chapter15战略
托马斯《管理经济学》12e中文PPT Thomas12e_Chapter15
15-5
期望值
一个概率分布的期望值（均值）为:
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( X ) ExEpe(cXted)Xv的aElux期epoec望ftXed值valuepoi Xf Xi pi Xi
i 1
i 1
其中 Xi 是决策的第i种结果, pi 是第i种结果 的概率, n 是可能结果的总数
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
15-11
变异系数（离差系数）
当结果的期望值很不一样时，管理者应该 利用变异系数度量一个决策相对于其期望 值的风险
~ 相对风险的度量
Standard dev标ia准tio差n
Expecvted=v期al望ue值
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© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
Chapter 15 Monetary Policy
Various motives of holing money. Among them, a major motive is:
Transactions motive of holding money
Benefit: convenience in making transactions (buying goods and services)
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High Employment The goal of high employment extends beyond the Fed to
other branches of the federal government. Price stability and high employment are both sometimes said to be goals that the Fed has a dual mandate to attain and are explicitly mentioned in the Employment Act of 1946 that U.S. Congress passed at the end of World War II.
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(A) Monetary Policy Targets
The Fed tries to keep both the unemployment and inflation rates low, but it can’t affect either of these economic variables directly.
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Monetary policy The actions the Central Bank (e.g., Federal Reserve in USA) takes to manage the money supply and interest rates to pursue macroeconomic policy goals.
曼昆经济学原理Chapter15垄断 中英文笔记
Chapter 15 Monopoly 垄断§1. 垄断Monopoly一．对比竞争企业是价格接受者，垄断企业是价格制定者。
a competitive firm is a price taker, a monopoly firm is a price maker二．定义垄断企业：作为一种没有相近替代品的产品的唯一卖者的企业A firm is considered a monopoly if it is the sole seller of its product & its product does not have close substitutes. 如果一个企业是其产品唯一的卖者，而且如果其产品并没有相近的替代品，这个企业就是垄断者。
§2. 为什么会产生垄断Why Monopolies Arise一．（1）垄断的基本原因fundamental cause：进入障碍barriers to entry（2）进入障碍的三个主要来源Barriers to entry have three sources1.垄断资源：生产所需要的关键资源由一家企业拥有Ownership of a key resource.2.政府管制：政府给予一个企业排他性地生产某种产品或服务的权利The government gives a single firm the exclusive right to produce some good.3.生产流程：生产成本使一个生产者比大量生产者更有效率Costs of production make a single producer more efficient than a large number of producers.二．垄断资源Monopoly Resources虽然关键资源的排他性所有权是垄断的一个潜在原因，但垄断很少产生于这种原因Although exclusive ownership of a key resource is a potential source of monopoly, in practice monopolies rarely arise for this reason.三．政府制造的垄断Government-Created Monopolies1.政府给予一个企业排他性地出售某种物品或劳务的权利，限制其他企业进入市场，从而造成垄断。
Chapter 15-已整理
Chapter 15 The Brain, the Spinal Cord and the NervesOnce a number of the body systems have been surveyed, it should become fairly obvious that not one of these systems is capable of functioning alone. All are interdependent, and all must work together as one unit in order that the normal conditions within the body may prevail. The agency that insures the coordination of the organs and organ systems is the nervous system.Conditions both within and outside the body are constantly changing; one purpose of the nervous system is to respond to these internal and external changes (known as stimuli) and so cause the body to adapt itself to new conditions.The nervous system has been very aptly compared with a telephone exchange in which the brain and the spinal cord act as centers and the nerve trunks serve as cables and wires for carrying messages to and from various parts of these centers.15. 1 The Nervous System as a WholeThe parts of the nervous system may be grouped according to how they are made (structure) or else on the basis of what they do (function).Structural (ANATOMIC) ClassificationThe structure of the nervous system serves as the basis for the more commonly used grouping of the parts of the nervous system, as follows:1.The central nervous system, which includes the brain and the spinal cord.2.The peripheral nervous system, which is made up of cranial and spinal nerves.Cranial nerves are those which carry impulses to and from the brain. Spinal nerves arethose which carry messages to and from the spinal cord.From the standpoint of structure, the central and peripheral nervous systems together include most of the nerve tissue in the body. However, certain peripheral nerves have a special function, and for this reason they are grouped together under the designation autonomic nervous system. The reason for this separate classification is that the autonomic nervous system has to do largely with activities which go on more or less automatically. This system carries impulses from the central nervous system to the glands, the involuntary muscles found in the walls of tubes and hollow organs and the heart. The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, both of which will be explained later in this chapter.Some of the nerves that carry autonomic nervous system impulses are cranial, and others are spinal.15.2 On Nerves in GeneralThe basic nerve cell is called a neuron. Neurons are composed of a cell body, containing the nucleus, with the addition of threadlike projections of the cytoplasm known as nerve fibers. The nerve fibers are of two kinds: dendrites, which conduct impulses to the cell body; and axons, which conduct impulses away from the cell body. The dendrites of sensory neurons are verydifferent from those of other neuron. They are usually single and they may be very long (as much as 3 feet) or they may be short; but in any case, they do not have the treelike appearance so typical of other dendrites. Each sensory nerve fiber (dendrite) has a special structure called the receptor, or end organ, where the stimulus is received and the sensory impulse begins. Sensations such as pain, touch, hearing and seeing which involve these sensory neurons will be discussed in Chapter 11.Each neuron is a separate unit, and there is no anatomic unity between neurons. It would be logical to ask how it is possible for neurons to be in contact; in other words, how the axon of one neuron can be in functional contact with the dendrite of another neuron. This is accomplished by the synapse, from a Greek word meaning “to clasp.” Synapses, then, are points of junction fro transmission of nerve impulses.Nerve fibers that are connected with receptors (for receiving stimuli) conduct impulses to the brain and cord, and when grouped together form afferent nerves. Those fibers that carry impulses from the centers out to the muscles and glands form efferent nerves. Motor neurons, which carry impulses that lead to the contraction of skeletal muscles, are classified as efferent neurons (Fig. 15.1). Some nerves contain a mixture of afferent and efferent nerve fibers and are often referred to as mixed nerves.Fig. 15.1 Diagram of a motor neuron15.3 The Central Nervous SystemTHE BRAINMain parts of the brainThe largest part of the brain is the cerebrum, which is divided into the two cerebral hemispheres, a right and a left one. The brainstem includes the deeper parts that comprise the interbrain (thalamus, etc.) that cannot be seen unless the brain is sectioned, and a series of smaller parts that extend downward. Starting at the upper part of this series, we may see a small part of the midbrain. Below it and plainly visible from the under view of the brain are the pons and the medulla oblongata, which connects with the spinal cord through a large opening in the base of the skull. The pons connects the midbrain and the medulla. Next in size to the cerebralhemispheres is the cerebellum, a word meaning :little brain.” It is located immediately below the back part of the cerebral hemispheres and is connected with the other parts of the brain only by means of the bridgelike pons.Structure of the cerebral hemispheresThe outer nerve tissue of the cerebral hemispheres is gray matter and is called the cerebral cortex. This gray cortex is arranged in folds forming elevated portions known as convolutions, separated by depressions or grooves called fissures, or sulci (Fig. 15.2). Internally the cerebral hemispheres are made largely of white matter and a few islands of gray matter. Inside the hemispheres are two spaces extending in a somewhat irregular fashion. These are the lateral ventricles, which are filled with a watery fluid common to both the brain and the spinal cord called cerebrospinal fluid, to be discussed later.Although there are many fissures (sulci), a few are especially important landmarks. These include the:1. Longitudinal fissure, which is a deep groove that separates the upper parts of the cerebralhemisphere from each other.2. Central fissure, which extends from the top of the brain near the center downward alongthe side at right angles to the longitudinal fissure.3. Lateral fissure, which curves somewhat along the side of the brain and separates thetemporal lobe from the rest of the cerebral hemisphere.Let us examine the cerebral cortex, the layer of gray matter which forms the surface of each cerebral hemisphere. It is within the cerebral cortex that all impulses are received and analyzed. These form the basis of knowledge; the brain “stores”knowledge, much of which can be produced on demand by means of the phenomenon which we call memory. It is in the cerebral cortex that all thought takes place, all association, judgment and discrimination. It is from the cerebral cortex, too, that the orders originating from conscious deliberation emanate; that is, the voluntary movements are controlled here.Fig. 15.2 External surface of the brain showing the main partsand some of the lobes and fissures of the cerebrum.Division and functions of the cerebral cortexThe cerebral cortex of each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, areas named from the overlying cranial bones. It has been found that each area controls a certain category of functions. The four lobes, with some of their characteristic functions, follow:1. The frontal lobe, which is relatively much larger in the human being than in any otherorganism. This contains the motor cortex which controls the voluntary muscles. The left side of the brain governs the right side of the body and the right side of the brain governs the left side of the body. The upper portion of the center controls the lower parts of the body. The frontal lobe also contains two areas used in speech (the speech centers will be discussed later).2. The parietal lobe, which occupies the upper part of each hemisphere, just behind thecentral fissure. This contains the sensory area, in which the general senses such as pain, touch and temperature are interpreted. Also, such interpretations as the determination of distances, sizes and shapes take place here.3. The temporal lobe, which is lateral (at the side) and folds under the hemispheres on eachside. This contains the auditory center for interpreting impulses from the ear.4. The occipital lobe, which is the most posterior, and extends over the cerebellum. Thiscontains the visual area for interpreting messages from the retina of the eye.Speech centersThe speech centers are among the most interesting groups of areas in the cerebral hemispheres (Fig. 15.3). Their development and use are closely connected with the processes of learning. These areas are called the:1. Auditory speech center, located in the temporal lobe near the auditory center. While theauditory center enables a person to interpret sounds, it does not have anything to do with the understanding of words. Such an understanding of language requires the development of the auditory speech center. Often, this is the first speech center to develop in the child.Babies often seem to understand what is being said long before they do any talking themselves. It is usually several years before children learn to read or write words. In many parts of the world people never learn to read or write their language.2. Visual speech center, which is somewhat above and in front of the visual center. In thisarea the ability to read with understanding is developed. You may see the writing in the Japanese language, for example, but this would involve only the visual center in the occipital lobe unless you could read the words.3. Motor speech center, located just in front of the lowest part of the motor cortex in thefrontal lobe. Since the lower part of the motor cortex controls the muscles of the head and the neck, it seems logical to think of the speech area as an extension forward to make possible the control of the muscles of speech in the tongue, the soft palate and the larynx.4. Written speech center, located above the motor speech center, and in front of the corticalarea that controls the muscles of the arm and the hand. Again this center is an extension forward from the motor cortex. The ability to write words usually is one of the last phases in the development of learning words and their meaning, although occasionally a person may write words more readily than he can vocalize them.Fig. 15.3. Functional areas of cerebrumOther parts of the cerebral hemispheresBeneath the gray matter of the cerebral cortex is the white matter, consisting of nerve fibers which connect the cortical areas with each other and with other parts of the nervous system. Among the most important of these large collections of nerve fibers is the internal capsule, a crowded strip of white matter where any injury is apt to cause extensive damage. At the base of each hemisphere are the nerve cell groups called basal ganglia, which regulate the body movements originating in the cerebral cortex. On the underside of each cerebral hemisphere is the olfactory area, concerned with the sense of smell, which is stimulated by the impulses arising in the nerve receptors of the nose.The interbrainThe interbrain, or diencephalon, can be seen only by cutting into the central section of the brain. It includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The two masses of gray matter that form the thalamus are relay centers and act to monitor sensory stimuli, suppressing some and magnifying others. The hypothalamus is located in the midline area below the thalamus and contains cells that control body temperature, water balance, sleep, appetite and some of our emotions, such as fear and pleasure. Both divisions of the autonomic nervous system are under the control of the hypothalamus. Thus it influe nces the heart‟s beating, the contractions of the walls of the bladder and other vital body functions.The midbrainThe midbrain is located just below the center of the cerebrum. It forms one of the forward parts of the brainstem. Four rounded masses of gray matter that are hidden by the cerebralhemispheres form the upper part of the midbrain. These four bodies, the corpora quadiigemina, act as relay centers for certain eye and ear reflexes. The ventral white matter of the midbrain conducts impulses between the higher centers of the cerebrum and the lower centers in the pons, cerebellum, medulla and spinal cord.The cerebellumThe cerebellum is made up of three parts: the middle portion, called the vermis (meaning …'wormlike‟‟), and two lateral hemisphere s at the sides. As in the case of the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum has an outer area of gray matter and an inner portion that is largely white matter. The functions of the cerebellum are:1. To aid in the coordination of voluntary muscles so that they will function smoothly and inan orderly fashion. Disease of the cerebellum causes muscular jerkiness and tremors.2. To help maintain balance in standing, walking and sitting, as well as during morestrenuous activities. Messages from the internal ear and from the tendon and muscle sensory end organs aid the cerebellum.3. To aid in maintaining muscle tone so that all muscle fibers are slightly tensed and readyto produce necessary changes in position as quickly as may be necessary.The ponsThe pons is white in color because it is composed largely of myelinated nerve fibers. These fibers in the pons carry messages from one side of the cerebellum to the other, from the cerebellum to the higher centers in the cerebrum and midbrain, and from the cerebellum to the lower centers, including the medulla and the spinal cord. Not only is the pons an important connecting link between the cerebellum and the rest of the nervous system, but it also contains connections with four pairs of cranial nerves. Further it contains nerve fibers that carry impulses to and from the centers located above and below it. Certain reflex (involuntary) actions are controlled in the pons; namely, some occurring in respiration.The medulla oblongataThe medulla of the brain is located between the pons and the spinal cord. It appears white externally because, like the pons, it contains many covered (myelinated) nerve fibers. Internally it contains collections of cell bodies (gray matter), which are called centers or nuclei. Among these are the very important vital centers including:1. The respiratory center, which controls the muscles of respiration in response to chemicaland other stimuli.2. The cardiac center, which tends to slow the heart rate so that it will not beat too rapidly tobe effective.3. The vasomotor center, which affects the muscles in the blood vessel walls and hencehelps to determine blood pressure.The last four pairs of cranial nerves are connected with the medulla. The nerve fibers that carry messages up through the spinal cord to the brain continue through the medulla also, as do similar descending or motor fibers. These groups of nerve fibers form tracts (bundles) and are grouped together according to function. The motor fibers from the motor cortex of the cerebral hemispheres .extend down through the medulla, and most of them cross from one side to the other (decussate) while going through this part of the brain. It is in the medulla that the shifting of nerve fibers occurs which causes the right cerebral hemisphere to control muscles in the left side of the body, and the upper portion of the cortex to control of muscles in the lower portions of the person. The medulla is an important reflex centfer, and it is here that certain neurons end and impulses are relayed to other neurons.Ventricles of the brainWithin the brain are four fluid-filled spaces called the ventricles. These extend into the various parts of the brain in a somewhat irregular fashion. We have already mentioned the largest, the lateral ventricles in the two cerebral hemispheres. Their extensions into the lobes of the cerebrum are called horns. These paired ventricles communicate with a midline space, the third ventricle, by means of the openings called foramina. The third ventricle is bounded on each side by the two parts of the thalamus, while the floor is occupied by the hypothalamus. Continuing down from the third ventricle a small canal, called the cerebral aqueduet, extends through the midbrain into the fourth ventricle. The latter is continuous with the near microscopic neural, or central, canal of the spinal cord. Do not confuse this tiny canal inside the cord with the much larger vertebral, or spinal, canal that is a part of the dorsal cavity enclosing the entire cord, together with its membranes and surrounding fluid. .In the roof of the fourth ventricle are three openings that allow the escape of fluid to the area that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. This will be discussed later.After removal of some of the fluid, air or other substances may be injected, and x-rays called encephalograms or ventriculograms are taken. Tumors or other brain disorders may sometimes be located by this means.Another kind of study of the brain and other soft tissues involves the use of high frequency sound impulses. This is called echoencephalography.BrainwavesThe interactions of the billions of nerve cells in the brain give rise to measurable electric currents. These may be recorded by an instrument called the electroencephalograph, which was Mentioned in Chapter 3. Tfie recorded tracings dr brain waves produce an electroencephalogram, not to be confused with the encephalogram mentioned earlier.Disorders of the brainSince the scientific name for the brain is encephalon, infection of, the brain is known asencephalitis. There are many causes of such disease, but the two chief pathogens are:1. Viruses, which cause some of the epidemic types of, sleeping sickness sometimes foundin the United States and in other parts of the world.2. Certain one-celled animals (protozoa) called trypanosoma, which cause the so-calledAfrican sleeping sickness. These protozoa are carried by a kind of fly (tsetse) and are capable of invading the cerebro-spinal fluid of man.Other infections that may involve the brain and related parts include abscesses and meningitis (explained later). As in the case of encephalitis a variety of organisms may cause these disorders. Viruses, bacteria, protozoa and fungi may travel from the centers of infection in the teeth, the sinuses, the tonsils and in the middle ear.Stroke, or cerebral apoplexy, is by far the most common kind of brain disorder. Rupture of a blood vessel (with a consequent cerebral hemorrhage), thrombosis or embolism may cause destruction of brain tissue. Such disorders are more frequent in the presence of artery wall disease, and hence are more common after the age of 40. The onset may seem to be sudden and often is referred to as a cerebrovascular accident. The effects of a stroke will depend on the extent and location of the artery involvement. A hemorrhage into the white matter of the internal capsule in the lower part of the cerebrum may cause extensive paralysis on the side opposite to the affected area. Such a paralysis is called hemiplegia, and the person so afflicted is known as a hemiplegic.Cerebral palsy is a disorder present at birth. It is characterized by diverse disorders of muscles varying in degree from weakness to complete paralysis, and in extent from a slight disorder of the lower extremity muscles to a multiplicity of paralyses involving all four extremities and the speech muscles as well. With patient and continuous muscle reeducation, speech training and other corrective procedures these victims may be helped considerably.Epilepsy, or so-called falling sickness, is a chronic disorder in which there is abnormality of brain function without apparent changes in tlte nerve tissues. In most cases the cause is not known. The study of brain waves obtained with the electroencephalograph usually shows abnormalities and is helpful both in diagnosis and treatment. Research is constantly improving and increasing the knowledge concerning the various forms of epilepsy. Many of these sufferers can be helped to live a normal active life if they follow a very careful hygienic regimen and use appropriate medication as outlined by a physician.Tumors of the brain may develop at any age, but are somewhat more common in young and middle-aged adults. The majority of brain tumors originate from the neuroglia and are called gliomas. The symptoms produced depend on the location of the growth, its destructiveness and the amount it compresses the brain tissue. Involvement of the frontal portions of the cerebrum often causes mental symptoms, such as changes in personality, disordered conduct and drowsiness. Early surgery offers hope of cure in some cases.Aphasia is a term that refers to the loss of the ability to speak or write, or the loss of the understanding of written or spoken language. There are several different kinds of aphasia,depending on what part of the brain is affected. Usually damage to a speech center causes more disturbance in the well-educated person than it does in the illiterate. It also has been noted that there is a tendency for the last language to be acquired to be the first to be lost; and conversely, the speech concepts that were obtained first (in childhood) remain the longest. The lesion that causes aphasia is likely to be in the left cerebral hemisphere in the right-handed person. Often much can be done for these people by patient retraining and much.understanding. The brain is an organ that has a marvelous capacity for adapting itself to different conditions, and its resources are tremendous. Often some means of communi¬cation can be found even though speech areas are damaged.THE SPINAL CORDLocation of the spinal cordIn the embryo the spinal cord occupies the entire spinal canal and so extends down into the tail portion of the vertebral column. However, the column of bone grows much more rapidly than the nerve tissue of the cord, so that the end of the cord soon fails to extend into the lower part of the spinal canal. This disparity in growth increases so that in the adult the cord ends in the region just below the area to which the last rib attaches (between the first and second lumbar vertebrae).Structure of the spinal cordExamination of the spinal cord reveals that it has a small irregularly shaped internal section made of gray matter (nerve cell bodies), and a larger area surrounding this gray part that is made of white matter (nerve fibers). A cross section of the cord shows that the gray matter is so arranged that a column of cells extends up and down dorsally, one on each side; another column is found in the ventral region; while a third less conspicuous part is situated on each side. These three pairs of columns of gray matter give this cross section an H-shaped appearance. The white matter can be seen to be made of thousands of nerve fibers arranged in three areas external to the gray matter on each side.Functions of the spinal cordThe functions of the cord may be divided into three aspects;1. Reflex activities, which involve the transfer and integration of messages that enter thecord, so that a sensory (afferent) impulse entering the center will become a motor (efferent) message leaving the cord.2. A pathway for conducting sensory impulses from afferent nerves upward throughascending tracts to the brain.3. A pathway for conducting motor impulses from the brain down through descending tractsto the nerves that will supply muscles or glands.The reflex pathway through the spinal cord usually involves three or more nerve cellstogether with their fibers, including:1. The sensory neuron, which has its beginning in a receptor and its nerve fiber in a nervethat leads to the cord.2. One or more central neurons, which are entirely within the cord.3. The motor neuron, which receives the impulse from a central neuron and then carries itvia its long axon through a nerve to a muscle or a gland.The knee jerk is an example of a spinal reflex. The pathway for the impulses that make this reflex possible includes a sensory neuron which has its receptor in the tendon just below die knee, its sensory nerve fiber in the nerves that extend to the spinal cord, central neurons inside the lower part of the cord and motor neurons that send processes through nerves from the cord to the effectors in the thigh‟s kicking muscle.Disorders involving the spinal cordAn acute virus disease affecting both the spinal cord and the brain is poliomyelitis, which is most commonly found in children. The polio virus is spread from the nose and the throat; from here it travels to the central nervous system, possibly by way of the respiratory passages and the blood. The virus may destroy the motor nerve cells in the spinal cord, in which case paralysis of one or more limbs results. The virus also can attack some of the cells of the brain and cause death. Prevention of poliomyelitis by means of the oral Sabin vaccine (which was preceded by the Salk vaccine) is one of the many significant advances in preventive medicine.Injuries to the spinal cord occur in traffic accidents in which bones of the spinal column are broken or dislocated. In wars gunshot or shrapnel wounds may damage the cord in varying degrees. Since the nerve tissue of the brain and the cord cannot repair itself, severing the cord causes paralysis below the injury, together with loss of all sensation from this area. Loss of sensation and of motion in the lower part of the body is called paraplegia.Other disorders of the spinal cord include tumors that grow from within the cord or that compress the cord from outside.Multiple sclerosis (sclerosis means hardening) involves the entire spinal cord as well as the brain. In this disease the myelin, a fatlike substance that forms a sheath around certain nerve fibers, disappears and the nerve axons themselves degenerate. It is an extremely disabling disease; however, it usually progresses very slowly so that the patient may have many years of relatively comfortable life remaining to him.Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a motor disorder of the nervous system in which certain cells are destroyed. The progressive destruction causes muscle atrophy and loss of motor control, until finally the victim is unable to swallow, or to talk.Spinal puncture and anesthesiaFluid may be removed from the space below the spinal cord. Since the cord is only about 18 inches long and ends some distance above the level of the hip line, a spinal puncture is usuallydone between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae, about the level of the top of the hip bone. This cerebro-spinal fluid may be studied in the laboratory for evidence of disease or injury.Anesthetics are sometimes dissolved in. cerebrospinal fluid and then injected into the space below the cord, thus temporarily removing all sensation from the lower part of the body. In the hands of a trained operator this method of giving an anesthetic may have a number of advantages for certain types of surgery in selected patients. Under this type of anesthetic the patient is “awake” during the operation, but of course feels nothing in his lower body.COVERINGS OF THE BRAIN AND THE SPINAL CORDThe meninges are three layers of connective tissue that surround the brain and the spinal cord to form a complete enclosure; The outermost of these membranes is called the dura mater. It is the thickest and toughest of these meninges. Inside the skull, the dura mater splits in certain places to provide channels for the blood coming from the brain tissue. The second layer around the brain and the spinal cord is the arachnoid membrane (so-called because it resembles the webs produced by spiders, which belong to a group of animals called the Arachnida). The arachnoid membrane is loosely attached, to the deepest of the meninges by weblike fibers allowing a space for fluid located between the arachnoid and the innermost membrane. The third layer around the brain, the pia mater, is attached to the .nerve tissue of the brain and spinal cord and dips into all the depressions, unlike the other two meninges. It is made of a delicate Connective tissue in which there are many blood vessels. The blood supply to the brain is carried, to a large extent, by the pia mater (Fig. 15.4).Fig. 15.4 Frontal (coroal) section of top of head, showing meninges andrelated parts.。
第十五章 广告
第十五章广告、促销及公共关系公司不应只是制造产品，还要把产品的好处告诉消费者，并在消费者心目中谨慎定位。
为了做到这一点，除了人员推销，它们还必须熟练使用以特定消费者为目标的三种大众推广手段--公共、促销和公共关系。
1、确定广告、促销和公共关系在整个促销组合中的作用。
广告是卖家对收费媒体的使用，告知、劝说并引起别人对其产品和公司的注意，是一个强大的促销工具。
促销包括很多短期激励工具。
近年来，促销费用比广告费用增加得更快。
公共关系就是获得有利的宣传和树立有利的公司形象，它在主要推广手段中用得最少，尽管它对于建立顾客认知和偏好有很大的潜力。
2、描述为使一个广告活动获得发展的首要决策。
广告决策包括目标、预算、创意、媒体和最后的结果评价。
广告人员应该树立明确目标，广告预算要根据承担能力、销售额、竞争对手花费或目标和任务来制定。
创意决策要计划创意策略并有效实施。
媒体决策包括确定范围、频率和效果目标，选择主要媒体类型，选定媒体载体以及确定媒体时段，创意和媒体决策密切配合，以使效果最好。
最后要对广告之前、期间和之后的沟通与销售效果进行评价。
3、解释促销活动是如何获得发展与完成的促销活动要确定促销目标，选择促销工具，使用交易推广手段，设计和实施促销活动，还要决定激励规模，参与条件、如何推广和发放促销品以及促销时间的长短。
整个过程结束后，公司要评价结果。
4、解释公司怎样利用公共关系与公众沟通公司通过制定公关目标、选择公关创意和工具、实施公关计划以及评价公关结果，使用公共关系与公众沟通。
为了实现这些目标，公共关系专业人员使用新闻、演说和特殊事件等几个工具，还要准备书面、视听和公司识别材料，并对社会公益活动投入金钱和时间。
关键概念和原则管理部门开发一个广告计划时，要做出四个重要决策：确定广告目标、编制广告预算、设计广告策略和评估广告活动。
确定广告目标。
目标根据以往有关目标市场、定位和营销组合的决策来确定，它们规定了在整个营销计划中广告的地位和作用。
辣手女销售_Chapter 15 都只有一个目的
林思渺和她低声说话，但看情形，他们之间关系匪浅。
楚爱蹑手蹑脚地跟着，心说：莫纳说的那个神秘之花不会就是她吧？林思渺领着女人往办公室里走去。
楚爱顿时对林思渺竖起钦佩的大旗：越隐藏越容易暴露，伟人的战略实在太经典了。
要换自己往办公室里领一大活人，早被吐沫淹死，人家是领导，情况立刻不同了。
楚爱看不到女人的脸，潜意识里十分想看一看，这女人到底是怎样的天姿国色，倾国倾城胜莫愁。
林思渺打开办公室的门，女人先走了进去，门随后被掩上了。
楚爱连跑好几步，四下张望，见周围没人，才敢小心翼翼地把耳朵贴门上去。
惨遭上次事件教训，楚爱这回多长了个心眼，半蹲着，手扶门边的墙壁，这样一来，就算其后有人狠狠地推她，也绝不会来个鼻尖点地。
但是她似乎看不到这姿势保持得太过标准，害的她身后站定的保安，往门楣上确认了好几次，才敢认定，这是办公区不是洗手间之类的地方。
楚爱丝毫没有察觉。
门里两人交谈的声音隐约传到楚爱的耳朵里。
“就当给自己放个长假吧。
”女人的声音。
“等旅游节结束，想不放都不行了。
”林思渺的声音。
“唉……”叹气声。
‘不用担心我，倒是你……”林思渺愧疚地对女人说。
“……”楚爱又往前探，突地感觉身后有人拍打她的后背。
她手往后胡乱地甩甩：“别动，听声音呢!”“那你都听到什么声音了？”ORE……楚爱笑脸僵硬地扭头，公司保安正捏着一根大警棍指着楚爱，两只眼睛警惕地逼视她。
楚爱刚要解释，只见保安右腿往楚爱小腿上狠命一踢，楚爱顿时软软地、不由自主地往前一个朝拜，“咻”地撞开门平扑在地：咪咪，我的咪咪!楚爱疼的龇牙咧嘴，眼泪直在眼眶里打颤。
房屋里的人显然被吓了一跳。
林思渺皱眉死盯住从地上颤巍巍爬起来的楚爱：“上班时间你跑我门外干什么来了？”楚爱委屈地嗫嚅：“路过的。
很多天没见到总监你的人了，见你回办公室，就想打个招呼，敲门的时候……”保安强行打断：“我刚看到她鬼鬼祟祟地跟着总监你，还在门外偷听，被我逮着了!’，保安分外得意地看了楚爱一眼，那架势挑明了：你这样的我见的多了，想开脱？门都没有!我可专业着呢!楚爱连连晃手：“不是的，真不是的。
锚定15%法则
锚定15%法则
锚定15%法则是一种谈判策略，用于确定一个参考点或起始点，以便在谈判过程中实现更有利的结果。
根据这个法则，谈判者会将其目标设定在预期结果的15%以上，以保证有足够的空间进行让步和讨价还价。
使用锚定15%法则的谈判者会首先提出一个较高的要求或要价，以引起对方的注意并在谈判中建立一个有利的起点。
通过将目标定在预期结果的15%以上，谈判者可以有更大的弹性和余地来让步并与对方达成妥协。
相比之下，如果谈判者开始就提出最低要求或要价，会使谈判变得更加困难，并可能导致较差的结果。
锚定15%法则的关键是制定一个合理且有竞争力的起点，以及在整个谈判过程中保持灵活性和积极性。
通过巧妙地运用这个策略，谈判者可以增加自己的谈判能力和成功的机会。
《市场营销学(第11版)》教材各章节主要名词英汉对照
《市场营销学（第11版）》教材各章节主要名词英汉对照Part 1: Defining Marketingand the Marketing Process P. 8 Chapter 1: Marketing: Creating and Capturing Customer Value P. 81.Marketing市场营销2.Needs需要3.Wants欲望4.Demands需求5.Marketing offering市场供给物6.Marketing myopia营销近视症7.Exchange交换8.Market市场9.Marketing management 营销管理10.Production concept 生产观念11.Product concept产品观念12.Selling concept销售观念13.Marketing concept市场营销观念14.Societal marketing concept社会营销观念15.Customer relationship management 客户关系管理16.Customer-perceived value顾客感知价值17.Customer satisfaction顾客满意18.Customer-generated marketing消费者自主营销19.Partner relationship management 合作伙伴关系营销20.Customer lifetime value顾客终身价值21.Share of customer顾客份额22.Customer equity顾客资产23.Internet互联网24.Globalization 国际化25.Marketing process营销过程Chapter 2: Company and Marketing Strategy: Partnering to Build Customer Relationships P. 3626.Strategic planning战略规划27.Mission statement企业使命28.Business portfolio业务组合29.Portfolio 投资组合，有价证券30.Portfolio analysis 投资组合分析31.Growth-share matrix 成长占有率矩阵32.Product/market expansion grid产品/市场扩展矩阵33.Market development市场开发34.Product development产品开发35.Diversification多元化36.Downsizing 精简37.Value chain价值链38.Value delivery network价值传递网络39.Marketing strategy营销战略40.Market segmentation市场细分41.Market targeting目标市场定位42.Positioning市场定位43.Differentiation 差异化44.Marketing mix营销组合45.SWOT analysis SWOT分析，态势分析发，优劣势分析法46.Marketing implementation营销执行47.Marketing control 营销控制48.Marketing audit营销审计49.Return on marketing investment （or marketing ROI）营销投资收益率Part 2: Understanding the Marketplace and Consumers P. 58 Chapter 3: Analyzing the Marketing Environment P. 5850.Marketing environment 市场环境51.Microenvironment微观环境52.Macroenviroment宏观环境53.Marketing intermediaries营销中间商54.Public公众55.Demography 人口统计56.Baby boomers婴儿潮世代57.Generation X X世代lennials（or Generation Y）千禧世代（Y世代）59.Economic environment经济环境60.Engel’s laws恩格尔法则61.Natural environment自然环境62.Technological environment技术环境63.Political environment政治环境64.Cultural environment文化环境Chapter 4: Managing Marketing Information to Gain Customer Insights P. 8265.Customer insights顾客洞察力66.Marketing information system （MIS）市场信息系统67.Internal database内部数据库68.Marketing intelligence营销情报69.Exploratory research探索性调研70.Descriptive research描述性调研71.Causal research因果性调研72.Secondary data二手数据mercial online database商业在线数据库74.Observational research观察式调研75.Ethnographic research民族志调研76.Survey research询问式调研77.Experimental research实验室调研78.Focus group interviewing 焦点小组访谈79.Online marketing research 在线营销调研80.Online focus group在线焦点小组81.Sample样本82.Customer relationship management （CRM）客户关系管理83.Questionnaire 调查问卷Chapter 5: Understanding Consumer and Business Buyer Behavior P. 10884.Culture文化85.Subculture亚文化86.Social class 社会阶层87.Group 团队88.Opinion leader 意见团队89.Online social networks 在线文化网络90.Lifestyle 生活方式91.Personality 个性92.Motive（Drive）动机（驱动力）93.Perception感知94.Learning学习95.Belief信念96.Attitude态度97.Cognitive dissonance 认知失调98.New product 新产品99.Adoption process 采用过程100.Business buyer behavior 产业购买者行为101.Derived demand 派生需求102.Straight rebuy 直接重购103.Modified rebuy 修订重购买104.New task 新任务105.Systems selling（or solutions selling）系统销售（解决方案营销）106.Buying center 采购中心107.Value analysis 价值分析Part 3: Designing a Customer-DrivenMarketing Strategy and Mix P. 138 Chapter 6: Customer-Driven Marketing Strategy: Creating Value for Target Customers P. 138108.Market segmentation 市场细分109.Market targeting（targeting）目标市场选择110.Differentiation 差异化111.Positioning 市场定位112.Geographic segmentation 地理细分113.Demographic segmentation 人口细分114.Age and life-cycle segmentation 年龄和生命周期细分115.Gender segmentation 性别细分116.Income segmentation 收入细分117.Psychographic segmentation 心里细分118.Behavior segmentation 行为细分119.Occasion segmentation 时机细分120.Benefit segmentation 利益细分121.Customer loyalty 顾客忠诚度122.Intermarket segmentation 跨国市场细分123.Target market 目标市场124.Undifferentiated （mass）marketing 无差异营销（大众营销）125.Differentiated （segmented）marketing 差异化营销（细分营销）126.Concentrated （）marketing 集中营销（利基营销）127.Micromarketing 微观营销128.Local marketing 地区营销129.Individual marketing 个性化营销130.Production position 产品定位petitive advantage 竞争优势132.Value proposition 价值主张133.Positioning statement 定位陈述Chapter 7: Products, Services, and Brands: Building Customer Value P. 164134.Product 产品135.Service 服务136.Customer product 消费品137.Convenience product 便利品138.Shopping product 选购品139.Specialty product 特殊品140.Unsought product 非渴求品141.Industrial product 产业用品142.Social marketing 社会营销143.Product quality 产品质量144.Brand 品牌145.Packaging 包装146.Product line 产品线147.Product mix （or product portfolio）产品组合148.Brand equity 品牌资产149.Store brand （or private brand）中间商品牌（自有品牌）150.Co-branding 合作品牌151.Line extension 产品延伸线152.Brand extension 品牌延伸153.Service intangibility服务的无形性154.Service inseparability服务的不可分离性155.Service variability服务的易变性156.Service perishability服务的易逝性157.Service-profit chain服务利润链158.Internal marketing 内部营销159.Interactive marketing 互动营销Chapter 8: Developing New-Product and Managing the Life-Cycle P. 192 160.New-product development 新产品开发战略161.Idea generation 产生创意162.Idea screening 筛选创意163.Product concept 产品观念164.Concept testing 概念测试165.Marketing strategy development 营销战略开发166.Business analysis 商业分析167.Product development 产品开发168.Test marketing 试销mercialization 商业化170.Customer-centered new-product development 以顾客为中心的新产品开发171.Team-based new-product development 基于团队的新产品开发172.Product life cycle 产品生命周期173.Style 风格174.Fashion 时尚175.Fad 热潮176.Introduction stage 导入期177.Growth stage 成长期178.Maturity stage 成熟期179.Decline stage 衰退期Chapter 9: Pricing:Understanding and Capturing Customer Value P. 212 180.Price价格181.Value-based pricing 价值导向定价182.Good-value pricing 最优价值定价183.Value-added pricing 价值增值定价184.Cost-based pricing 成本导向定价185.Fixed costs 固定成本186.Valuable costs 变动成本187.Total costs 总成本188.Cost-plus pricing 成本加成定价189.Break-even pricing （target profit pricing）盈亏平衡定价（目标利润定价）190.Target costing 目标成本法191.Demand curve 需求曲线192.Price elasticity 价格弹性193.Market-skimming pricing 市场撇脂定价194.High-definition television （HDTV）高清电视195.Market-penetration pricing 市场渗透定价196.Optional-product pricing 附属产品定价197.By-product pricing 副产品定价198.Product bundle pricing 产品捆绑定价199.Discount 折扣200.Allowance 折让201.Segmentation pricing 细分定价202.Psychological pricing 心理定价203.Reference pricing 参考定价204.Promotional pricing 促销定价205.Geographical pricing 地理定价206.Dynamic pricing 动态定价Chapter 10: Marketing Channels: Delivering Customer Value P. 242 207.Value delivery network 价值传递网络208.Marketing channel （distribution channel）营销渠道（分销渠道）209.Channel level 渠道层级210.Direct marketing channel 直接营销渠道211.Channel conflict 渠道冲突212.Conventional distribution channel 传统分销渠道213.Vertical marketing system （VMS）垂直营销系统214.Corporate VMS公司VMS（垂直营销系统）215.Contractual VMS 合同式VMS （垂直营销系统）216.Franchise organization 特许经营组织217.Administered VMS 管理式VMS （垂直营销系统）218.Horizontal marketing system 水平营销系统219.Multichannel distribution system 多渠道分销系统220.Disintermediation 去中介化221.Marketing channel design 营销渠道设计222.Intensive distribution 密集分销223.Exclusive distribution 独家分销224.Selective distribution 选择性分销225.Marketing channel management 营销渠道管理226.Marketing logistics （physical distribution）营销物流（物流）227.Supply chain management 供应链管理228.Distribution center 分销中心229.Intermodal transportation 多式联运230.Integrated logistics management 整合物流管理231.Third-party logistics （3PL）provider 第三方物流供应商Chapter 11: Retailing and Wholesaling P. 262232.Retailing 零售233.Specialty store 专卖店234.Department store 百货商店235.Supermarket 超级市场236.Convenience store 便利店237.Superstore 超级商店238.Category killer 品类杀手239.Service retailer 服务零售店240.Discount store 折扣商店241.Off-price retailer 廉价零售店242.Independent off-price retailer 独立廉价零售商243.Factory outlet 工厂直营店244.Warehouse club 仓储俱乐部245.Chain store 连锁店246.Franchise 特许经营247.Shopping center 购物中心248.Wheel-of-retailing concept 零售轮转理论249.Wholesaling 批发250.Wholesaler 批发商251.Merchant wholesaler252.Broker253.Agent254.Manufacturer’s sales branches and offices 制造商的销售分发机构和办事处Chapter 12: Communicating Customer Value: Advertising and Public Relations P. 294255.Promotion mix （Marketing Communication Mix）营销组合（营销沟通组合）256.Advertising 广告257.Sales promotion 销售促进258.Personal selling 人员推销259.Public relations 公告关系260.Direct marketing 直复营销261.Integrated marketing communication （IMC）整合营销沟通262.Push strategy 推式战略263.Pull strategy 拉式战略264.Advertising objective 广告目标265.Advertising budget 广告预算266.Affordable method 量力而行法267.Percentage-of-sale method 销售百分比法petitive-parity method 竞争对等法269.Objective-and-task method 目标任务法270.Advertising strategy 广告战略271.Madison & Vine 麦迪逊大街和好莱坞藤街272.Creative concept 创意概念273.Execution style 创作文体274.Advertising media 广告媒体275.Return on advertising investment 广告投资收益率276.Advertising agency 广告代理商277.Public relation 公共关系Chapter 13: Personal Selling and Sales Promotion P. 324278.Personal selling 人员推销279.Salesperson 销售人员280.Sale force management 销售队伍管理281.Territorial sales force structure 地域型销售组织机构282.Product sales force structure 产品型销售组织机构283.Customer sales force structure 顾客型销售组织机构284.Outside sales force （or field sales force）外部销售队伍（现场销售队伍）285.Inside sales force 内部销售队伍286.Team selling 团队销售287.Sales quota 销售定额288.Selling process 销售过程289.Prospection 寻找线索290.Preapproach 事先调查291.Approach 接触访问292.Presentation 展示293.Handling objection 排除异议294.Closing 完成交易295.Follow-up 后续工作296.Sales promotion 销售促进297.Customer promotions 消费者销售促进298.Event marketing 事件营销299.Trade promotion 贸易销售促进300.Business promotions 商业销售促进Chapter 14: Direct and Online Marketing: Building Direct Customer Relationships P. 348301.Direct marketing 直复营销302.Customer database 顾客数据库303.Direct-mail marketing 直接邮寄营销304.Catalog marketing 目录营销305.Telephone marketing 电话营销306.Direct-response television marketing 电视直销307.Online marketing 在线营销308.Internet 互联网309.Click-only companies 点击企业（即在线交易公司）310.Click-and-mortar companies 虚实结合营销311.Business-to-customer （B2C）online marketing 企业对消费者的在线营销312.Business-to-business （B2B）online marketing企业对企业的在线营销313.Customer-to-customer （C2C）online marketing消费者对消费者的在线营销314.Customer-to-business （C2B）online marketing消费者对企业的在线营销315.Corporate （or brand）Web site 公司（品牌）网站316.Marketing Web site 营销网站317.Online advertising 在线广告318.Viral marketing 病毒营销319.Online social networks 在线社交啊网络320.Spam 垃圾邮件Part 4: Extending Marketing P. 372Chapter 15: The Global Marketplace P. 372321.Global marketplace 全球市场322.Global firm 跨国公司323.Economic community 经济共同体324.Americanization 美国化325.Exporting 出口326.Joint venturing 组建合资公司327.Licensing 许可经营328.Contract manufacturing 合同制造329.Management contracting 合同管理330.Joint ownership 合同所有331.Direct investment 直接投资332.Standardized global marketing 全球标准化营销333.Straight product extension 直接产品延伸334.Product adaptation 产品适应335.Product invention 产品创新munication adaptation 沟通适应337.Whole-channel view 整渠道视野Chapter 16: Sustainable Marketing: Social Responsibility and Ethics P. 394 338.Consumerism 消费者保护主义339.Environmentalism 环境保护主义340.Environmental sustainability 环境可持续发展341.Enlightened marketing 远见营销342.Consumer-oriented marketing 消费者导向营销343.Customer-value marketing 顾客价值营销344.Innovative marketing 创新营销345.Sense-o-mission marketing 使命感营销346.Societal marketing 社会营销347.Deficient product是不完善的产品348.Pleasing products 令人愉快的产品349.Salutary products 有益的产品。
朗文国际英语教程(side by side)之chapter 15全面解析
朗文国际英语教程（side by side）各单元要点Chapter 15Grammar(语法)--- past tense一、定义:⒈过去发生的而已经结束的动作需要用一般过去式来表示。
⒉表示过去某个时间里发生的动作或状态。
【过去时态】表示行为、动作和状态在各种时间条件下的动词形式。
【过去时态结构】是指过去时态下的动词形式的语法构成。
规则动词一般动词直接加-ed，e.g. look-looked；以e结尾的动词直接加-d，e.g. dance-danced；辅音字母加y结尾的，变y为i再加ed，e.g. study-studied；以重读闭音节结尾，末尾只有一个辅音字母（字母w，y，x除外），双写这个辅音字母加-ed，e.g. skip-skipped；以l结尾的动词，若以非重读音节结尾，则末尾的字母l双写与不双写均可。
其中不双写的是美式拼写。
e.g.travel-travelled/traveled(U.S.)。
部分以-p结尾的动词同样遵循第5条，这类词多由“前缀+名词”构成。
e.g. worship-worshipped/worshiped(U.S.)、handicap-handicapped/handicaped (U.S.)。
注：英语26个字母中，除了a，e，i，o，u 这几个元音字母外，其他都是辅音字母。
不规则动词动词过去式与原形相同；动词过去式以-ought或-aught结尾；动词过去式由原形结尾的-end变为-ent；动词过去式以-elt，-eft，-ept结尾；动词过去式与原形比较，其中一个元音字母发生改变；动词过去式以-ew结尾；动词过去式-ee-变为-e-。
动词不规则动词is-wasare-weream-wasgo-wentdo，does-didbring-broughtmake-madehave-hadrun-rantell-toldeat-ateget-gotdraw-drewput -putread-readtake-tookdie-diedsee-sawfly-flewcut-cutmeet-mettell-toldbuild-builtlend-lentlose-losthear-heardbuy-boughtchoose-choseforget-forgotsink-sanksing-sangbegin-beganswim-swamring-rangdrink-drankfly-flewdraw-drewlie-laywear-woreknow-knewteach-taughtswim-swamstand-stoodkeep-keptthink-thought规则动词：call，live，walk，talk，jump，use，plant，want，water，play，stop，study，visit，learn（learned/learnt）其他变化1．原形-过去式-过去分词全相同cost——cost——cost 价值cut——cut——cut 切，割，砍hit——hit——hit 打hurt——hurt——hurt 伤害read/ri:d/——read/red/——read/red/ 读put——put——put 放let——let——let 让shut——shut——shut 关2. 过去分词与原形相同,过去式改o/u为a become—became—become 变得，成为come—came—come 来run—ran—run 跑3. 原形-过去式-过去分词是i-a-u的变化begin—began—begun 开始drink---drank—drunk 喝ring---rang—rung 打电话sing---sang---sung 唱（歌）swim---swam---swum 游泳4. 过去分词在原形后加-eneat—ate---eaten 吃fall---fell—fallen 落下；跌倒5. 过去式和过去分词都去掉原形的一个e feed---fed—fed 喂养，饲养meet---met---met 碰到，见面，会面6. 过去分词在原形后加-n blow—blew—blown 吹grow—grew—grown 种植；生长throw---threw---thrown 投；掷；扔know---knew——known知道；懂得；认为draw—drew—drawn 画fly--- flew---flown飞see --- saw --- seen 看见，看到show---showed---shown 出示；给...看give--- gave ---given 给drive---drove---driven 驾驶take---took---taken 拿去;带去7. 过去分词以-en结尾bite--- bit --- bitten 咬ride---rode---ridden 骑(车,马等)write---wrote---written 写break---broke---broken 弄坏,弄破choose--chose--chosen 选择speak---spoke---spoken 讲话;演讲wake---woke---woken 使...醒来;弄醒forget---forgot---forgotten 忘记hide---hid---hidden 躲,藏8. 过去分词以-ne结尾do --- did --- done 做,干go --- went --- gone 去9.过去式与过去分词都有aught结尾catch---caught ---caught 捉住;抓住teach---taught---taught 教10.过去式和过去分词都以-ought结尾bring---brought---brought 拿来;带来buy ---bought ---bought 买fight---fought---fought 打架;打仗think---thought--thought 想;认为teach---taught--taught 教 vt.教;教导,训练;教授 vi.教书11.dig ---dug ---dug 挖get ---got---got 得到;获得sit --- sat --- sat 坐下hold---held ---held 举行;握住shine --- shone --- shone 照耀say--- said ---said 说pay---paid---paid 付账;为...付款make---made---made 制造;制作tell --- told --- told 告诉sell---sold---sold 卖stand --- stood --- stood 站立understand-understood-understood 明白;理解find --- found --- found 发现12. 过去式和过去分词都在原形后加d或t hear--heard--heard 听见;听说mean --meant--meant 意思是13. 过去式和过去分词都以elt,eft或ept结尾feel --- felt --- felt 感觉keep --- kept --- kept 保持sleep---slept---slept 睡觉leave --- left --- left 离开14 .have --- had --- had 有lose --- lost --- lost 丢失;迷失build---built---built 建造;建设send --- sent --- sent 寄;送lend---lent---lent 借spend --- spent --- spent 花费(时间,金钱) 15.lie --- lay --- lain 躺;位于wear --- wore --- worn 穿;戴be ---was, were --- been 是16. 只有过去式can --- could 能may --- might 可能,也许shall---should 将要will---would 将要17. 过去式和过去分词均有两个burn-burned/burnt-burned/burnt 燃烧dream-dreamed/dreamt-dreamed/dreamt 做梦;梦见learn-learned/learnt-learned/learnt 学会smell--smelled/smelt--smelled/smelt 闻spell--spelled/spelt--spelled/spelt 拼写Be动词的一般过去时内容在没有实义动词的句子中使用be动词， am is 的过去式为was; are的过去式为were肯定句式：主语 + be(was , were) + 其它.否定句式：主语 + be(was , were) + not + 其它.一般疑问句：Be(was , were) + 主语 + 其它？注：在这种构成中，be动词有人称和数的变化，即要根据主语选用was / were。
英语国家概况Chapter15
James Madison, fourth president of the United States, is often regarded as the "Father of the Constitution." (The American History）
Ⅵ.Territorial Expansion and Westward Movement （开拓疆土和西进运动）
Chapter 15 American History (I) (1600-1900)
I. II. III. IV. V. VI.
Discovery of the New World The Colonial Period The War of Independence A New Form of Government The War of 1812 Territorial Expansion and Westward Movement VII. The Civil War VIII. Rapid Growth of Capitalism after the Civil War
contents
I. Discovery of the New World
Think about the following questions. 1. Who are the original American people? 2. Do you know where the name “America” came from?
3. Struggle during ratification ①Between: a. Federalists –Federalist Paper b. Anti-federalists, concerned the absence of Bill of Rights in the Constitution. ②Final: Bill of Rights.
Chapter 15 The Southern Renaissance
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II.WilliamFaulkner(1897-1962)
• 1. General Comment: William Faulkner ranks with Ernest Hemingway as one of the leading authors of the 20th Century.Faulkner, like Robert Frost, was a regionalist,writing about the scenes and people he knew best.Faulkner’s region was the Deep South, with its bitter history of slavery, civil war and destruction. He invented a county:Yoknapatawpha, and a town in his imagination, very similar to his own part of Mississippi.
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6. As I Lay Dying
• A. The story • B. The Characters: Addie Bundren and her husband, her sons and daughter • C. 59 episodes with 15 narrators.An example of multiple point of view.
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5. Light in August
• A. the characters: • Joe Christmas, Gail Hightower, and Joanna Burden, Lena Grove. • B. The Story (P240, 242) • C. Read the selected parts of the novel.
chapter 15-exchange rate determination
Figures
• Five most expensive (22 July 2010)
Norway - USD 7.20 Sweden - USD 6.56 Switzerland - USD 6.19 Brazil - USD 4.91 Denmark - USD 4.90
巴西的巨无霸为什么这么贵？
• Five most affordable (22 July 2010) Ukraine - USD 1.84 Hong Kong - USD 1.90 China, People's Republic of - USD 1.95 Thailand - USD 2.17 Egypt - USD 2.23
• 金融危机后，麦当劳宣布将关闭在冰岛的三间分店,全面撤 出该国。 • 还是巨无霸,这次麦当劳把它卖到了巴西,一个售价8雷亚尔, 与同为发展中国家的中国差不多。但到2009年,巴西当地巨 无霸的价格却已经超过英国和美国。其实,售价还是8雷亚 尔,只不过,今年以来,巴西雷亚尔兑美元汇率强劲攀升34%, 所以换算成美元的话,在巴西买一个巨无霸要花4.62美元了。 • 近年来，巴西凭借矿产资源出口和完善的工业体系步步进 取,成为世界第十大经济强国。同时,该国也是金融危机中 最抗跌且最早走出经济衰退的国家之一。随着巴西相继获 得2014年足球世界杯和2016年奥运会主办权,大量投资将进 入相关基础设施领域拉动内需,市场预计未来几年巴西的经 济增长率都将维持在5%-6%。 • 近日高盛表示,依照巴西的经济状况,雷亚尔还有进一步升 值空间,看来要想在巴西吃个巨无霸要花更多的美元了。
Chapter 15 Exchange Rate Determination
Chapter 12 Exchange Rate Determination
第七章--战略实施PPT课件
企业战略目标
确定评价指标
评价环境变化
评价实际效果
战略控制-的过程
战略调整或变革
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二、战略控制与评价的方法 （一）确定评价指标 1公司经营业绩的评价指标
（1）投资收益率：测定企业综合效益 税前收入÷总资产
（2）附加价值：指企业产品的新增价值 附加价值=销售收入-原材料成本-外购零部件成本 附加价值收益率=税前净利÷附加价值
变革型 为有效实施战略而设计适当的行政管理系统
合作型 如何让其他高层管理人员一起共同实施战略
文化型 如何动员全体员工都参与战略实施活动
侧重 战略
增长型
为了使企业获得更快的增长， 鼓励中下层管理制定与实施自己的战略
实施
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第八章 战略控制
什么是 战略控制
战略控制的特征与原则
如何进行 战略控制
战略控制过程
封闭性
定量 确定具体
财务控制 生产控制 销售规模控制 质量控制 成本控制
解决效率问题
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战略控制的特征、原则、条件
战略控制 的特征
渐进性
交互性
系统性
战略控制 的原则
确保目标
保持弹性
重点控制
经济适应
战略控制 的条件
完整的战 略规划
健全的组 织机构
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得力的领 导者
优良的企 业文化
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第二节 战略控制与评价过程
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（三）评价实际效果
战略实施的情况与战略实施计划进行比较，确定 两者的差距及原因。 形成差距的原因： 1.环境变化 2.短期化行为 3.目标位移：是指将帮助战略目标实现的经营活动 本身变为目的，或者经营活动未能实现自己所要 达到的目的，从而混淆了企业战略的目的和手段， 导致企业的业绩下降。
战略品牌管理课件 (15)
Kevin Lane Keller Tuck School of Business Dartmouth College
15.1
Brand Knowledge Structure
Brand awareness, depth, and breadth Brand associations
15.4
Guidelines for Building Brand Equity
Mix and match brand elements Create a rich brand image and high perceived quality Adopt value-based pricing strategy Consider a range of distribution options Mix marketing communication options Leverage secondary associations
15.7
Guidelines for Managing Brand Equity
Define brand hierarchy Create global associations Introduce brand extensions Clearly establish the roles of brands in the portfolio Reinforce brand equity over time Enhance brand equity over time Identify differences in consumer behavior in different market segments
chapter15 Autoimmunity
Contributing Factors
Defects in the immune system. Influence of hormones Environmental conditions
Classification of Autoimmune Diseases
Systemic- the auto-immunity is directed against an antigen that is present at many different sites and can include involvement of several organs Organ specific - Organ specific means the autoimmunity is directed against a component of one particular type of organ. Both – can get overlap
Altered Antigen
Surface antigens on host altered by chemical, biological or physical means. This new antigenic determinant may be recognized as foreign by the host.
Antinuclear antibodies produced. More than 28 antibodies associated with LE have been identified. Level of antibody production correlates with severity of symptoms. Estrogen enhance B cell activation.
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Human Resources Programs
Articulated as Human Resources Strategies
Human Resources Practices
For leadership, managerial, and operational roles
The 5-P Model
Linking Strategic Business Needs & Strategic HRM Activities
ORGANIZATIONAL STRTEGY Initiates the process of identifying strategic business needs and provides specific qualities to them
Coordinates efforts to facilitate change to address major peoplerelated business issues
Motivates needed role behaviors
Defines how these activities are carried out
The 5-P Model
STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES
Human Resources Philosophy
Expressed in statements defining business values and culture
Human Resources Policies
STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES
The 5-P Model
Pepsi-Cola International’s strategy
Being No. 1 by Creating Value through Leadership and Excellence.
INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS
STRTEGIC BUSINESS NEEDS Expressed in mission statements or vision statements and translate into strategic business objectives
The 5-P Model
PCI’s strategic business objectives
Committed bottling organization Uncompromising dedication to quality Development of talented people Focus on growth Quality business plans
SHRM is the pattern of planned human resource deployment and activities intended to enable an organization to achieve its goals.
Strategic human resources management is largely about integration and adaptation. Its concern is to ensure that: (1) human resources (HR) management is fully integrated with the strategy and the strategic needs of the firm; (2) HR policies cohere both across policy areas and across hierarchies; and (3) HR practices are adjusted, accepted, and used by line managers and employees as part of their everyday work.
Distinctive human resources are firms' core competencies
Strategic Human Resource Management
SHRM is the linking of HRM with strategic goals and objectives in order to improve business performance and develop organizational cultures that foster innovation and flexibility.
The fastest The most committed to customer service and attuned to customer
needs The best operators The best selling and marketing company The best people-oriented company
Human Resources Processes
For the formulation and implementation of other activities
Express how to treat and value people
Establishes guidelines for action on people-related business issues and HR programs
The 5-P Model
1. HUMAN RESOURCES PHILOSOPHY
This is a statement of how the organization regards its human resources, what role the resources play in the overall success of the business, and how they are to be treated and managed.