however, would result from expansionarymonetary policy in the united states (the reserve center). at least at the end of the bretton woods era the increase in world dollar reserves arose in part because of an expansionary monetary policy in the united states rather than a desire by other central banks to increase their holdings of dollar assets. only the “supply determined” increase in dollar reserves is relevant for analyzing therelationship between world holdings of dollar reserves by central banks and inflation.7. an increase in the world interest rate leads to a fall in a central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves asdomestic residents trade in their cash for foreign bonds. this leads to a decline in the home country’s money supply. the central bank of a “small” country cannot offset these effects sinceit cannot alter the world interest rate. an attempt to sterilize the reserve loss through open market purchases would fail unless bonds are imperfect substitutes.8. capital account restrictions insulate the domestic interest rate from the world interest rate. monetarypolicy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. because there are nooffsetting capital flows, monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internalbalance. the costs of capital controls include the inefficiency which is introduced when the domestic interest rate differs from the world rate and the high costs of enforcing the controls.9. yes, it does seem that the external balance problem of a deficit country is more severe. while themacroeconomic imbalance may be equally problematic in the long run regardless of whether it is a deficit or surplus, large external deficits involve the risk that the market will fix the problem quickly by ceasing to fund the external deficit. in this case, there may have to be rapid adjustment that could be disruptive. surplus countries are rarely forced into rapid adjustments, making the problems less risky.10. an inflow attack is different from capital flight, but many parallels exist. in an “outflow” attack,speculators sell the home currency and drain the central bank of its foreign assets. the central bank could always defend if it so chooses (they can raise interest rates to improbably high levels), but if it is unwilling to cripple the economy with tight monetar y policy, it must relent. an “inflow” attack issimilar in that the central bank can always maintain the peg, it is just that the consequences of doing so may be more unpalatable than breaking the peg. if money flows in, the central bank must buy foreign assets to keep the currency from appreciating. if the central bank cannot sterilize all the inflows (eventually they may run out of domestic assets to sell to sterilize the transactions where they are buying foreignassets), it will have to either let the currency appreciate or letthe money supply rise. if it is unwilling to allow and increase in inflation due to a rising money supply, breaking the peg maybe preferable.11. a. we know that china has a very large current account surplus, placing them high above the xxline. they also have moderate inflationary pressures (described as “gathering” in the question, implying they arenot yet very strong). this suggests that china is above the ii line, but not too farabove it. it would be placed in zone 1 (see below).b. china needs to appreciate the exchange rate to move down on the graph towards balance.(shown on the graph with the dashed line down)c. china would need to expand government spending to moveto the right and hit the overall balancepoint. such a policy would help cushion the negativeaggregate demand pressurethat the appreciation might generate.【篇三：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》计算题及答案】0名劳动力，如果生产棉花的话，a国的人均产量是2吨，b国也是2吨；要是生产大米的话，a国的人均产量是10吨，b国则是16吨。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（国际金融部分）课后习题答案（英文版）第一章
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（国际金融部分）课后习题答案（英文版）第一章CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONChapter OrganizationWhat is International Economics About?The Gains from TradeThe Pattern of TradeProtectionismThe Balance of PaymentsExchange-Rate DeterminationInternational Policy CoordinationThe International Capital MarketInternational Economics: Trade and MoneyCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports of television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad.The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domesticand international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexico crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. Most recently, the financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 andspread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe have highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur.Chapter 1 of the text presents data demonstrating the growth in trade and increasing importance of international economics. This chapter also highlights and briefly discusses seven themes which arise throughout the book. These themes include: 1) the gains from trade;2) the pattern of trade; 3) protectionism; 4), the balance of payments; 5) exchange rate determination; 6) international policy coordination; and 7) the international capital market. Students will recognize that many of the central policy debates occurring today come under the rubric of one of these themes. Indeed, it is often a fruitful heuristic to use current events to illustrate the force of the key themes and arguments which are presentedthroughout the text.。
克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案
克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案【篇一：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点】lass=txt>第12章国民收入核算和国际收支1、如问题所述，gnp仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。
在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从gnp中减去，出口的中间品价值加到gnp中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。
例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。
其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的gnp中。
出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的gnp，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。
所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的gnp中减去，并加入美国的gnp。
2、（1）等式12-2可以写成ca?(sp?i)?(t?g)。
美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。
（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。
不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。
例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。
（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。
）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。
一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。
这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。
3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。
这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。
（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。
最后，银行采取的各项行为将导致记入美国国际收支表的贷方。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)笔记和课后习题详解 第15章~第17章【圣才出品】
第15章长期价格水平和汇率15.1复习笔记1．一价定律一价定律是指在不存在运输费用和不存在贸易保护的自由市场上，同种商品在任何国家出售，按同一货币计量的价格应该相等。
从理论上讲，如果国家与国家之间不存在任何形式的贸易壁垒，且商品在不同国家之间的运输费用为零，那么任何一种商品在不同国家、按同种货币计量的价格应该是完全一样的。
由于这里的“一价”指的是用同种货币计量的价格，因而就涉及到不同国家货币之间的换算即汇率问题。
因此，该定律实际上揭示了不同国家的国内价格同相应汇率之间的一种基本联系。
当然，由于运输费用不可能为零，且国家之间也不可能完全不存在贸易壁垒，因而一价定律在现实中很难成立。
但是它为理论的分析或现实的解释提供了一个简明的基准，因而是一个非常有用的理论假设。
如果i G P 表示的是货物i 的本国价格，i F P 表示的是相应的国外价格，/G F E 表示汇率，那么一价定律预言：货物i 无论在何地出售都应采用同样的用本国货币计价的价格，即：/i i G F G F P P E =⨯或//i iG F G F E P P =2．购买力平价（1）购买力平价购买力平价是指不同国家商品和服务的价格水平的比率。
一国的价格水平以一个基准的商品和服务“篮子”的价格来表示，它反映该国货币的国内购买力。
对购买同一个基准的商品和服务“篮子”来说，在本国以本国货币支付的价格与其在外国以外国货币支付的价格之比，便是购买力平价。
具体计算方法为：在两国（或多国）选择同质的“一篮子”商品和服务，收集价格、数量和支出额资料，分别核算各组、各类商品和服务价格的比率，最终获得一个综合的价格比率。
（2）购买力平价和一价定律之间的关系购买力平价和一价定律之间区别在于：一价定律适用于单个商品的情况，而购买力平价理论则适用于普遍的价格水平，即商品篮子中所有基准商品价格的组合。
购买力平价理论的拥护者认为，购买力平价理论的成立并不要求一价定律一定成立。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(规模经济、不完全竞争和国际贸易)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第6章规模经济、不完全竞争和国际贸易6.1复习笔记1．规模经济（1）规模经济和国际贸易①规模经济的表现规模经济表现为生产规模越大，生产效率越高，产出的增长大于投入的增长。
表6-1列出了某一行业的投入产出关系，且该产品的生产只需要劳动这一种投入。
从表中可以看出，生产10件产品需要15小时的劳动，而生产25件产品只需要30个小时的劳动。
规模经济表现为：劳动投入增加1倍（从15小时增加到30小时），产出却增加了1.5倍（从10件增加到25件）。
表6-1某一假定行业的投入产出关系②规模经济是国际贸易的动因之一假定世界上只有A和B两个国家，二者都具有生产这种产品的同样技术，最初都生产10个单位。
根据表6-1，该产量在每个国家均要15小时的劳动投入，即全世界用30个小时来生产20单位产品。
但是，现在假定该新产品的生产集中到一个国家，比如说A国，且A国在这一行业也投入30个小时的劳动。
然而，在一个国家内投入30个小时的劳动，却能生产出25件产品。
显然，生产集中到A国可以使得世界以同样的劳动投入多产出25%的产品。
可见，各国可以用比以往更有效的规模专业化地生产有限类别的产品；同时，它们之间的相互贸易又使得消费所有产品成为可能。
（2）规模经济和市场结构①规模经济的分类a．外部规模经济，指单位产品成本取决于整个行业规模而非单个厂商规模的规模经济类型。
b．内部规模经济，指单位产品成本取决于单个厂商的规模而不是其所在的行业规模的规模经济类型。
②规模经济对市场结构的影响外部的和内部的规模经济对市场结构具有不同的影响。
一个只存在外部规模经济的行业（即大厂商没有优势）一般由许多相对较小的厂商构成，且处于完全竞争的状态；相反，存在内部规模经济的行业中，大厂商比小厂商更具有成本优势，就形成了不完全竞争的市场结构。
外部规模经济和内部规模经济都是国际贸易的重要原因。
但是，由于它们对市场结构的影响不同，下面将对它们进行分别讨论。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收入核算与国际收支平衡）【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡）【圣才出品】⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台第12章国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡12.1 复习笔记1．国民收⼊账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是⼀国的国民⽣产总值（GNP），它是⼀国的⽣产要素在⼀定时期内所⽣产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究⼀国产出时所⽤的基本度量⼿段，由花费在最终产品上的⽀出的市场价值量加总⽽得到。
GNP的⽀出与劳动、资本以及其他⽣产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能⽤途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私⼈消费的数额）、投资（私⼈企业为进⾏再⽣产⽽留下的⽤于购买⼚房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使⽤的数额）和经常项⽬余额（对外净出⼝的商品和服务的数额）。
（2）国民收⼊国民收⼊等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移⽀付，再减去间接商业税。
即：国民收⼊＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移⽀付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收⼊的恒等关系完全成⽴，必须对GNP的定义作⼀定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使⽤过程中由于磨损⽽引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收⼊。
为了计算⼀定时期的国民收⼊，必须从GNP 中减去这⼀时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民⽣产净值（NNP）。
⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台②⼀国的收⼊可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移⽀付。
单边转移⽀付的例⼦包括向居住在国外的退休公民⽀付养⽼⾦、赔偿⽀付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移⽀付是⼀国收⼊的⼀部分，但不是⼀国产出的⼀部分，因此，净单边转移⽀付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收⼊。
③国民收⼊取决于⽣产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所⽀付的价格。
但是，这两组价格并不是完全⼀致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的⽀付⼤于销售者的收⼊，导致GNP被⾼估，超过了国民收⼊。
国际经济学第八版下册答案
国际经济学第八版下册答案【篇一：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-ch10】>trade policy in developing countries? chapter organizationimport-substituting industrializationthe infant industry argumentpromoting manufacturing through protectionismcase study: mexico abandons import-substituting industrializationresults of favoring manufacturing: problems of import-substituting industrializationtrade liberalization since 1985export-oriented industrialization: the east asian miraclethe facts of asian growthtrade policy in the hpaesindustrial policy in the hpaesbox: india’s boomother factors in growthsummary? chapter overviewthe final two chapters on international trade, chapters 10 and 11, discuss trade policy considerations in the context of specific issues. chapter 10 focuses on the use of trade policyin developing countries and chapter 11 focuses on new controversies in trade policy.while there is great diversity among the developing countries, they share some common policy concerns. these include the development of domestic manufacturing industries, the uneven degree of development within the country, and the desire to foster economic growth and improve living standards. this chapter discusses both the successful and unsuccessful trade policy strategies which have been applied by developing countries in attempts to address these concerns.many developing countries pose the creation of a significant manufacturing sector as a key goal of economic development. one commonly voiced argument for protecting manufacturing industries is the infant industry argument, which states thatdeveloping countries have a potential comparative advantage inmanufacturing and can realize that potential through an initial period of protection. this argument assumes market failure in the form of imperfect capital markets or the existence of externalities in production. such a market failure makes the social return to production higher than the private return. this implies that a firm will not be able to recapture rents or profits that are in line with the contribution to welfare made by the product or industry establishment of the firm. without some government support, the argument goes, the amount of investment which will occur in this industry will be less than socially optimal levels.chapter 10 trade policy in developing countries 43given these arguments, many nations have attempted import-substitution-led industrialization. in the 1950s and 1960s the strategy was quite popular and did lead to a dramatic reduction in imports in some countries. the overall result, though, was not a success. the infant industry argument did not always hold, as protection could let young industries survive, but could not make them efficient. by the late 1980s, most countries had shifted away from the strategy, and the chapter includes a case study of mexico’s change from import substitution to a more open strategy.since 1985 many developing countries had abandoned import substitution and pursued (sometimesaggressively) trade liberalization. the chapter notes two sides of the experience. on the one hand, trade has gone up considerably and changed in character. developing countries export far more of the gdpthan prior to liberalization, and more of it is in manufacturing as opposed to agricultural or mining sectors. at the same time, the growth experience of these countries has not been universally good and it is difficult to tell if the success stories are due to trade or due to reforms that came at the same time as liberalization. the east asian “miracle” of the high-performing asian economies (hpaes) provides a striking andcontroversial example of export-oriented industrialization. while these countries encountered difficulties in the late 1990s (see chapter 22), this chapter focuses on their spectaculargrowth from the 1960s to 1990s. it is acknowledged that the growth was extremely impressive; the controversy is over the source of the success in these countries. some observers argue that although these countries do not practice free trade, they have lower rates of protection (and more outward orientation) than other developing countries. other observers argue that the interventionist industrial policies pursued by the hpaes have been the reason for success, and outward orientation is just a by-product of active rather than passive government involvement in industry. still others argue that high rates of domestic savings and rapid improvements in education are behind the stunning growth performance.? answers to textbook problems1. the countries that seem to benefit most from international trade include many of the countries of thepacific rim, south korea, taiwan, singapore, hong kong, malaysia, indonesia, and others. though the experience of each country is somewhat different, most of these countries employed some kind of infant industry protection during the beginning phases of their development, but then withdrew protection relatively quickly after industries became competitive on world markets. concerningwhether their experiences lend support to the infant industry argument or argues against it is still a matter of controversy. however, it appears that it would have been difficult for these countries to engage in export-led growth without some kind of initial government intervention.the japanese example gives pause to those who believe that protectionism is always disastrous.however, the fact of japanese success does not demonstrate that protectionist trade policy wasresponsible for that success. japan was an exceptional society that had emerged into the ranks of advanced nations before world war ii and was recovering from wartime devastation. it is arguable that economic success would have come anyway, so that the apparent success of protection represents a “pseudo-infant-industry” case of the kind discussed in the text.a. the initial high costs of production would justify infant industry protection if the costs to thesociety during the period of protection were less than the future stream of benefits from a mature, low cost industry.b. an individual firm does not have an incentive to bear development costs itself for an entireindustry when these benefits will accrue to other firms. thereis a stronger case for infantindustry protection in this instance because of the existenceof market failure in the form of theappropriability of technology. 2. 3.44 krugman/obstfeld ? international economics: theory and policy, eighth edition4. india ceased being a colony of britain in 1948, thus its dramatic break from all imports in favor ofmexico (as opposed to recently deposed colonial firms in india) may have helped keep mexico open to importing capital goods necessary in the manufacturing process.in some countries the infant industry argument simply did not appear to work well. such protection will not create a competitive manufacturing sector if there are basic reasonswhy a country does not have a competitive advantage in a particular area. this was particularly the case in manufacturing where many low-income countries lack skilled labor, entrepreneurs, and the level of managerialacumen necessary to be competitive in world markets. the argument is that trade policy alone cannot rectify these problems. often manufacturing was also created on such a small-scale that it made the industries noncompetitive, where economies of scale are critical to being a low-cost producer.moreover protectionist policies in less-developed countries have had a negative impact on incentives, which has led to “rent-seeking” or corruption.question 6 involves assessing the impact of dual labor markets. the topic is not covered extensively in the current edition of the book and instructors may not want to assign the question unless they bring additional material into the classroom to augment the text.a. we know that the wages should be equivalent, so, given that80 – la ? wa, we can substitute wm for wa, and recall that wm ? 100 – lm. combined with the information that la ? lm ? 100, we getl*a?40 and the equilibrium wage ? 40.b. since wm ? 50, lm ? 50 and thus la ? 50 and wm ? 30, we have a net loss of (0.5)(10)(20) ? 100 in national income. 5. 6.【篇二：国际经济学(克鲁格曼)课后习题答案1-8章】1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案
Chapter 18The International Monetary System, 1870–1973?Chapter OrganizationMacroeconomic Policy Goals in an Open EconomyInternal Balance: Full Employment and Price-Level StabilityExternal Balance: The Optimal Level of the Current Account International Macroeconomic Policy under the Gold Standard, 1870–1914 Origins of the Gold StandardExternal Balance under the Gold StandardThe Price-Specie-Flow MechanismThe Gold Standard “Rules of the Game”: Myth and RealityBox: Hume v. the MercantilistsInternal Balance under the Gold StandardCase Study: The Political Economy of Exchange Rate Regimes:Conflict over America’s Monetary Standard During the 1890s The Interwar Years, 1918–1939The Fleeting Return to GoldInternational Economic DisintegrationCase Study: The International Gold Standard and the Great Depression The Bretton Woods System and the International Monetary Fund Goals and Structure of the IMFConvertibility and the Expansion of Private Capital FlowsSpeculative Capital Flows and CrisesAnalyzing Policy Options under the Bretton Woods SystemMaintaining Internal BalanceMaintaining External BalanceExpenditure-Changing and Expenditure-Switching PoliciesThe External-Balance Problem of the United StatesCase Study: The Decline and Fall of the Bretton Woods SystemWorldwide Inflation and the Transition to Floating Rates Summary?Chapter OverviewThis is the first of five international monetary policy chapters. These chapters complement the preceding theory chapters in several ways. They provide the historical and institutional background students require to place their theoretical knowledge in a useful context. The chapters also allow students, through study of historical and current events, to sharpen their grasp of the theoretical models and to develop the intuition those models can provide. (Application of the theory to events of current interest will hopefully motivate students to return to earlier chapters and master points that may have been missed on the first pass.)Chapter 18 chronicles the evolution of the international monetary system from the gold standard of1870–1914, through the interwar years, and up to and including the post-World War II Bretton Woods regime that ended in March 1973. The central focus of the chapter is the manner in which each system addressed, or failed to address, the requirements of internal and external balance for its participants.A country is in internal balance when its resources are fully employed and there is price level stability. External balance implies an optimal time path of the current account subject to its being balanced over the long run. Other factors have been important in the definition of external balance at various times, and these are discussed in the text. The basic definition of external balance as an appropriate current-account level, however, seems to capture a goal that most policy-makers share regardless of the particular circumstances.The price-specie-flow mechanism described by David Hume shows how the gold standard could ensure convergence to external balance. You may want to present the following model of the price-specie-flow mechanism. This model is based upon three equations: 1. The balance sheet of the central bank. At the most simple level, this is justgold holdings equals the money supply: G ? M.2. The quantity theory. With velocity and output assumed constant and bothnormalized to 1, this yields the simple equation M ? P.3. A balance of payments equation where the current account is a function of thereal exchange rate and there are no private capital flows: CA ? f(E ? P*/P)These equations can be combined in a figure like the one below. The 45? line represents the quantity theory, and the vertical line is the price level where the real exchange rate results in a balanced current account. The economy moves along the 45? line back towards the equilibrium Point 0 whenever it is out of equilibrium. For example, the loss of four-fifths of a country’s gold would put that country at Point a with lower prices and a lower money supply. The resulting real exchange rate depreciation causes a current account surplus which restores money balances as the country proceeds up the 45? line froma to 0.FigureThe automatic adjustment process described by the price-specie-flow mechanism is expedited by following “rules of the game” under which governments contract the domestic source components oftheir monetary bases when gold reserves are falling (corresponding to a current-account deficit) and expand when gold reserves are rising (the surplus case).In practice, there was little incentive for countries with expanding gold reserves to follow the “rules of the game.” This increased the contractionary burden shouldered by countries with persistent current account deficits. The gold standard also subjugated internal balance to the demands of external balance. Research suggests price-level stability and high employment were attained less consistently under the gold standard than in the post-1945 period.The interwar years were marked by severe economic instability. The monetization of war debt and of reparation payments led to episodes of hyperinflation in Europe. Anill-fated attempt to return to thepre-war gold parity for the pound led to stagnation in Britain. Competitive devaluations and protectionism were pursued in a futile effort to stimulate domestic economic growth during the Great Depression.These beggar-thy-neighbor policies provoked foreign retaliation and led to the disintegration of the world economy. As one of the case studies shows, strict adherence to the Gold Standard appears to have hurt many countries during the Great Depression.Determined to avoid repeating the mistakes of the interwar years, Allied economic policy-makers metat Bretton Woods in 1944 to forge a new international monetary system for the postwar world. The exchange-rate regime that emerged from this conference had at its center the . dollar. All other currencies had fixed exchange rates against the dollar, which itself had a fixed value in terms of gold.An International Monetary Fund was set up to oversee the system and facilitate its functioning by lending to countries with temporary balance of payments problems.A formal discussion of internal and external balance introduces the concepts of expenditure-switching and expenditure-changing policies. The Bretton Woods system, with its emphasis on infrequent adjustmentof fixed parities, restricted the use of expenditure-switching policies. Increases in U.S. monetary growth to finance fiscal expenditures after the mid-1960s led to a loss of confidence in the dollar and the termination of the dollar’s convertibility into gold. The analysis presented in the text demonstrateshow the Bretton Woods system forced countries to “import” inflation from the United States and shows that the breakdown of the system occurred when countries were no longer willing to accept this burden.?Answers to Textbook Problems1. a. Since it takes considerable investment to develop uranium mines, you wouldwant a larger current account deficit to allow your country to finance some of the investment with foreign savings.b. A permanent increase in the world price of copper would cause a short-termcurrent account deficit if the price rise leads you to invest more in coppermining. If there are no investment effects, you would not change yourexternal balance target because it would be optimal simply to spend youradditional income.c. A temporary increase in the world price of copper would cause a currentaccount surplus. You would want to smooth out your country’s consumption bysaving some of its temporarily higher income.d. A temporary rise in the world price of oil would cause a current accountdeficit if you were an importer of oil, but a surplus if you were an exporter of oil.2. Because the marginal propensity to consume out of income is less than 1, atransfer of income from B to A increases savings in A and decreases savings in B.Therefore, A has a current account surplus and B has a corresponding deficit.This corresponds to a balance of payments disequilibrium in Hume’s world, which must be financed by gold flows from B to A. These gold flows increase A’s money supply and decrease B’s money supply, pushing up prices in A and depressingprices in B. These price changes cease once balance of payments equilibrium has been restored.3. Changes in parities reflected both initial misalignments and balance of paymentscrises. Attempts to return to the parities of the prewar period after the war ignored the changes in underlying economic fundamentals that the war caused. This made some exchange rates less than fully credible and encouraged balance ofpayments crises. Central bank commitments to the gold parities were also less than credible after the wartime suspension of the gold standard, and as a result of the increasing concern of governments with internal economic conditions.4. A monetary contraction, under the gold standard, will lead to an increase in thegold holdings of the contracting country’s central bank if other countries do not pursue a similar policy. All countries cannot succeed in doing thissimultaneously since the total stock of gold reserves is fixed in the short run.Under a reserve currency system, however, a monetary contraction causes anincipient rise in the domestic interest rate, which attracts foreign capital. The central bank must accommodate the inflow of foreign capital to preserve theexchange rate parity. There is thus an increase in the central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves equal to the fall in its holdings of domestic assets. There is no obstacle to a simultaneous increase in reserves by all central banksbecause central banks acquire more claims on the reserve currency country while their citizens end up with correspondingly greater liabilities.5. The increase in domestic prices makes home exports less attractive and causes acurrent account deficit. This diminishes the money supply and causescontractionary pressures in the economywhich serve to mitigate and ultimately reverse wage demands and price increases.6. A “demand determined” increase in dollar reserve holdings would not affect theworld supply of money as central banks merely attempt to trade their holdings of domestic assets for dollar rese rves. A “supply determined” increase in reserve holdings, however, would result from expansionary monetary policy in the United States (the reserve center). At least at the end of the Bretton Woods era the increase in world dollar reserves arose in part because of an expansionarymonetary policyin the United States rather than a desire by other central banks to increasetheir holdings of dollar assets. Only the “supply determined” increase indollar reserves is relevant for analyzing the relationship between world holdings of dollar reserves by central banks and inflation.7. An increase in the world interest rate leads to a fall in a central bank’sholdings of foreign reserves as domestic residents trade in their cash forforeign bonds. This leads to a d ecline in the home country’s money supply. The central bank of a “small” country cannot offset these effects sinceit cannot alter the world interest rate. An attempt to sterilize the reserve loss through open market purchases would fail unless bonds are imperfect substitutes.8. Capital account restrictions insulate the domestic interest rate from the worldinterest rate. Monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. Because there are no offsetting capital flows, monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. The costs of capital controls include the inefficiency which is introduced when the domestic interest rate differs from the world rate and the high costs of enforcing the controls.9. Yes, it does seem that the external balance problem of a deficit country is moresevere. While the macroeconomic imbalance may be equally problematic in the long run regardless of whether it is a deficit or surplus, large external deficits involve the risk that the market will fix the problem quickly by ceasing to fund the external deficit. In this case, there may have to be rapid adjustment that could be disruptive. Surplus countries are rarely forced into rapid adjustments, making the problems less risky.10. An inflow attack is different from capital flight, but many parallels exist. Inan “outflow” attack, speculators sell the home currency and drain the central bank of its foreign assets. The central bank could always defend if it so chooses (they can raise interest rates to improbably high levels), but if it is unwilling to cripple the economy with tight monetary policy, it must relent. An “inflow”attack is similar in that the central bank can always maintain the peg, it is just that the consequences of doing so may be more unpalatable than breaking the peg. If money flows in, the central bank must buy foreign assets to keep thecurrency from appreciating. If the central bank cannot sterilize all the inflows (eventually they may run out of domestic assets to sell to sterilize thetransactions where they are buying foreign assets), it will have to either let the currency appreciate or let the money supply rise. If it is unwilling to allow and increase in inflation due to a rising money supply, breaking the peg may be preferable.11. a. We know that China has a very large current account surplus, placing them highabove the XX line. They also have moderate inflationary pressures (describedas “gathering” in the question, implying they are not yet very strong). This suggests that China is above the II line, but not too far above it. It wouldbe placed in Zone 1 (see below).b. China needs to appreciate the exchange rate to move down on the graph towardsbalance. (Shown on the graph with the dashed line down)c. China would need to expand government spending to move to the right and hitthe overall balance point. Such a policy would help cushion the negativeaggregate demand pressurethat the appreciation might generate.。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解第1章绪论本章不是考试的重点章节，建议读者对本章内容只作大致了解即可，本章没有相关的课后习题。
第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1>(发展中国家(developing countries)答:发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。
通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。
衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。
一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。
比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。
2>(服务外包(service outsourcing)答:服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。
20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。
从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。
3>(引力模型(gravity model)答:丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为:其中，是国与国的贸易额，为常量，是国的国内生产总值，是国的国内生产总值，是两国的距离。
、、三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。
引力模型方程式表明:其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。
把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。
另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(最优货币区和欧洲的经验)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第20章最优货币区和欧洲的经验20.1复习笔记1．欧洲单一货币的演变（1）1969～1978年欧洲货币改革的原因欧盟国家从20世纪60年代末开始努力寻求货币政策的一致性和汇率的更大稳定性，其主要有三个原因：一是影响世界经济的政策形势发生了变化；二是人们希望欧盟能发挥更大的作用；三是汇率的变动给欧盟带来了不少管理上的问题。
具体原因有两个：①为了提高欧洲在世界货币体系中的地位。
1969年的货币危机使得欧洲对美国将其国际货币职责放在其国家利益之前的可靠性失去信心。
面对美国越来越自私的政策，欧盟国家为了更加有效地维护自己的经济利益，决定在货币问题上采取一致行动。
②为了把欧盟变成一个真正的统一市场。
欧盟的长远目标就是要消除所有障碍，把欧盟变成一个巨大的统一的市场。
欧洲的政府官员认为，汇率的不确定性，是减少欧盟内部贸易的主要原因之一，只有在欧洲国家之间建立起固定的相互汇率，才能形成一个真正的统一欧洲市场。
（2）1979～1998年的欧洲货币体系（EMS）欧洲货币体系是欧洲共同体国家为实现经济一体化而于1979年3月13日建立的区域性金融体系。
当时参加的国家有联邦德国、法国、意大利、荷兰、比利时、卢森堡、丹麦和爱尔兰。
1984年9月希腊加入，1987年5月12日西班牙加入，1987年11月10日葡萄牙加入，1995年1月1日奥地利、芬兰和瑞典加入。
欧洲货币体系的主要内容包括三个方面：①创建欧洲货币单位。
欧洲货币单位是欧洲货币体系的中心内容。
在结构上，欧洲货币单位与欧洲记账单位相同，都是由成员国的一定量的货币组成，是一个货币“篮子”。
与欧洲记账单位的本质区别是，欧洲货币单位不仅可以作为价值尺度给资产和负债标价，而且还是一种支付手段，在许多方面发挥着货币的功能。
所以，欧洲货币单位既是一个货币“篮子”，也是一种“篮子货币”。
②建立双重的中心汇率制，以保证成员国汇率的稳定。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(发展中国家：增长、危机和改革)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第22章发展中国家：增长、危机和改革22.1复习笔记1．发展中国家的结构特征（1）四种收入类型的国家根据人均年收入水平，世界各国可分为四种主要类型：低收入国家、中低收入国家、中高收入国家和高收入国家。
前三类国家相对于发达国家而言处于一个落后的发展阶段。
（2）发展中国家的结构特征①存在政府对经济进行广泛和直接控制的历史，包括对国际贸易的限制、政府对大型工业企业的所有权或控制权、政府对国际金融交易的直接控制，以及政府消费占GNP的高比例。
②存在高通货膨胀的历史。
在许多国家，政府无法仅仅通过税收来支付其沉重的支出和国有企业的亏损，逃税行为盛行，许多经济活动转入地下，所以最简单的办法就是印制钞票。
当政府连续扩大货币供应以提取较高水平的铸币税时，发展中国家就会发生通货膨胀甚至恶性通货膨胀。
③在国内金融市场自由化的国家，信贷机构往往比较脆弱。
银行会频繁地把借入的资金贷给不良的或者有很大风险的项目。
贷款的发放可能是建立在私人关系而不是未来收益的基础上，政府防范金融风险的措施，往往由于不能胜任、没有经验和直接的欺诈而失效。
④一般倾向于实行钉住汇率，或者至少是在政府大量干预下的管理浮动。
政府限制汇率波动的措施不仅体现了政府控制通货膨胀的愿望，也体现了政府对于浮动汇率可能会使得发展中国家的货币汇率在相对脆弱的市场上发生大幅度波动的担忧。
⑤自然资源或农业产品是许多发展中国家出口的重要组成部分。
⑥规避政府控制、税收和管制的动因会使得行贿和勒索等腐败行为在许多发展中国家盛行。
在某些情况下，地下经济活动的发展可以通过恢复一定程度上基于市场的资源配置而有助于提高经济效率，但是数据表明腐败和贫困是交织在一起的。
（3）发展中国家五种主要的外部融资渠道①债券融资。
发展中国家有时会通过向外国居民个人出售债券来为其赤字融资。
②银行融资。
20世纪70年代初到80年代末，发展中国家从发达国家的商业银行直接借入了大量资金。
国际经济学(克鲁格曼)课后习题答案1-8章
第一章练习与答案1 . 为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2. 仿效图1—6和图1—乙试推导出丫商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3. 在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4. 如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示:5. 如果改用丫商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A 国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1 —13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
6. 说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
7. 如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
& 根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国9* .为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？答案提示：第二章答案1.根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。
期末复习用 《国际经济学》各章习题及答案
2.答：新古典经济学是 19 世纪 70 年代由“边际革命”开始而形成的一种经济 学流派。它在继承古典经济学经济自由主义的同时，以边际效用价值论代替了 古典经济学的劳动价值论，以需求为核心的分析代替了古典经济学以供给为核 心的分析。新古典学派主要包裹奥地利学派、洛桑学派、剑桥学派。认为边际 效用递减规律是理解经济现象的一个根本基础，利用这一规律可以解释买主面途之间的最佳配置等各种经济问题。
这是，A 国的提供曲线会发生什么变化？
第 3 章复习思考题参考答案 1．答： （1） 5X + 4Y = 20000 。 （2）封闭条件下，此国生产可能性边界的斜率是-5/4=PX/PY。因为 X 的国
际相对价格为 2，所以此国出口 X 进口 Y。出口 1000 个单位的 X 可以换得 2000 个单位的 Y。贸易三角形即可划出。
3.答：不是否定，而是相互补充。 4.答：保罗·克鲁格曼的贡献主要是对贸易模式和经济活动的区位等新贸易 理论的发展。1979 年克鲁格曼在《国际经济学杂志》发表了一篇经典论文《规 模报酬递增、垄断竞争和国际贸易》，论证了资源相似的两国也可以进行国际 贸易，且贸易可以发生在同一行业。克鲁格曼加入了规模经济、消费者喜好消 费的多样性等因素。1991 年克鲁格曼在《政治经济学杂志》上发表了一篇的开
7．自由贸易的利益。A 国稿纸的需求曲线方程为： QD = 350 − 0.5P 。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(国民收入核算与国际收支平衡)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第12章国民收入核算与国际收支平衡12.1复习笔记1．国民收入账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是一国的国民生产总值（GNP），它是一国的生产要素在一定时期内所生产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究一国产出时所用的基本度量手段，由花费在最终产品上的支出的市场价值量加总而得到。
GNP的支出与劳动、资本以及其他生产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能用途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私人消费的数额）、投资（私人企业为进行再生产而留下的用于购买厂房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使用的数额）和经常项目余额（对外净出口的商品和服务的数额）。
（2）国民收入国民收入等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移支付，再减去间接商业税。
即：国民收入＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移支付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收入的恒等关系完全成立，必须对GNP的定义作一定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使用过程中由于磨损而引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收入。
为了计算一定时期的国民收入，必须从GNP 中减去这一时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民生产净值（NNP）。
②一国的收入可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移支付。
单边转移支付的例子包括向居住在国外的退休公民支付养老金、赔偿支付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移支付是一国收入的一部分，但不是一国产出的一部分，因此，净单边转移支付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收入。
③国民收入取决于生产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所支付的价格。
但是，这两组价格并不是完全一致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的支付大于销售者的收入，导致GNP被高估，超过了国民收入。
这部分税收被称为间接商业税。
在计算国民收入时，这部分间接商业税必须从GNP中减去。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第20章 最优货币区和欧洲的经验)【圣才出品】
第20章最优货币区和欧洲的经验一、概念题1．欧洲货币体系的信誉理论（credibility theory of the EMS）答：任何汇率导向的稳定政策成功的一个重要因素是汇率政策信誉，政府希望公众相信政府的汇率政策承诺并以此决定本币的持有量。
政策的外部强制性承诺能够保持政策信誉，如通过把本国货币名义汇率钉住低通货膨胀国家的货币来引进政策信誉，这样会使预期通货膨胀率比没有实行钉住汇率时下降得更快，且将其调整到低均衡通货膨胀率的成本会更少。
在欧洲货币体系下，通过固定与德国马克的汇率，欧洲其他成员国相当于引进了德国中央银行的信誉作为防止通货膨胀的屏障，从而减轻了国内通货膨胀的压力。
欧洲货币体系的信誉理论认为，违背国际汇率协定而可能付出的政治代价约束了政府的某些货币行为，即通过使得本国货币贬值来获得短期的利益，而实际付出的代价却是长期高通货膨胀带来的经济崩溃。
2．《马斯特里赫特条约》（Maastricht Treaty）答：马斯特里赫特条约，简称“马约”，是指1991年12月欧洲共同体12国政府首脑在荷兰的马斯特里赫特城召开会议，并于1992年2月签署的《欧洲经济与货币联盟条约》和《政治联盟条约》，合称《欧洲联盟条约》。
《马约》于1993年正式生效，欧洲共同体成为欧盟。
《马约》的主要内容是为建立欧洲经济与货币联盟确定了时间表和步骤。
《马约》规定：1990年7月1日至1993年12月31日为第一阶段，要求各成员国取消外汇管制，实现资本的自由流动，加强财政、货币、金融政策的协调一致；第二阶段从1994年1月1日开始，主要是建立欧洲中央银行的雏形——欧洲货币局；第三阶段最早于1997年1月开始，最晚于1999年1月1日开始，逐步建立一种“真正”的单一货币和独立的欧洲中央银行。
为了建立统一的货币体系，《马约》规定了经济趋同条款，主要内容是：①各国财政赤字占其国内生产总值的比率在3%以下；②各国政府债务总额占其国内生产总值的比率低于60%；③各国消费价格上涨率不得超出三个最低国的平均上涨率1.5个百分点；④各国长期利率不得超出三个物价最平稳的成员国的平均利率2个百分点；⑤各国货币在过去两年内处于欧洲外汇汇率机制的正常变动范围内。
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第21章全球资本市场：运行和政策问题一、概念题1．巴塞尔委员会（Basel Committee）答：巴塞尔委员会是由美国、英国、法国、德国、意大利、日本、荷兰、加拿大、比利时、瑞典10大工业国的中央银行于1974年底共同成立的，作为国际清算银行的一个正式机构，以各国中央银行官员和银行监理当局为代表，总部在瑞士的巴塞尔。
每年定期集会4次，并拥有近30个技术机构，执行每年集会所订目标或计划。
巴塞尔委员会本身不具有法定跨国监理的权力，所作结论或监理标准与指导原则在法律上也没有强制效力，仅供参考。
但因该委员会成员来自世界主要发达国家，影响大，一般仍预期各国将会采取立法规定或其他措施，并结合各国实际情况，逐步实施其所订监理标准与指导原则，或实务处理相关建议事项。
在“国外银行业务无法避免监理”与“适当监理”原则下，消除世界各国监理范围差异是巴塞尔委员会运作追求的目标。
巴塞尔委员会制订了一些协议、监理标准与指导原则，如《关于统一国际银行资本衡量和资本标准的协议》、《有效银行监管核心原则》等。
这些协议、监理标准与指导原则统称为巴塞尔协议。
这些协议的实质是为了完善与补充单个国家对商业银行监管体制的不足，减轻银行倒闭的风险与代价，是对国际商业银行联合监管的最主要形式。
这些文件的制定与推广，对稳定国际金融秩序起到了积极作用。
2．国际资本市场（international capital market）答：国际资本市场是指资金借贷期限在一年以上的国际金融交易场所。
其主要功能是促进国际中长期资本的形成，促进中长期资本在供需之间的流动，将各国的实际储备转化为国际性的投资。
在国际资本市场上，国际性商业银行和跨国银行是资本的主要供给者，同时又是主要的经营者和中介机构。
国际资本市场的主要交易工具为银行中长期贷款、各种中长期的政府债券和公司债券、股票以及欧洲债券和外国债券等。
其中，银团贷款和国际证券的发行与转让在交易中所占比重最大。
国际资本市场分为国际银行中长期信贷市场和国际证券市场两类。
国际银行中长期信贷市场是各种金融机构提供中长期信贷资金的场所。
在这个市场上，资金的供给者主要是国际性商业银行和跨国银行，资金需求者主要是各国政府和工商企业。
贷款期限较长，一般为5～10年。
贷款利率浮动，贷款期限内每三个月或半年调整一次。
贷款协议一般由政府有关部门担保。
贷款主要用于固定资产的更新改造以及新建项目。
国际证券市场是股票和债券发行、流通的国际性交易场所。
其资金来源主要是保险公司、信托投资公司、储蓄银行及各种基金组织等，资金的需求者一般是各国政府、公司等。
国际债券的特点是数量大，期限长（如欧洲美元债券5～8年），一般半年或一年支付利息。
3．债务工具（debt instrument）答：债务工具是金融工具当中会形成债权债务的一类，是旨在清偿债务的书面承诺。
例如票据，债券，账单，银行同业的存款证明或商业本票等。
4．最终贷款者（LLR）（lender of last resort，LLR）答：最后贷款者一般是指中央银行。
充当最后贷款人是中央银行的主要职责之一，这是指央行在陷入困境的金融机构无法以任何其他方式筹措资金时,向其发放贷款，助其渡过暂时的融资困难。
央行充当最后贷款人，是旨在维系金融体系的稳定。
5．新兴市场（emerging markets）答：新兴市场一般指的是发展中国家的股票市场。
按照国际金融公司的权威定义，只要一个国家或地区的人均国民生产总值（GNP）没有达到世界银行划定的高收入国家水平，那么这个国家或地区的股市就是新兴市场。
有的国家，尽管经济发展水平和人均GNP水平已进入高收入国家的行列，但由于其股市发展滞后，市场机制不成熟，仍被认为是新兴市场。
6．道德风险（moral hazard）答：道德风险是指在双方信息非对称的情况下，人们享有自己行为的收益，而将成本转嫁给别人，从而造成他人损失的可能性。
道德风险的存在不仅使得处于信息劣势的一方受到损失，而且会破坏原有的市场均衡，导致资源配置的低效率。
在信息不对称的情况下，当代理人为委托人工作而其工作成果同时取决于代理人所做的主观努力和不由主观意志决定的各种客观因素，并且主观原因对委托人来说难以区别时，就会产生代理人隐瞒行动而导致对委托人利益损害的“道德风险”。
道德风险发生的一个典型领域是保险市场。
解决道德风险的主要方法是风险分担。
7．权益工具（equity instrument）答：权益工具是指能证明拥有某个企业在扣除所有负债后的资产中的剩余权益的合同。
比如，企业发行的普通股，以及企业发行的、使持有者有权以固定价格购入固定数量本企业普通股的认股权证等。
8．离岸银行业（offshore banking）答：离岸银行业是指一国银行在其总行所在国之外的国外分支机构所从事的各种国际金融业务。
20世纪60年代以后，特别是90年代以来，离岸银行业务发展迅速。
其主要原因是：①经济因素，即世界贸易和国际资本流动的迅速发展。
②金融管制因素，即政府金融管制的不对称性。
比如，在存款方面，美国政府规定，美国本土银行每接受一笔美元存款，必须把这笔存款的一部分无息地存入联邦储备银行的一个账户上，作为存款准备金。
而英国政府只对其境内的英镑存款征收准备金，对英国境内的美元存款则不要求缴纳准备金。
这样，美国的银行在英国设立分支机构，吸引美元存款，就可以不缴纳准备金。
美国银行在英国的分支机构就可以用更高的存款利率吸引美元存款，比在美国本土的分支机构更具优势。
在贷款方面，美国银行在英国的分支机构也能为借款者提供较低利率的贷款。
③政治因素。
比如，在1973～1974年和1979～1980年两次石油危机中，阿拉伯石油生产国积聚了大量美元资产。
它们若把这些美元资产存到设在美国本土的银行，要冒被没收和被冻结的风险，因而便存到设在美国本土之外、可吸收美元存款的银行中去。
9．欧洲银行（Eurobank）答：欧洲银行是指接受欧洲货币存款的银行。
欧洲货币参见“概念题”第11题。
1957年，因为东西方冷战，前苏联政府因为害怕美国冻结其在美国的美元储备而将它们调往欧洲，存入伦敦，由此导致了欧洲美元的产生。
从事欧洲货币存贷业务的银行相应地被称为欧洲银行。
10．离岸货币交易（offshore currency trading）答：离岸货币贸易是指以非银行所在国或所在地的货币，即以境外货币进行的各种交易活动。
比如，在英国伦敦开办的银行中，进行美元、日元等境外货币的存贷款业务。
11．欧洲货币（Eurocurrencies）答：欧洲货币有狭义和广义之分。
狭义的欧洲货币是指存放在欧洲国家的境外货币存款。
最早主要是欧洲美元。
后来，许多欧洲货币的交易不仅发生在欧洲，而且发生在非欧洲的世界各地，如亚洲的新加坡和中国香港等，这就扩展为广义的欧洲货币。
广义的欧洲货币是指所有存放在货币发行国境外的货币存款，此时“欧洲”已无地域含义。
广义的欧洲货币除包括存放于欧洲的美元之外，还包括存放于美国之外的世界各地的美元，以及其他存放于货币发行国境外的货币，如英镑、日元等。
接受欧洲货币存款的银行，称为“欧洲银行”。
12．资产组合多样化（portfolio diversification）答：资产组合多样化是指投资者通过对不同资产进行组合，在追求最大收益或预期收益的同时，借助于非系统风险的消除以降低投资风险的行为。
在投资过程中，不同的资产或证券具有不同的风险和收益率。
就某一种资产而言，其风险和收益是大致对称的，即高风险对应于较高的收益率。
投资者的理性行为是谋求既定风险下的最大收益或预期收益，或既定收益下的最小风险。
然而就某一种资产而言，投资者的这一目标难以实现。
但是，如果将不同的资产组合起来，投资者就可以在大大降低风险的同时取得较高的收益。
这是因为，各种资产的总风险大致可分为系统风险和非系统风险两类：系统风险取决于该资产的外部因素，它本身难以消除；但非系统风险则同资产本身密切相关，通过适当的资产组合可以基本消除。
因此，通过选择具有负相关性的不同资产而形成资产组合，就可以基本消除非系统风险，并使总风险大幅度降低。
13．欧洲美元（Eurodollar）答：欧洲美元是存放在美国以外银行的不受美国政府法令限制的美元存款或是从这些银行借到的美元贷款。
由于这种境外存款、借贷业务开始于欧洲，因此称为欧洲美元。
它与美国境内流通的美元是同样的货币，并具有同样的价值。
它们之间的区别只是帐务上的处理不同。
欧洲美元的存在，首先必须得有一笔美元存款。
比如，一家公司或其他单位在欧洲的一家银行存进一笔美元存款，实际上是把它原来在美国银行里的一笔存款转存到这家欧洲银行的美国银行的账户上。
同样一家欧洲银行贷出一笔欧洲美元贷款，归根到底也只能是把它原来存在美国银行里的一笔美元活期存款转给对方而已。
欧洲美元早在20世纪50年代初就出现了。
当时美国政府在侵略朝鲜的战争中冻结了中国存放在美国银行的资金，前苏联和东欧各国为了防止它们在美国的美元存款也被冻结，就把它们的美元资金转存于苏联设在巴黎和伦敦的银行以及其他国际商业银行。
后来，某些持有美元的美国和其他国家的银行、公司等为了避免它们的“帐外资产”被公开暴露出来，引起外汇管理当局和税务当局的追查，也不愿公开和直接地把美元存放在美国，而愿意间接地存放在西欧的各家银行。
这即是欧洲美元最初的由来。
“欧洲美元”的清算中心在英国伦敦。
自20世纪60年代以来，随着美元地位日益衰落，“欧洲美元”迅速增长，存贷款活动日益发展，欧洲美元市场成为最重要的国际金融市场之一。
欧洲美元供应充裕、应用灵活，存放以及借贷不受任何国家外汇管理法令的限制，可为各国政府和大企业解决巨额资金的急需，有利于世界经济的发展。
但由于它的流动性太强，不受约束，因而也是造成国际金融市场动荡不定的主要因素。
14．风险规避（risk aversion）答：投资收益的风险是影响个人投资决策的一个重要因素。
一般而言，在其他条件相同时，人们不喜欢有风险的那种资产，人们的这种偏好叫做风险规避。
风险规避的外币资产投资者对某一特定资产的需求除考虑预期的收益外，还会考虑资产的风险性。