Cardinal Vowels

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语言学chapter 2 phonetics

To make a speech sound visible so that we can measure its components objectively we must then go into the domain of acoustic phonetics, which studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.
3.1.2 Places of articulation
In terms of place of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into the following types:
bilabial
labiodental
j
4. Vowels (refer to Poole, 2000: 60)
4.1 cardinal vowels 基本元音(refer to Poole, 2000: 50-51)
British phonetician Daniel Jones first fixed the qualities of the two vowels which were produced with the tongue is as high and as far forward as possible in [i]. Another, represented by [a], is the sound produced when the tongue is as low as possible at the back. The other six vowels have been plotted down between these two extremes, the front vowels being plotted at equal acoustic distances as are the back vowels.

语言学考研真题

语言学考研真题和答案第一章语言学Fill in the blanks1. Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the _______it is associated with. （人大2007研）meaning 语言有任意性，其所指与形式没有逻辑或内在联系2. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as _______. （北二外2003研）displacement 移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点3. By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the _______ level are composed of elements of the __________ level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. （北二外2006研）primary, secondary 双重性指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则4. The features that define our human languages can be called _______ features. （北二外2006）design人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

chapter 2 speech sounds

3 声腔
声腔包括口腔、鼻腔和咽腔三部分。口腔可分为上下两个部分，上面部分包括上唇、上齿、齿龈(alveolar ridge)、硬腭(hard palate)、软腭(soft palate/velum)和小舌 (uvula)。齿龈是上腭前段凸出的部分，硬腭是齿龈之后口腔上壁坚硬的部分，软腭是硬腭后面的柔软部分。软腭后面连接的是小舌，软腭与小舌可以上下移动。口腔的下面部分包括下唇、下齿和舌头。舌头是口腔里最重要、最灵活的器官，它可以分为舌尖(tip)、舌叶(blade)、舌面三部分。舌尖位于舌头的最前端，舌头自然平伸时，舌尖后面与齿龈相对的部分叫舌叶。舌叶之后的部分叫舌面，又可以分为前、中、后三部分。其中相对于硬腭的部分是舌面前和舌面中，相对于软腭的部分是舌面后，舌面后又可以叫舌根（root)。
physiological property physical features psychological property
Three ways of approaching phonetics:

Articulatory Phonetics (发音语音学): The study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学): The study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual / Auditory Phonetics (听觉语音学): is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
Classification of Speech sounds

cardinal vowels名词解释

cardinal vowels名词解释Cardinal Vowels: A Noun ExplanationIntroductionIn the world of phonetics, the study of speech sounds, cardinal vowels serve as a fundamental concept. Cardinal vowels are a set of reference points that linguists use to describe and analyze vowel sounds across languages. This article aims to provide a comprehensive explanation of cardinal vowels, their significance, and their applications in the study of phonetics.What are Cardinal Vowels?Cardinal vowels are a set of specific vowel sounds that are considered the basic building blocks of all vowel sounds produced by humans. These vowels are specifically chosen and defined to cover the entire range of possible vowel sounds and are not necessarily found in any particular language. They are used as reference points to compare and describe vowel sounds across different languages and dialects.Origin and DevelopmentThe concept of cardinal vowels was first proposed by Daniel Jones, a prominent British phonetician, in the early 20th century. Jones believed that by identifying and describing a set of universal vowel sounds, researchers could establish a common ground for discussing and analyzing vowel systems in various languages. He conducted extensive research and experimentation to determine the precise articulation of each cardinal vowel.Description of Cardinal VowelsJones identified and classified the cardinal vowels based on their articulatory features. He based his classification on the position and movement of the tongue and the lips, each vowel being represented by a distinct symbol. The cardinal vowel chart, also known as the vowel quadrilateral, visually represents these vowels. The chart displays the positions of the tongue and the lips in relation to each other and includes symbols to represent each cardinal vowel sound.Significance of Cardinal Vowels1. Standardized Reference Points: Cardinal vowels provide a standardized system for describing and comparing vowel sounds across languages. Linguists and phoneticians use these reference points to study vowel systems in different languages, facilitating cross-linguistic comparisons and analysis.2. Articulation Training: Cardinal vowels serve as a valuable tool for language learners and speech therapists. By mastering the cardinal vowel sounds, learners can improve their overall pronunciation and speech intelligibility. Speech therapists may also use cardinal vowels as a reference during articulation therapy to address speech inconsistencies.3. Phonetic Transcription: Cardinal vowels play a crucial role in phonetic transcription. Phonetic symbols are used to represent each cardinal vowel, allowing linguists to accurately transcribe and analyze spoken language. This transcription system enables precise documentation and comparison of vowel sounds in different languages.Applications in Linguistics1. Comparative Phonetics: Cardinal vowels are used to compare vowel systems across different languages. By analyzing the similarities and differences in the articulation of vowel sounds, linguists can gain insights into language evolution, dialectal variations, and potential language contact.2. Phonological Analysis: By contrasting the phonemic inventories of different languages with the cardinal vowels, linguists can identify phonological patterns and constraints. This analysis helps understand the distribution and variation of vowel sounds within and across languages.ConclusionIn summary, cardinal vowels are universally recognized reference points used to describe and analyze vowel sounds in phonetics. They provide a standardized system for discussing vowel systems across languages and play a significant role in speech training, phonetic transcription, and linguistic analysis. By establishing a common framework, cardinal vowels contribute to our understanding of the rich diversity of human speech sounds.。

Vowels

a™
a
Front vowels
i y I Y e P E { œ a ” High front unrounded High front rounded Lowered high front unrounded Lowered high front rounded Higher mid front unrounded Higher mid front rounded Lower mid front unrounded Lower mid front rounded Raised low front unrounded Low front unrounded (IPA value of symbol) Low front rounded
Additional vowel symbols? • The cardinal vowel system does not include any central vowel prototypes - additional symbols (and auditory types) are required for these. • Separate phonetic symbols are also useful for some frequently encountered or ‘politically important’ vowel sounds that are different from cardinal qualities. • Each symbol represents vowels produced in a particular area of the ‘vowel space’.
Cardinal Vowels recorded by Jones in 1965 when he was 75.

Vowels 音标

• 上述八个元音称作主要定位元音（primary cardinal vowels），即用舌的前部但不圆唇的发音，从高到低依次排列为[i]、[e]、[]和[a]；用舌的后部产生的元音从低到高依次排列为[]、[]、[o]和 [u]，其中[]为非圆唇音，其余三个为圆唇音。这八个元音可依次用1--8来表示。 • 在主要元音位置保持不变的基础上，如果改变舌的形状，又能产生一个元音类的次要（secondary）系列，即次要定位元音（secondary cardinal vowels）。其中，前元音由非圆唇变为圆唇，从高到低分别生成[y]，[]，[]和[]；在后元音中， []是对应于5号基本元音[]的圆唇音，[]，[]和 []则分别对应于6，7，8号基本元音[]，[o]和[u]，为非圆唇音。如图3–5所示：
• 从声音的共振作用看，共振腔或曲或直对共振频率的影响不不大，成年男子的共振腔，从声源处的声带开始，到声腔的终端双唇为止，共约17厘米（成年女子略短一些）。 • 人们可以把这段距离比作一端封闭、一端开放的管子，封闭的一端为声带，气流通过声带时引发声带颤动，产生声带音，而后进入这条管子，声带音在管子里发生共振，从管子的开放一端释放出去，这样就形成了元音。管子形状不同，起到的作用也不同，生成的元音音质也就不同。图1是汉语普通话[]和 []的舌位图示：
Unit 3 Vowels
3.1 语音概述 3.2 国际音标 3.3 元音系统 3.4 英语元音 3.5 汉语元音
3.1 语音概述
• 话语成分总是构成于若干不断变化的最小音段（segment）。根据发音动作的不同状态，人们把这些最小的音段分为开放型和封闭型。开放型音段指的是气流经过喉腔、咽腔、口腔和唇腔时，声腔通道完全处于开放的状态，气流没有任何阻碍，能够顺利通过。封闭型音段指的是声腔通道某一部分封闭，气流受阻，不能畅通。在话语结构中，“开放型音段和封闭型音段总是交替出现，形成音质各不相同的、连续不断的最小音段”。 • 一般说来，开放型的最小音段称为元音，封闭型的最小音段称为辅音。元音发音时响度较高，且音段较长，总是处于音节的核心地位。与此相反，辅音发音时音段一般较短，或虽能延长但响度较低，在音节构成中总是处在从属的地位。

胡壮麟语言学修订版笔记(3)

Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the soundsproduced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to theprinciples of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists ofletters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, someare special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract atsome places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in theoral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way inwhich the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (mannerof articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or theobstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the airstream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[] are stops and[] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the airstream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused bybringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip,close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreamscompletely. In English,[] arefricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator isclose to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to suchan extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this classof sounds includes [].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced bypartially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by thetongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. []is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate. 2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip andthe upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade andthe upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or bladeand the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip andthe back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip orblade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or bladeforms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hardpalate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongueand the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongueand the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongueand the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle atthe posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of thetongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocalfolds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate.Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (oftendivided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of liprounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and loweredfor vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description ofthe actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[],CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing thelip-rounding for a give position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type outmany of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. –icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowelgliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatorycoarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detailis referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicateonly these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a givenlanguage while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speechsounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. theEnglish words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and intheir initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of alanguage, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions causedifferences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal adifference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called itsallophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginningof the word like peak//, it is said with a little puff of air, it isaspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak//, it issaid without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] inpeak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e.they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are bothallophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless.Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at theend of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segmentundergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In eachprocess the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in thecase of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we cansay that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set ofsounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a setof situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/)specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (calledthe focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: avoiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound whenit appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 S yllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’tbe // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。

英语学科知识与教学能力考点必背(语音部分)教师资格证

学科知识与教学能力笔记（英语）一、语音考点（一）元音Vowels考点1：元音的舌位图我们先来看看英语单元音的舌位图（P70）。

图的左方为口腔的前部，右方为其后部。

竖线把舌头分成前中后三个部分；横线音标描述汇总：[i:] h igh front tense unrounded vowel[?] high front lax unrounded vowel[u:] high back tense rounded vowel[?]即[u] high back lax rounded vowel[З:]或[?:] central tense unrounded vowel[?] central lax unrounded vowel[e] mid-high front lax unrounded vowel[?] low front lax unrounded vowel [Λ] mid-low back lax unrounded vowel [?:] mid-low back tense rounded vowel [?] low back lax rounded vowel [ɑ:] low back tense unrounded vowel考点2：专有名词基本元音 Cardinal Vowels纯元音Pure Vowels/单元音 Monophthong Vowels如：[aI] 中[a 考点1：Manners of articulation 发音方式 stops 爆破音 [p, b, t, d, k, g] nasal 鼻音 [m, n, ?]fricative 摩擦音 [f, v, θ, e, s, z, ∫, ?, h]、approximant近似音[w, r, j ]、lateral边音[l]、affricate塞擦音[ts, dz, tr, dr]考点2：Places of articulation发音部位[p][b][t][d][k][g][m][n][?][f][v][?][e][s][z][∫] voiceless postalveolar fricative[?] voiced postalveolar fricative[h] glottal fricative[t∫] voiceless postalveolar affricate [d?] voiced postalveolar affricate[l ] alveolar lateral[r] alveolar approximant[w] bilabial approximant[j] palatal approximant（三）Assimilation同化现象：a process by which one sound takes on some or all characteristics of a neighboring sound.Nasalization鼻音化、cap canDentalization齿音、tent tenthVelarization软腭since sinkVoiced frication有声擦音→voiceless无声擦音/__voiceless清音重音。

2010年中山大学语言学概论C考研真题答案解析

中山大学语言学概论C 2010年考研真题答案解析Ⅰ.音标题Transcribe the following words into IPA symbols, with stress marking where necessary. (10 points)1. advantageous [ædvən'teɪdʒəs]2. cushions ['kʊʃən]3. paradigm ['pærədaɪm]4. propagate ['prɒpəgeɪt]5. synonymy [sɪ'nɒnɪmɪ]6. kernel ['kɜːn(ə)l]7. cohesion [kə(ʊ)'hiːʒ(ə)n]8. tagmemics [tæg'miːmɪks]9. immobile [ɪ'məʊbaɪl]10. prefix ['priːfɪks]II. 填空题 Fill in the following blanks. (15 points)1. By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels ha sits own principles of organization.2. The IPA chart has been revised and corrected several times and is widely used in dictionaries and textbooks through the world. The lattested version was revised in 1993 and updated in twice in 1996 and 2005.3. Folk etymology refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of4. The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond the traditional sentence boundary. More linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in the paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.5. Predicate logic, also called propositional calculus, studies the internal structure of simple propositions. In this logical system, propositions like Socrates is a man will be analyzed into two parts: _argument_ and a predicate.6. Cognitive linguistics seeks to ascertain the global integrated system of conceptual structuring inlanguage.7. when Hyme’s theory of communicative competence was introduced into the fieldas an antagonism to the traditional philosophy in language teaching, language teachers began to pay more attention to the question of how their students as active and successful language users in real language context.8. Levinson presents his three heuristics, which are derived from Conversational Implicature.9. The form thou in Early Modern English, the second person singular pronoun equivalent to the French form tu, was used to signal intimacy/respect.10. Computational linguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language, includes programmed instruction, speech synthesis and recognition, automatic translation, and text processing and communication between people and compuetrs.11. Nunan （1983：3）suggests that a curriculum is concerned with making general statements about language learning, learning purpose, and experience, and the relationship between teachers and learners, whereas a syllabus is more localized and is based on the accounts and records of what actually happens at the classroom level as teachers and students apply a curriculum to their situation.12. Saussure’s ideas we re developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, and psychology.13. The Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function.14. In SFG, Mental process express such mental phenomena as “perception”, reaction and cognition.15. Bloomfield’s language(1993) was once held as the model of scientific methodology and greatest work in linguistics on both sides of the Atlantic in the 20th century.III. 名词解释Define the following terms. (50 points)1. Macrolinguistics【考察知识点+解题思路】本题考查的知识点是宏观语言学的定义。

语言学 L.7.

Hubei University of Economics-L.X
Linguistics: A Course book —— Lecture 7
Phonetics 4. 2) Vowel description (doing exercises) 1) The criteria of vowel description (see P.37) Vowels are normally described with reference to four criteria: a) The height of tongue raising : high, mid (mid-high, mid-low), low b) The position of the highest part of the tongue: front, center, back c) The length or tenseness of the vowel tense vs. lax or long vs. short d) The kind of opening made at the lips: rounded vs. unrounded
Hubei University of Economics-L.X
Linguistics: A Course book —— Lecture 7
Phonetics
4. Vowels 1) Cardinal vowels (see p.33) Primary cardinal vowels: CV1[i], CV2[e], CV3[ε] CV4[æ] CV5[ɑ] CV6[‫ ]כ‬CV7[o] CV8[u] Secondary cardinal vowels (English) [∧ ] Schwa [ə] (p.34)

语言学课后答案第2章

1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the InternationalPhonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996. consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived. coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sou nd shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymouslywith ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; t he converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.8.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voi ce][–voice] in other places2.1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the ―Adam‘s Apple‖. The larynx contains the vocal folds, als o known as ―vocal cords‖ or ―vocal bands‖. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam‘s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction ofair. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this spacewould involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowest position the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or open-mid, and mid-low or close-mid).5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] isfollowed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛn̪θ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪn̪θ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound: ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] >[faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] >[hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn]> [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] >[ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word isformed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or[ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-1)。

大学语言学考试1-7章-试题和答案

12 maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant. it is put into the onset rather than the coda. . The correct syllabification of the word country should be第一章，填空1.The study of the meaning of lingustic words, phrases is callesde mantics.2.Displacement is a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wild range of things free from barriers caused by4.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.6.Chomsky defines “ competencaes ”the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.nguage is a means of verbal communication. It is informative in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.8.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter ofnguage is distinguished from traffic lights in that the former has the designing feature of duality.10.In linguistics research, bothq uantity and quality approaches are preferred. 判断：11.The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech, thus there are still many languages in today's have no √12.According to Chomsky, the word compentoetn lcime it”ed itso the ability of an ideal native speaker to construct and recognize. ×13.Duality and cultural transmission are two most important design features of human language.×14.Chomsky's competence' and performance are similar in meaning to Saussure 's langue and parole.√15,An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in their study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “bestauthors ”√for languag16.In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a of reasons. √17.Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic.× chochronic共时的ngue and parole is the fundamental distinction discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory ofdistinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Parole and language√.20. According to Chomsky, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been √选择:1.As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for correct linguistic behavior, it is said to bed escriptive2.I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago. This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of displacement.3.“ Don' t end a sentence with a preposition.thisp irse sacnr iepxtiavme rpulele os.f4.Which of the following is most referred to as a branch of the study of meaning in5.The synchronic study of language takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.6.The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentencesis calledp ragmatics.7.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is A 没照下图片arbitrary8.The descriptive of a language as it changes through time is dai achronic study.9.题目没照下来。

语言学笔记 Lecture4

语言学笔记陈银2014/3/28Lecture 4Pretest⏹ 1. What is phonetics?⏹ 2. Phonetics can be further divided into three main areas, what are they? What do theystudy respectively?⏹ 3. What do phonology study? What‟s similarity of and the difference between phoneticsand phonology?Answer⏹ 1. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.⏹ 2. They are articulatory, accoustic and auditory phonetics.⏹ARTICULATORY PHONETICS studies the production of speech sounds⏹ACOUSTIC PHNETICS studies physical properties of sounds produced in speech⏹AUDITORY PHONETIC studies perception of speech sounds⏹ 3. Phonology studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.⏹Similarity: concerned with the speech sounds.⏹Differences: Phonetics is strictly physical while phonology also pays attention to thefunction or meaning of a sound.⏹Phonetics only asks, “Does this sound go here or not?” Phonology asks, “Does themeaning change if I put this sound here instead of that one?”⏹Phonetics makes a pretty general description of sounds and can be used to describesounds in any language. Phonology makes very detailed descriptions of sounds, so each language has its own unique set of symbols (because no two languages use all of the exact same sounds).⏹(the detailed differences can be got in the e-handouts in QQ group.)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds⏹Generalization of this chapter:Articulatory（发声）Phonetics (Acoustic) （声学）（语音学）Speech (Auditory) （听觉）Sounds（音位学）（音位）（音位变体）Phonology phonemes (allophones)Generalization of this chapter:speechorgansArticulatory consonants broad（发声）speech phoneticsounds transcriptionsvowels narrow（音位学）Phonological processesPhonologyDistinctive featuresIntroduction⏹As human beings we are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of thesesounds have become units in the language system.⏹We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives and the two major areas ofstudy are phonetics and phonology.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.⏹ A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds andprovides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p]bilabial, stop.Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds which are used by all human languages or by a particular language to represent meanings.A speech sound goes through a three-step process as shown below.Speaker A Speaker Bspeech speech speechproduction ---- transmission ---- perceptionArticulatory(acoustic) (auditory)the study of | the study of the physical | concerned withproduction of | properties of the sounds | the perceptionspeech sounds | produced in speech | of speech soundsPhonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.⏹It aims to …discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organizedin languages, and to explain the variations that occur‟ (Crystal, 1997:162).⏹In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, sayEnglish, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which soundunits are used and how they are put together.⏹Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages inorder to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds inthem, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the soundpatterns of all languages.2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech OrgansSPEECH ORGANS(or VOCAL ORGANS): parts of the human body involved in the production of speech⏹Lung⏹Trachea(or windpipe气管)⏹Throat: pharynx(咽),larynx(喉, including vocal folds/vocal cords)⏹Nose⏹Mouth: tongue, various parts of palate(腭)⏹VOCAL TRACT(声道): pharynx, mouth (oral cavity), nose (nasal cavity)⏹AIRSTREAM (气流): source of energy⏹MOUTHUpper lip, upper teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvulaLower lip, lower teeth, tongue, mandible (lower jaw)Tongue☐tip(舌尖), blade (舌叶), front, back, root☐CORONAL(舌尖音, tip and blade); DORSAL(舌背音, front and back);RADICAL (舌根音,root)⏹PHARYNX (咽): the larynx opens into a muscular tube⏹LARYNX (喉)Adam‟s apple, V ocal folds (vocal cords, vocal bands)Positions of vocal folds1.Apart: the air can pass through easily — voiceless(清音) e.g., [p, s, t]2.Close together: the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other — voiced(浊音)e.g., [b, z, d]3.Totally together: no air can pass between them — glottal stop(声门塞音) [ʔ]V oiced and voicelessThe level of vibration振动of the vocal cords声带determines whether a sound is voiced or unvoiced.If the vocal cords---apart, the airstream is not obstructed at the glottis and passes through freely. -- voiceless sounds.If the vocal cords are together, the air stream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. -- voiced sounds.feel the distinction sounds.2.1.1 Speech organsWhat kinds of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are (a) tightly closed; (b) wide open;(c) loosely together and vibrating?(a) no sound or inaudible sound symbolized as /?/;(b) voiceless sound such as /h/;(c) voiced sounds such as /d/.2.1.2 The IPAIPA: the abbreviation（缩写）of International Phonetic AlphabetIt is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcriptionThe development of the IPA:The Danish grammarian Otto Jespersen (1860-1943)(叶斯柏生) first proposed the idea in 1886. The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.The basic principle: using a separate letter selected from major European languages for each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.•In the IPA chart, the sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.•The consonants are divided into pulmonic and non-pulmonic consonants.•Pulmonic sounds are produced by pushing air out of the lungs.•Non -pulmonic sounds are produced by either sucking air into the mouth , or closing the glottis and manipulating the air.The Definition of Diacritics•The diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.•DIACRITICS(附加符号): to transcribe the minute difference between variations of the same soundE.g.Nasalization:[a] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is labeled as [ã]Aspiration: [ph] in “peak”, [p=] in “speak”2.2 Consonants and vowels⏹ConsonantConsonants are produced …by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction‟.⏹VowelA vowel is produced without such ‘stricture’so that …air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way thr ough the mouth or nose‟.⏹The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the _____________ ofairstream.2.2.1 ConsonantsCriterion for classification⏹Manner of articulation: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus theway in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.⏹Place of articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing orthe obstruction of air. (the point where a consonant is made. )⏹The manner of articulation refers to the ways in which articulation can beaccomplished:⏹the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively longperiod;⏹they may narrow the space considerably; or⏹they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.(1) STOP/PLOSIVE : complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouthE.g., [p, b, t, d, k, g]⏹Three phases:ClosingHold/compressionRelease (PLOSION)⏹ORAL STOP (or STOP)(2) NASAL STOP (or NASAL): the air is stopped in the oral cavity but the soft palate is down so that it can go out through the nasal cavityE.g., [m, n, ŋ](3) FRICATIVE: close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is producedE.g., [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h](4) (MEDIAN) APPROXIMANT ((中)通音): an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is producedE.g., [w, ɹ, j](5) LATERAL: obstruction of the airstream at a point along the center of the oral tract with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouthE.g. [l](6) TRILL (ROLL): produced when an articulator is set vibrating by the airstreamE.g., [r] in “red” (Scottish English), “rr” in “perro”(dog)(7) Tap and FlapTap: the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge to produce only one vibration is produced, e.g., [ɾ], “city, letter” in American EnglishFlap: the tip of the tongue curled up and back in a retroflex gesture and then striking the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar region as it returns to its position behind the lower front teeth, e.g., [ɽ], “dirty, sorting” in American English(8) AFFRICATIVE: a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same position (more than one manner is involved)E.g., [tʃ, dʒ], “ch” in “church”, “j” in “jet”;[tsh] and [ts] in “错” and “做”Note: [ts, dz, tr, dr] are not affricatives.⏹The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.⏹Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips andthe vocal folds.⏹Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart:⏹Bilabial⏹Labiodental⏹Dental⏹Alveolar⏹Postalveolar⏹Retroflex⏹Palatal⏹Velar⏹Uvular⏹Pharyngeal⏹GlottalPlaces of articulation(1) BILABIAL: made with the two lips, as [p, b, m] in “pet”, “bet” and “met”; [w](2) LABIODENTAL(唇齿音): made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth, as [f, v] in “fire” and “via”(3) DENTAL: made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth, e.g., [θ, ð](4) ALVEOLAR: made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge, e.g., [t, d, n, s, z, ɹ ,l](5) POSTALVEOLAR (or palato-alveolar): made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge, e.g., [ʃ, ʒ](6) RETROFLEX (卷舌音) : made with the tongue tip or blade curled back (retroflexed) so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate, e.g., [ʂ] in “上海”(7) PALATAL: made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate, [j] in “yes”, and [ç] (for “h”) in “he”(8) VELAR: made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate, e.g., velar stop [k, g] in “cat” and “get”, velar nasal [ŋ] in “sing”, velar fricative [x] in Chinese “和”(9) UVULAR: made with the back of the tongue and the uvular, the short projection of soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum, e.g., [ʁ] in “Paris, votre”(10) PHARYNGEAL (咽音): made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx, e.g., “caadi” [ʕaːdi], “xood “ [ħoːd](11) GLOTTAL (声门音): made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other,e.g., [h] in “hat, hold”, [ʔ] in “pack, beaten”2.2.2 Vowels⏹Cardinal Vowels, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed andunchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.standard reference points; British phonetician Daniel Jones ; Outline of English Phonetics (1962); “cardinal vowel diagram”, or “cardinal vowel quadrilateral”; V owels produced in these areas constitute the eight cardinal vowels. The secondary cardinal vowels then fit between them.⏹Cardinal vowel diagram (基本元音图, or quadrilateral): a set of standard reference pointsbased on a combination of articulatory and auditory judgment, in which three positions of the tongue (front, center, back) as well as four levels of tongue height (close, close-mid, open-mid, open) are distinguished⏹Pure or monophthong vowels :vowels where the quality remains constantthroughout the articulation .⏹Vowel glides: those where there is an audible change of quality.⏹Diphthong：a single movement of the tongue .⏹way [wei] , tide [taid] , how [hau] ,toy [tɔi], toe [təu]⏹Triphthong：a double movement; …a glide from one vowel to another and thento a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption‟.⏹wire [ˈwaiə], tower [ˈtauə]Criteria of Vowel Description1.the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2.the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3.the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4.lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).2.SCHW A : the tongue position for the neutral vow el [ə] is neither high nor low and neitherfront nor back3.Primary vowels: CV1 [i], CV2 [e], CV3 [ε], CV4 [a], CV5[ɑ] (unrounded), CV6[ɔ] ,CV 7[o], CV 8 [u] (rounded)4.Secondary vowels: reversing the lip-rounding for a given positionDescription of MonophthongsSubdivisions:Vertically:High: [i:] [i] [u:] [u]; Mid: [e] [ə:] [ə] [ɔ:]; Low: [æ] [ʌ] [ɑ:] [ɔ] ; Horizontally: Front: [i:] [i] [e] [æ]; Central: [ə:] [ə] [ʌ] ; Back: [u:] [u] [ɔ:] [ɔ] [ɑ:];Shape of the lips:Rounded: [u] [u:] [ɔ] [ɔ:]; Unrounded: [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [ə:] [ə] [ʌ] [ɑ:]; Tenseness of muscles:Tense: [i:] [u:] [ə:] [ɔ:] [ɑ:];Lax: [i] [u] [e] [ə] [ʌ] [ɔ] [æ].⏹NOTE 1: Abstractness of cardinal vowels: cardinal vowels represent extreme point of atheoretical vowel space, i.e. they are as remote as possible from the neutral position of schwa; approximation the articulators beyond this vowel space would involve frication or contact.⏹NOTE 2: All cardinal vowels are monophthongs and their quality does not change duringtheir production.⏹PURE VOWELS(纯元音or MONOPHTHONGS 单元音): Vowels where qualityremains constant throughout the articulation⏹VOWEL GLIDES (元音音渡): V owels where there is an audible change of qualityDiphthongs (双元音): a single movement of the tongue is involved, e.g. way [weI], tide [taId]Triphthongs (三重元音): twice movements of the tongues are involved, e.g. wire [waIə], tower [tauə]2.2.3 The Sound of English⏹Received pronunciation(RP 标准发音) (or BBC English, Oxford English,King‟s/Queen‟s English)RP originates in the southeast of England and is spoken by the upper-middle and upper classes throughout England.⏹General American (GA)[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[h] glottal fricative[l] (alveolar) lateral⏹ 1. The sound /p/can be described with "_______, bilabial, stop". (北二外2007研)⏹ 2. The sound /b/can be described with "_______, bilabial, stop". (北二外2004研)⏹ 3. The sound /k/ can be described with "voiceless, _______, stop". (北二外2003研)⏹ 4. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are mostconveniently described in terms of _______and manner of articulation. (北二外2004,2008研)⏹ 5. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without _______.1. Of the consonants /p/ , /t/, /k/, /f/, /m/, /z/ and /g/, which has the features of voiceless and velar? （对外经贸2005研)A. /k/B. /p/C. /g/D. /t/2. The consonant /s/ in the word "smile" can be described as: (对外经贸2006研)A. voiceless oral alveolar fricativeB. voiceless nasal bilabial liquidC. voiced oral alveolar plosiveD. voiced oral bilabial fricative3. Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A.voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental fricativeC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental stop1. All of the followings are bilabials except __.A. [P]B. [b]C. [m]D.[t]2. Which one is an alveolar?A. [w]B. [t]C. [j]D.[k]3. The only glottal in English is __.A. [n]B. [m]C. [g]D. [h]4. Which one is a palatal?A. [j]B. [l]C. [r]D.[z]5. The voiceless labiodental is __.A. [f]B. [v]C. [w]D. [j]6. The voiceless alveolar fricative is __.A. [f]B. [s]C. [p]D. [k]7. The glottal fricative is __.A. [v]B. [j]C. [h]D. [θ]8. The sound of [m] is a __.A. bilabial nasalB. voiced bilabial nasalC. voiced alveolar nasalD. voiced velar nasal9. The lateral is __.A. [r]B. [l]C. [j]D. [w]10. The palatal glide is __A. [w]B. [r]C. [j]D. [l]11. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]12. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [æ]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]13. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant⏹ 1.Write down the phones according to the following phonetic descriptions.⏹ 1. voiceless unaspirated bilabial stop⏹ 2. lateral⏹ 3. velar nasal⏹ 4. voiced interdental fricative⏹ 5. voiceless affricate⏹ 6. palatal glide⏹7. voiceless aspirated alveolar stopFour basic requirements for the description of vowels1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)⏹We can now describe the English vowels in this way:⏹[:ι] high front tense unrounded vowel⏹[Y] high back lax rounded vowel⏹[≅] mid central lax unrounded vowel⏹[Θ] low back lax rounded vowelHomework⏹ 1. Define the following terms:⏹phonetics/ articulatory phonetics/ phonology/⏹speech organs/ voicing/ International Phonetic Alphabet/ consonant/ vowel/ manner ofarticulation/place of articulation/ Cardinal V owels/⏹vowel glide2. Discuss the following questions:1)What organs are involved in speech production?2)Why did George Bernald Shaw say he could spell the word fish as ghoti?3)How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Group Work⏹Group 4: 2.5 Suprasegmentals。

语言学知识复习总结

语言学知识复习总结-------重要概念梳理第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features)1. 任意性Arbitrariness: shu 和tree 都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言是由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning)3.多产性Productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences)4.移位性Displacement: 可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission: 语言需要后天在特定的文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language)1.传达信息功能Informative: 最主要功能The main function2.人际功能Interpersonal: 人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能Per formative: 现实应用--判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge, naming, and curses4.表情功能Emotive: 表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词（句）exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能Phatic: 应酬话phatic language,比如“吃了没？”“天气真好啊！”等等6.元语言功能Metalingual: 用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书，也可以用“book”这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1.核心语言学Core linguistic●语音学Phonetics: 关注语音的产生、传播和接收过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

英语语言学复习资料

语言学Linguistic各章重点,学习资料整理1.1What is language？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2Design features of language①Arbitrariness任意性：The property of language by which there is in general no natural (i。

e。

logical）relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning。

②Duality二重性Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary）level is a definite set of meaningless sounds, which combine to form meaningful units which constitute a higher (primary) level。

③Creativity创造性Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before。

④Displacement移位性By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time and space）at the moment of communication。

1.3Functions of language①Informative信息功能Language serves an informative function when it is used to express the speaker’s opinion, to state a fact，or to reason things out。

英语专业(语言学)历年真题试卷汇编19

英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编19(总分：158.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、填空题(总题数：17，分数：34.00)1.The sound /p/can be described with " 1, bilabial, stop". (北二外2007研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：voiceless）解析：解析：／p／是双唇音，爆破音，清音。

2.The sound /b/can be described with " 1, bilabial, stop". (北二外2004研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：voiced）解析：解析：／b／是双唇音，爆破音，浊音。

3.Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of 1and manner of articulation. (北二外2004研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：place）解析：解析：辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。

4. 1are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. (中山大学2006研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：Consonants）解析：解析：发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。

英语语言学考点测试第二章

A [+consonantal, +sonorant]
B [-consonantal, +sonorant, +approximant]
C [+consonantal, +sonorant, -continuant]
D [+consonantal, -sonorant, +continuant, +strident]
9)In English, the sound [] has the same phonetic features as the sound [p] except the feature of
10)refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound
6) suprasegmental
2.Multiple Choice
Directions: In each question there are three or four choices.Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or to complete the sentence
7)By the position of thepart of the tongue, vowels are classified as front vowels, central vowels and back vowels
8), as a principal suprasegmental feature, can be defined as the relative intensity ofloudness with which a syllable is uttered

胡壮麟语言学教程Chapter 2

9 Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

2.2 Speech organs voiceless sound: when the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily. voiced sound: when the vocal folds are close together and the air stream causes them to vibrate.
vocal cords pharynx back of tongue soft palate hard palate tongue tip tongue blade tongue front teeth lips
8
Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

2.2 Speech organs What kinds of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are (a) tightly closed; (b) wide open; (c) loosely together and vibrating? (a) no sound or inaudible sound symbolized as /?/; (b) voiceless sound such as /h/; (c) voiced sounds such as /d/.
14 Chapter 2
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds

Voicing (有声化): pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. Manners of articulation: stop (plosive)（爆破音）, fricative（摩擦音）, median approximant（中通音）, lateral approximant（边通音）, affricate（塞擦音）, nasal Places of articulation: bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar（齿槽音）, postalveolar, palate, velar（软腭音）, glottal（声门音）

语言学—戴炜栋（自己整理的）

语言学——戴炜栋（牟杨译本的学习指南）重要人物汇总 1. Ferdinand de Saussure 索绪尔 the founding father of modern structural linguistics 现代结构
主义语言学创始人 ●提出语言 language 和言语 speech 的区别 ●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分 Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory. 2. Noam Chomsky 乔姆斯基：the founder of generative grammar 生成语法创始人 ●提出关于语言能力 competence 与语言运用 performance 的区分概念 ●1957 年提出转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar 简作 TG Grammar 的研
6.英语语音的分类(the classification of English speech sounds) 英语元音和辅音的本质区别：发元音(vowel)时气流从肺部出来的气流没有受到任何阻塞。在辅音(consonants)发出的过程中气流受到了这样或那样的阻塞。㈠辅音的两种划分标准：发音方式（Manners of articulation）、发音部位（Places of articulation）和【清浊特征】
15.
中存储的词语-形象 word-image 的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
Parole（言语）：指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语 actual use of
language，是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的、偶然性很大的实体