语言学导论复习纲要
语言学概论复习大纲
语言学概论复习大纲导言一、解释以下概念，并指出语言学、语言学和文学之间的差异二、语言学理论在指导语言实践上有哪些作用？第一章，第一节，名词解释语言的主观性2，例子1、语言的两大社会功能2.信息传递中接受存在的方式三、论述：语言是人类社会传递信息第一性的、最重要的手段第一章，第二节，名词解释语言能力二、举例说明：语言的民族性三、简答1.语言与思维的关系2、语言思维功能的生理基础3、聋哑人的语言问题与思维特点四、论述1.儿童语言习得与思维发展过程基本一致。
2.思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性第二章第一节一、名词解释1、征候2.心理现实二、辨析概念的区别与联系（定义区别相同点分点答题）1、语言和言语2、征候与符号3、语言与符号三、简答1.语言符号与心理现实之间的关系（逐点回答，无例）。
如何理解“人们的心理现实在不断增加”第二章第二节一、名词解释1.语言符号的线性2。
语言符号的组合关系3。
语言符号的聚合关系二、举例说明：语言符号的任意性三、论述1.语言符号系统是一个分层设备2、语言层级装置靠语言单位的组合和替换来运转第二章第三章1。
名词解释语言能力2。
简短回答1、人的语言能力是先天具备的，但后天的语言环境决定着人的语言能力的现实和维持2、语言是其他动物与人类之间无法逾越的鸿沟三、论述人类语言符号与其他动物“语言”的根本区别第三章第一节一、名词解释1、音标2、国际音标二、语音学与音乐学的区别、区别与联系III.简短回答1、语音与自然界声音的异同2、语音学研究的诸方面第三章，第二节I，名词解释1，纯音2，乐音3，噪音4，音高5，伴奏6，基频7，共振频率2，简要回答1、语音四要素中哪个要素是基本的？为什么？2.如何理解音高、重量和长度的变化是相对的，音质的变化是绝对的？3.声学分析软件的基本原理是什么第三章第三节一、名词解释1、元音舌位图2、基本元音3、颤音4、闪音二、简答1.为什么人能灵活地发出复杂多变的声音，而动物却不能？2、近音与半元音的异同点是什么？3、各民族发音的共性和特性怎样？三、绘制元音舌位图第三章第四节I.例1。
语言学概论纲要复习重点汇总(详细)(精细排版)
语言学概论纲要复习重点汇总（详细）（精细排版）1．语文学阶段中国传统语文学包括文字(字形)，音韵（字音），训诂(字义)三个方面的成就。
2．历史比较语言学的形成标志着语言学成为一门独立学科。
3．普通语言学：关于语言一般规律的研究。
4．共时语言学：分别描写语言每个子系统在某一特定时期和不同子系统之间的关联。
5．历史语言学：研究语言每个子系统在不同时期所发生的变化及其变化中不同子系统之间的关联。
6.在各种信息传递形式中，身体姿势等非语言形式独立传递的信息有限，且大多数是辅助语言来传递信息，文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式，旗语则是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式。
因此，语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的，最基本的手段。
7．逻辑学关注思维的基本形式，心理学关注思维的心理过程，认知神经科学关注思维的生理机制。
认知神经语言学是语言学、认知心理学和神经心理学的结合。
一门跨学科的学科，专门研究语言、思维和大脑神经网络之间的关系。
9．当人出生后过了一定的期限，如果没有后天的正常的社会环境，其语言习得和心智发展失去了发展的潜力。
这个时期叫做临界期。
10.符号包括形式和意义。
11.语言系统分为音系和语法两个层面，在这两个层面上都有最小单位和小单位组成大单位的多级组织结构，这是语言系统最重要的特点，即语言系统的两层性。
12.组合关系：符号与符号组合，形成更高层次的结构。
高层结构中的每个符号称为结构的组成部分，结构中每个组成部分的关系称为组合关系。
13.聚合关系：如果一些语言符号或更大的单位在组合结构的某一环节上能够互相替换并且替换后结构关系不会改变，那么这些符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然的聚集成群，它们彼此之间的关系就叫做聚合关系。
14.音素：从音质角度划分的最小语音单位，以及根据语音的自然属性划分的最小语音单位。
15.音位：具体语言中具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小语音单位，从语音的社会属性划分的最小语音单位。
语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。
Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。
1．任意性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。
二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。
3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。
4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。
移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。
5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。
2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如(鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。
3．“噗噗”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。
5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。
Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。
信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。
2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。
人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。
3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。
在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。
4．感情功能语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。
5．寒暄功能寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。
语言学复习提纲(完整版)
第一章对外汉语教学基础论第一节第一语言教学与第二语言教学一、四组概念（教材P31）1. 母语和外语母语：从一般意义来讲，母语就是指本国或本民族的语言，通常是指本国或本民族通用的语言。
（周）对于母语的界定，现在还有很多不同的意见。
再具体地说母语就是指自己的父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言。
是从亲属关系的角度命名的。
外语：指的是外国的语言。
是从国别的角度命名的，相对于本国语言。
2. 第一语言与第二语言第一语言：（first language）是人们出生后首先习得的语言，多数人的第一语言是母语。
第二语言：(second language)是人们在获得第一语言以后再学习和使用的另一种语言。
第一语言和第二语言的区别是从学习的先后顺序的角度命名的。
3. 本族语和非本族语4. 目的语（Target language）正在学习并希望掌握的语言。
二、第二语言教学（一）第二语言教学的特点（1）第二语言教学主要是以培养运用目的语的交际能力（正确表述与合理表述）为目标；（2）第二语言教学以技能训练为中心，通过大量的练习和反复的实践将语言知识转化为技能；（教学方法）（3）第二语言教学以集中进行强化训练为主要教学形式。
（4）第二语言教学的教学对象有其独特性。
〓来自不同的民族和国家，有不同的文化背景；〓基础也不一样，因此要分班〓对于成人而言，已经形成了自己的认知体系，价值体系，对事物有自己的判断能力，在学习中他们善于总结和分析，并形成自己的学习方法。
（5）第二语言教学注重语言对比，通过与目的语与母语的对比，确定教学的重点和难点；（6）第二语言教学存在着母语对目的语的迁移；（同学们在学英语语音时经常会有这样的问题。
）(7)第二语言教学更加注重文化教学。
（您走好，您慢慢走）从大的方面来讲，文化的差异会影响外国人对异国的一些事物的看法和评价；从小的方面来讲，文化的差异在语言当中有所体现，会影响外国人的表达和理解。
（8）第二语言教学具体的教学目的和教学要求可能不同。
《语言学纲要》最新复习提纲
《语言学纲要》最新复习提纲一、语言学的基本概念和发展历程（200字左右）1.语言学的定义与研究对象2.语言学的研究方法与学科特点3.语言学的发展历程与主要流派二、语音学（200字左右）1.语音学的研究对象与基本术语2.语音的分类与描述3.声音产生与传播的过程4.语音规律与变体现象三、音系学（200字左右）1.音位的定义与分类2.音位的建立与分析3.声音规则与音变规律4.声韵对立与音位的分布四、音系结构与音变规律（200字左右）1.音系结构的概念与分类2.音系结构的构建方法3.音变规律的定义与分类4.音变规律的实例分析与解释五、形态学（200字左右）1.形态学的研究对象与基本概念2.词汇的构词法与屈折法3.词汇构成规律与形态变化4.词汇的语法功能与意义表达六、句法学（200字左右）1.句法学的研究对象与基本概念2.句法结构的方式与模型3.语序与句法功能4.句法规则与句法变化七、语义学（200字左右）1.语义学的研究对象与基本概念2.词语与句子的意义结构3.语义关系与语境的影响4.语义变化与词汇意义发展八、社会语言学与应用语言学（200字左右）1.社会语言学的研究内容与方法2.语言变体与社会因素的相关性3.民族语言学与地方方言研究4.应用语言学在实际中的应用与意义九、语言学的相关学科与交叉领域（200字左右）1.语言学与心理学的关系与研究内容2.语言学与人类学的关系与研究内容3.语言学与计算语言学的关系与研究内容4.语言学在教育及翻译领域的应用与发展趋势以上为《语言学纲要》的最新复习提纲，总计1200字。
这个提纲涵盖了语言学的基本概念、语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、社会语言学与应用语言学以及语言学的相关学科与交叉领域等内容，帮助您系统地回顾和掌握《语言学纲要》的重要知识点。
语言学概论复习大纲
导言一、解释以下概念并指出其区别语言学语文学小学二、语言学理论在指导语言实践上有哪些作用第一章第一节一、名词解释语言的主观性二、举例说明1、语言的两大社会功能2、信息传递中接受存在的方式三、论述：语言是人类社会传递信息第一性的、最重要的手段第一章第二节一、名词解释语言能力二、举例说明：语言的民族性三、简答1、语言和思维的关系2、语言思维功能的生理基础3、聋哑人的语言问题与思维特点四、论述1、儿童语言习得与思维的发展过程基本一致2、思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性第二章第一节一、名词解释1、征候2、心理现实二、辨析概念的区别与联系（定义区别相同点分点答题）1、语言和言语2、征候与符号3、语言与符号三、简答1、语言符号与心理现实之间的关系（分点答题不举例）2、怎么理解“人的心理现实是不断增量的”第二章第二节一、名词解释1、语言符号的线条性2、语言符号的组合关系3、语言符号的聚合关系二、举例说明：语言符号的任意性三、论述1、语言符号系统是一种分层装置2、语言层级装置靠语言单位的组合和替换来运转第二章第三章一、名词解释语言能力二、简答1、人的语言能力是先天具备的，但后天的语言环境决定着人的语言能力的现实和维持2、语言是其他动物与人类之间无法逾越的鸿沟三、论述人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的根本区别第三章第一节一、名词解释1、音标2、国际音标二、辨析区别和联系语音学和音乐学三、简答1、语音与自然界声音的异同2、语音学研究的诸方面第三章第二节一、名词解释1、纯音2、乐音3、噪音4、基音5、陪音6、基频7、共振频二、简答1、语音四要素中哪个要素是基本的为什么2、怎么理解音高、音重、音长的变化是相对的，音质的变化是绝对的3、声学分析软件运行的基本原理是怎样的第三章第三节一、名词解释1、元音舌位图2、基本元音3、颤音4、闪音二、简答1、为什么人能灵活地发出复杂多变的音而动物不能2、近音与半元音的异同点是什么3、各民族发音的共性和特性怎样三、绘制元音舌位图第三章第四节一、举例说明1、音位的定义2、什么是音位变体它有哪些种类它同音位的关系是怎样的3、举例分析音质音位与非音质音位的区别4、举例分析音位理论的实践意义二、论述划分和归并音位的根据是什么为什么要根据它们划分和归并音位第三章第五节一、名词解释1、区别特征2、音位聚合群二、论述1、音位聚合群区分双向的聚合与单向的聚合有何意义2、英语音位系统与汉语因为系统在利用音位区别特征方面的主要区别是什么第三章第六节一、名词解释1、音峰2、音谷3、音节辅音4、复辅音5、语言节奏6、停延段7、语调段二、为什么用汉语转译外语往往要增加音节的数目三、举例说明：语流音变第四章第一节一、名词解释1、成句范畴2、语法形式3、语法意义二、外国学生说汉语容易犯的语法错误有和特点Why三、一种语言的语法规则由哪两种规则构成Why四、两种语法规则的特点怎样第四章第二节一、辨析1、屈折词缀与派生词缀2、构词语素与变词语素3、自由语素与黏着语素4、组合的层次性与递归性二、举例说明1、两种词法2、层次分析的作用3、句法结构图（树形层次图）三、简答：人为什么能创造无限新句四、论述：类的配列、形态的一致性配合和虚词是表达五种基本结构意义的语法形式第四章第三节一、论述：词类划分的形态原则和功能原则是基本一致的二、举例说明1、常见的几种词形变化2、语法范畴的共同特点三、论述：语法范畴（如：印欧语系的词形变化）第四章第四节一、名词解释1、变换2、句法同义3、句法多义二、举例说明：变幻的作用第四章第五节一、名词解释1、黏着语2、复综语二、世界上的语言可以根据哪些标准划分语言类型三、什么是孤立语举例说明其特点四、什么是屈折语举例说明其特点五、为什么语法结构不能分优劣六、一切语言都有的语法结构的普遍特征有哪些七、很多语言都有的语法结构的普遍特征有哪些第五章第一节一、举例说明1、一个人可以从不同角度使用同一词汇中的词2、基本词汇和一般词汇中的区别3、词的两种意义4、词义的构成二、简答：怎样看待“上帝”“天堂”这类词的词义三、论述：词义的概括性第五章第二节一、名词解释1、概念结构2、中心意义3、义素4、语义场二、简答：多义词是怎样产生的，为什么会产生三、举例说明1、词的中心意义与本义的区别2、词义派生的基础3、隐喻和转喻的区别4、同音词产生的方式5、同义反义是对立的统一6、语义特征的二分标记法7、义场的层级关系8、义场的交叉关系9、不同语言中的上下位关系会有不同表现10、词义聚合的民族特点第五章第三节一、名词解释1、个体印象2、人类经验3、人类经验的印象4、人称5、时6、指示7、语气8、情态二、举例说明1、词义的组合通过词语的搭配（组合）来实现2、词义在组合中会凸显（增添）和隐去一些语义特征3、句子的语义结构4、蕴含的真值推导式三、论述1、语义角色2、句法语义范畴第五章第四节一、名词解释1、语境2、语境义3、物理语境4、话语语境5、背景知识6、话题的有定性二、举例说明1、话题和说明2、话题的句法表现3、焦点的标示手段4、言内意外的表现方式5、言语行为的三个环节三、简答1、话题与主语2、日常生活和文学作品中的言内意外3、言语行为的类型第六章第一节一、名词解释文字二、简答1、文字在人类历史上的作用2、怎么理解文字的基本性质3、汉文和英文相比有何特点第六章第二节一、名词解释1、实物记事2、结绳3、讯木二、简答1、为什么一般认为图画记事是文字的前身2、世界有名的刻画符号有哪些它们有何特点3、纳西族东巴文属于那类文字它们有何特点。
语言学概论复习提纲及要点
语言学概论（邢福义）复习提纲（1-21）一、名词解释（4×5’）（1）能指与所指用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物之间没有必要的联系，甲事物就是乙事物的符号。
其中甲事物就是符号的能指（形式），乙事物就是符号的所指（内容、意义）。
二者关系是人为约定的。
（2）语言与言语广义的语言包括语言系统、言语活动和言语作品，狭义的语言只指语言系统，而言语则包括言语活动和言语作品。
语言系统包括语音、语义、语汇、语法四个子系统。
言语活动是语用语汇材料和语法规则交流思想的活动，简言之就是说话。
（3）组合关系和聚合关系若干较小的语言单位组合成较大的语言单位，其构成成分之间的关系就是组合关系，又称线性序列关系；具有相同组合功能的语言单位之间的关系就是聚合关系，又称联想关系。
（4）词法类型和句法类型从词法的角度给语言划分出的类型叫语言的词法类型，又叫形态类型，一般分为四种：词根语、屈析语、粘着语、编插语；从句法的角度给语言分类叫语言的句法分类。
语言的句法分类最常见的是根据句子的基本成分主语（S）、动词（V）、宾语（O）在简单陈述句中的位置来分类，一般分为SVO,SOV,VSO三种类型语言。
（5）内部语言学与外部语言学内部语言学又称为本体语言学或微观语言学，它主要研究语言的内部结构。
外部语言学又称宏观语言学或边缘语言学。
它主要研究语言与其他相关现象的关系。
（6）音质音质指声音的性质、特色，它是语音最重要的属性。
其变化决定于：发音体，发音方法，共鸣器形状。
（7）音系学是对语言的语音系统的研究。
它从语言的社会功能出发，把许多从生理和物理角度分析出来的不同的语音单位归纳成数目有限的、有辨义作用的语音单位——音位。
（8）实验语音学20世纪20年代以后逐渐形成和发展的一个语音研究的分支学科。
使用实验仪器或电子计算机对语音的各种特性进行实验研究，研究对象涉及语音的各个方面，研究手段和方法涉及多门学科，是一门综合性的边缘学科。
（9）音素与音位音素是人类语言从音质角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。
语言学概论复习纲要(2016.06)
语言学概论复习纲要（2016.06）一、引言1．语言是什么语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类社会最重要的交际工具和思维工具，是音义结合的符号系统。
2．语言研究简史语文学―→历史比较语言学―→结构主义语言学―→转换生成语言学―→（19世纪以前）（19世纪初）（20世纪初/索绪尔）（20世纪中期/乔姆斯基）传统语言学现代语言学○语文学仅限于书面语，不重视口头语言的研究；目的是校勘古书，释经解义，忽略语言本身结构的发展；研究地位低下，是其他学科的附庸，不能形成独立的科学。
因此，称之为语文学而非语言学。
中国直到清代末年还把文字、音韵、训诂等方面的研究称之为“小学”，是“经学的婢女”。
虽然语文学存在局限，但却为语言学的建立准备了材料。
一般认为，印度、希腊、中国是语文学的三个源头。
○历史比较语言学建立比较法，注意古今语言、当代不同语言的对比，重视“活”语言；运用进化论观点考察历史来源和亲属关系，对语言作了谱系分类。
从历史比较语言学开始，语言学的研究对象和研究目的、研究方法都有别于传统的语文学。
历史比较语言学的建立，使语言研究从此摆脱了经学的附庸地位，标志着真正独立的语言科学诞生。
这一阶段的语言研究，侧重古语及其发展的探讨，对口语的重视仍然不够；忽视语言各要素之间的联系，忽略语言整体的系统性考察，逐渐不能适应语言研究的进一步发展。
○结构主义语言学1916年，索绪尔《普通语言学教程》的出版，标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。
该学派主张对语言进行系统的研究，强调语言是一个完整的符号系统，认为每种语言都有一套独特的关系结构；重视共时语言的研究和口语的研究。
从20世纪30年代开始，又发展出了布拉格学派（结构—功能学派）、丹麦学派（哥本哈根学派）、美国描写语言学派（美国结构主义学派）三个主要的结构主义学派，其中，美国的描写语言学派是结构主义语言学中发展最完善，最重要的一个学派。
这一学派后来陷入了形式主义的死胡同，过于追求形式，忽视了语句的具体内容；将形式和意义割裂开来。
语言学复习提纲：语音学与语法学要点
语言学复习提纲：语音学与语法学要点
一、语音学要点
1. 发音器官与音素
•发音器官包括声门、舌头、唇等部位，能够产生不同音素。
•音素是语言中的最小音位单位，分为元音和辅音等。
2. 声调与音节
•声调是语言中一个音节的音高变化。
•音节是一个完整的语音单位，包含元音和辅音。
3. 音变与语音规则
•音变是一种音素发音的变化规律。
•语音规则是对语言中音素发音的稳定规范。
二、语法学要点
1. 词类与句子成分
•词类包括名词、动词、形容词等，是构成句子的基本单位。
•句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语等，构成句子的结构要素。
2. 句法关系与语法规则
•句法关系指不同句子成分之间的关系。
•语法规则是组织句子成分的规律，保证句子构成符合语言习惯。
3. 语法意义与语法功能
•语法意义是句子结构所表达的含义。
•语法功能是句子中成分在语言交际中所承担的作用。
三、总结
以上是语言学中语音学与语法学的要点内容，通过学习这些基本知识，可以更好地理解语言的结构和功能。
细致的复习与实践可以帮助我们提高语言表达和沟通能力，在日常生活和学习工作中更加游刃有余。
语言学概要复习重点
语言学概要复习提纲一、导言一、语言学的对象和任务（一）语言学的对象和任务1.定义：语言学是研究语言现象和规律的科学。
2.研究对象：语言。
语言学概论的研究对象：整个人类的语言。
3.主要任务：研究语言的性质、作用、结构和规律，使对语言的认识上升到理性阶段。
4.语言的基本理解语言的性质：是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。
语言的结构：是音义结合的符号系统。
语言的要素：语音、语义和词汇、语法。
（二）语言学简史（语文学与语言学）1.语文学阶段(1)三大发源地：①印度②希腊-罗马③中国(2)语文学的作用语文学三大发源地的语言研究各有侧重，共同特点是都注重实用性，与当时社会的需求紧密关联，都形成了丰硕的研究成果，为语言学的诞生奠定了坚实的基础。
（3）语文学与语言学的区别①研究对象不同②研究任务不同因此，语言学是一门独立的学科，语文学只是经学的附庸。
2．语言学阶段(1)历史比较语言学产生时间:19世纪初社会背景:资产阶级革命的成功特点:用历史比较法研究语言奠基人：拉斯克、葆朴、格林等。
历史地位:摆脱了过去从属经学的附庸地位，标志着语言学走上独立发展的道路。
(2)结构主义语言学基础:历史比较语言学时间:19世纪中叶奠基人:德国的洪堡特和瑞士的索绪尔索绪尔被尊称为“现代语言学之父”，他死后由其学生编辑出版的《普通语言学教程》具有划时代的作用。
索绪尔提出的主要理论是：①区分“语言”、“言语”和“言语活动”。
②明确了语言学的研究对象：“语言学的唯一的、真正的对象就是语言和为语言而研究语言。
③论证了语言的符号性：语言符号是由“能指”和“所指”所构成的。
④提出了组合关系和聚合关系。
(3)转换生成（形式）语言学创始人：乔姆斯基（《句法结构》）主要观点：认为语言描写和分析的目的不在于分类，而在于建立一种理论，在于研究人的语言生成能力，即怎样用有限的成分和规则生成无限的句子。
理论构成：主要包括生成规则和转换规则两部分。
①生成规则包括一套短语结构规则和词汇插入规则。
《语言学导论》复习提纲
《语言学导论》复习提纲《语言学导论》复习提纲1、Termsrecursiveness ：It mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within （i.e.，be dominated by ）another constituent having the same category ，but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness ，recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example ，“I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new ”.duality ：the structural organization of language into two abstract levels ：meaningful units （e.g. words ）and meaningless segments （e.g. sounds ，letters ）. compositionality ：Compositionality refers to the principle that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. Take ，for example ，the sentence “Socrates was a man ”. Once the meaningful lexical items are taken away －“Socrates ”and “man ”－what is left is the pseudo-sentence ，“S was a M ”.ontological metaphors ：Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events ，activities ，emotions ，ideas ，etc.，as entities and substances. Take the experience of rising prices as an example ，which can be metaphorically viewed as an entity via the noun inflation . This gives us a way to refer to experiences ：INFLA TION IS AN ENTITYmorpheme ：Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning ，a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning ，such as boy and –s in boys ，check and –ing in checking ，dis-，appoint ，and –ment in disappointment . Morphemes cannot be further analyzed. For instance ，chair cannot be analyzed into ch and air because there is no relationship between the parts ch ，air ，and the whole chair .displacement ：the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker ’s immediate situation. When a man ，for example ，is crying to a woman ，about something ，it might be something that had occurred ，or something that is occurring ，or something that is to occur.2、Short questionsChapter 16、Does the traffic light system have duality ？Can you explain by drawing a simple graph ？ Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously ，it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals secondary level like animals’’ calls.Red → stop Green →go Yellow →get ready to go or stop 8、Communication can take many forms ，such as sign ，speech ，body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language ？On a whole ，body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality ，displacement ，creativity and so on. Body language exhibitsarbitrariness a little bit. For instance，nod means“OK/YES”for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying“NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.15、Why is the distinction between competence and performance important in linguistics？Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them？How do you like the concept communicative competence？This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair－competence and performance.Chapter 33、MORPHEME is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one？What is its relation to phoneme？Can a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole？As a matter of fact，morpheme is both a grammatical concept and a semantic one. For instance，we can recognize that English word-forms such as talks，talker，talked and talking must consist of one element talk，and a number of other elements such as -s，-er，-ed，-ing. All these elements are described as morphemes. The definition of morpheme is“the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content”. We would say that the word reopened in the sentence The police reopened the investigation consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open，another minimal unit of meaning is re-（meaning again），and a minimal unit of grammatical function is -ed（indicating past tense）. Therefore，we are in a position to conclude that those which can stand by themselves as single words，e.g. open，are semantic concepts，and those which cannot normally stand alone，but which are typically attached to another form，e.g. re-，-ist，-ed，-s，are grammatical concepts.As we know，each one of the meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning，then the two sounds represent different phonemes.The relation between morpheme and phoneme is also of twofold feature，viz. one-to-one，one-to-more. As with the former type，one-to-one，re- is the kind of morpheme that always consists of two phonemes /ri:/；as for the latter type，one-to-more relation，a typical example would be the plural morpheme that follows a noun or a verb. {s} after a noun can be pronounced in three ways，viz. /s/，/z/，and /iz/，as in locks，bags，and watches；{z} after a verb can also be pronounced in three ways，viz. /s/，/z/，and /iz/，as in stops，drags，and catches.Seem from an integrative perspective，a morpheme and a phoneme，indeed，can form an organic whole，as the number of the sound of each morpheme cannot be unlimited.Chapter 47、Use examples to illustrate different ways to extend syntactic constituents.In this chapter，several ways to extend syntactic constituents are brought under the category of recursiveness，including coordination and subordination，conjoining and embedding，hypotactic and paratactic and so on. Coordination and conjoining are the different names for the same linguistic phenomenon，that is，to use and，but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance，the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentencelike this“[NP A man，a woman，a boy，a car and a dog] got into the car”. While subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions，into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element（here a relative clause）.However，hypotaxis and parataxis are the two traditional terms for the description of syntactic relations between sentences. In the examples below，the former is hypotactic，while the latter is paratactic：We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.He dictated the letter. She wrote it.Chapter 57、The British linguist F. R. Palmer argues in his Semantics（p. 97）that“there is no absolute distinction between [gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms]. We can treat male/female，married/single，alive/dead as gradable antonyms on occasions. Someone can be very male or more married and certainly more dead than alive.”Comment on it.It is not advisable to tell beginners of linguistics that the distinction between gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms is relative. The expression“more dead than alive”is not a true comparative.8、姜望琪（1991：79）claims that“To some extent，we can say that any two words of the same part of speech may become antonyms，as long as the meaning difference between them is what needs to be emphasized in the particular context.”He uses the two sentences below as examples. What do you think of the claim？You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one.He’s no statesman，but a mere politician.This is a reasonable claim. As the author said in the paper，“man”can be the antonym of “woman”，but it can also be the antonym of“boy”in a situation when the age difference is important. When the difference between a man and an animal is important，“man”can also be the antonym of“dog”. And when the difference between something animate and something inanimate is important，then“man”can even be the antonym of“stone”. In the extreme cases，so-called synonyms may also become antonyms，for example，“You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one”，“He’s no statesman，but a mere politician”.Supplement：Give your comment on the distinction between word group and phrase.A“phrase”is a single element of structure containing more than one word，and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of“clauses”. Traditionally，it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy，falling between a clause and word，e.g. “the three tallest girls”（nominal phrase）. There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A“word group”is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged，e.g. right behind，all along. Thus we have nominal group，verbal group，adverbial group，conjunction group and preposition group.In general，word group can be a phrase，but phrase not always a word group.。
语言学复习提纲
英语语言学导论复习提纲IV. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration.1.affix p372.affricate3.applied linguistics4.articulatory phonetics5.aspiration6.back-formation7.blending8.bound morpheme9.broad transcriptionplementary distributionponential analysis12.context13.Conversational implicature14.deep structure15.duality16.free morpheme17.homonymy18.idiolect19.illocutionary act20.indirect speech act21.inflection22.linguistic sexism23.morpheme24.Move α25.narrow transcription26.perlocutionary act27.phatic communion28.phoneme29.phonology30.pidgin31.predication32.presupposition33.register34.relational opposites35.speech community36.supresegmental features37.tone38.trace39.utterance40.voicelessVI. Answer the following questions.1.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making anutterancement with at least three examples on the following statement:”There is undoubtedly nosingle cause of language change.”3.Do you think that the pictographic characters in Chinese such as 人、日、火contradict withone of the design features of language —— arbitrariness? Why or why not?4.Explain what is sense and what is reference with examples5.Explain with examples the three notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, and also how theyare related6.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?8.How is language related to society?9.How is Saussure`s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky`s distinctionbetween competence and performance?10.How is utterance meaning different from sentence meaning?11.What are derivational affixes and inflectional affixes? Give examples to show their differentfunctions.12.What are the four major views concerning the study of meaning?13.What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your examples to show how flouting thesemaxims gives rise to particularized conversational implicatue.14.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?15.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speechsounds?16.What contribution did Saussure make to modern linguistics?17.What is blending, abbreviation and back formation?18.What is entailment and what is presupposition? Give examples to illustrate19.What is the difference between competence and performance, according to Noam Chomsky?20.What is the difference between Sense and Reference in semantic study? Explain withexamples21.What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning？22.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?23.Why is language defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication?24.Why is syntax regarded as a system of rules?25.Why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?。
《语言学导论》复习提纲
《语言学导论》复习提纲1、Termsrecursiveness：It mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within（i.e.，be dominated by）another constituent having the same category，but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness，recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example，“I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new”.duality：the structural organization of language into two abstract levels：meaningful units（e.g. words）and meaningless segments（e.g. sounds，letters）.compositionality：Compositionality refers to the principle that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. Take，for example，the sentence“Socrates was a man”. Once the meaningful lexical items are taken away－“Socrates”and“man”－what is left is the pseudo-sentence，“S was a M”.ontological metaphors：Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events，activities，emotions，ideas，etc.，as entities and substances. Take the experience of rising prices as an example，which can be metaphorically viewed as an entity via the noun inflation. This gives us a way to refer to experiences：INFLATION IS AN ENTITYmorpheme：Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning，a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning，such as boy and –s in boys，check and –ing in checking，dis-，appoint，and –ment in disappointment. Morphemes cannot be further analyzed. For instance，chair cannot be analyzed into ch and air because there is no relationship between the parts ch，air，and the whole chair.displacement：the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation. When a man，for example，is crying to a woman，about something，it might be something that had occurred，or something that is occurring，or something that is to occur.2、Short questionsChapter 16、Does the traffic light system have duality？Can you explain by drawing a simple graph？Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously，it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks theexpression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language？On a whole，body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality，displacement，creativity and so on. Body language exhibitsarbitrariness a little bit. For instance，nod means“OK/YES”for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying“NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.15、Why is the distinction between competence and performance important in linguistics？Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them？How do you like the concept communicative competence？This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair－competence and performance.Chapter 33、MORPHEME is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one？What is its relation to phoneme？Can a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole？As a matter of fact，morpheme is both a grammatical concept and a semantic one. For instance，we can recognize that English word-forms such as talks，talker，talked and talking must consist of one element talk，and a number of other elements such as -s，-er，-ed，-ing. All these elements are described as morphemes. The definition of morpheme is“the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content”. We would say that the word reopened in the sentence The police reopened the investigation consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open，another minimal unit of meaning is re-（meaning again），and a minimal unit of grammatical function is -ed（indicating past tense）. Therefore，we are in a position to conclude that those which can stand by themselves as single words，e.g. open，are semantic concepts，and those which cannot normally stand alone，but which are typically attached to another form，e.g. re-，-ist，-ed，-s，are grammatical concepts.As we know，each one of the meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning，then the two sounds represent different phonemes.The relation between morpheme and phoneme is also of twofold feature，viz. one-to-one，one-to-more. As with the former type，one-to-one，re-is the kind of morpheme that always consists of two phonemes /ri:/；as for the latter type，one-to-more relation，a typical example would be the plural morpheme that follows a noun or a verb. {s} after a noun can be pronounced in three ways，viz. /s/，/z/，and /iz/，as in locks，bags，and watches；{z} after a verb can also be pronounced in three ways，viz. /s/，/z/，and /iz/，as in stops，drags，and catches.Seem from an integrative perspective，a morpheme and a phoneme，indeed，can form an organic whole，as the number of the sound of each morpheme cannot be unlimited.Chapter 47、Use examples to illustrate different ways to extend syntactic constituents.In this chapter，several ways to extend syntactic constituents are brought under the category of recursiveness，including coordination and subordination，conjoining and embedding，hypotactic and paratactic and so on. Coordination and conjoining are the different names for the same linguistic phenomenon，that is，to use and，but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance，the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentencelike this“[NP A man，a woman，a boy，a car and a dog] got into the car”. While subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions，into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element（here a relative clause）.However，hypotaxis and parataxis are the two traditional terms for the description of syntactic relations between sentences. In the examples below，the former is hypotactic，while the latter is paratactic：We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.He dictated the letter. She wrote it.Chapter 57、The British linguist F. R. Palmer argues in his Semantics（p. 97）that“there is no absolute distinction between [gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms]. We can treat male/female，married/single，alive/dead as gradable antonyms on occasions. Someone can be very male or more married and certainly more dead than alive.”Comment on it.It is not advisable to tell beginners of linguistics that the distinction between gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms is relative. The expression“more dead than alive”is not a true comparative.8、姜望琪（1991：79）claims that“To some extent，we can say that any two words of the same part of speech may become antonyms，as long as the meaning difference between them is what needs to be emphasized in the particular context.”He uses the two sentences below as examples. What do you think of the claim？You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one.He’s no statesman，but a mere politician.This is a reasonable claim. As the author said in the paper，“man”can be the antonym of “woman”，but it can also be the antonym of“boy”in a situation when the age difference is important. When the difference between a man and an animal is important，“man”can also be the antonym of“dog”. And when the difference between something animate and something inanimate is important，then“man”can even be the antonym of“stone”. In the extreme cases，so-called synonyms may also become antonyms，for example，“You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one”，“He’s no statesman，but a mere politician”.Supplement：Give your comment on the distinction between word group and phrase.A“phrase”is a single element of structure containing more than one word，and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of“clauses”. Traditionally，it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy，falling between a clause and word，e.g. “the three tallest girls”（nominal phrase）. There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A“word group”is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged，e.g. right behind，all along. Thus we have nominal group，verbal group，adverbial group，conjunction group and preposition group.In general，word group can be a phrase，but phrase not always a word group.。
语言学导论复习方案
语言学导论复习方案一、名词解释1.Linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.ngue:langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.petence:competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his l anguage.nguage:language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.5.Phonetics: phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned withall the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.6.Articulatory phonetics:articulatory phonetics is a branch of phonetics that studies thesounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.7.Phonology: phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8.Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is anabstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.9.Minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pairs.10.Sequential rules:rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular languageand determine which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other are called sequential rules.11.Morpheme:morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information aboutmeaning or function.12.Syntax: syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation ofsentences.13.Phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.14.Semantics: semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, word and sentencesin particular.15.Sense: sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collectionof all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.16.Reference: reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.17.Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.18.Polysemy:while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same oneword may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.19.Antonymy: antonym is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite inmeaning are antonyms.20.Pragmatics:pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.21.Locutionary act: a locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It isthe act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.22.Context: context refers to words that come before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc,helping to show what its meaning is.nguage acquisition:language acquisition refers to a child’s acquisition of his mothertongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.24.Register: register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according touse of language in context.25.Interlanguage: interlanguage is def ined as an abstract system of learners’ target languagesystem and it has now been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce, especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones.26.Fossilization: interlanguage or learner language tends to become stabilized or fossilizedat certain level. Fossilization has become one of the main features of interlanguage.二、简答题1.Explain the definition of linguistics that “Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage”.Linguistics is the scientific study of language because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?The major branches of linguistics are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Phonetics studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;phonology studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; morphology studies the way in which symbols are arranged and combined to form words; syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences;semantics studies the meaning in linguistic communication; pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.3.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. It is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?First, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.5.What are the five design features of language specified by C. Hockett to show thathuman language is essentially different from any animal communication system?The five design features of language are arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement, and cultural transmission.6.What are the three macro-functions of language proposed by M. A. K. Halliday?The three macro-functions are the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual.7.What are suprasegmental features? And what are the major suprasegmental featuresin of English?The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The major suprasegmental features of English are stress, intonation, and tone.8.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deal with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are also occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.9.What are the major types of synonyms in English?1)Dialectal synonyms --- synonyms used in different regional dialects.2)Stylistic synonyms --- synonyms differing in style.3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning.4)Collocational synonyms.5)Semantically different synonyms.10.What are the six sense relations between sentences?1)X is synonymous with Y.2)X is inconsistent with Y.3)X entails Y.4)X presupposes Y.5)X is a contradiction.6)X is semantically anomalous.11.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes intodistinctive features?The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.12.What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentencesemantically meaningless?Grammaticality refers to the grammatical meaning of a sentence. If a grammatically meaningful sentence violates the selectional restrictions, it will be semantically meaningless.13.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.14.Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguisticcommunication?Because context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’sinterpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.15.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related and how do they differ?While the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.16.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing whilemaking an utterance? Give an example.The three acts are locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. For example, “You have left the door wide open.” The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the sentence consisting of all these words “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc.in the correct, understandable English pronunciation, thus expressing what the words literally mean.17.What are the 4 major views concerning the study of meaning?The four major views are the naming theory, the conceptualist view, contextualism, and behaviorism.18.What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)? List their names andexplain them briefly.The maxim of quantity: 1) make your contribution as informative as required. 2) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality: 1) do not say what you believe to be false. 2) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relation: be relevant.The maxim of manner: 1) avoid obscurity of expression. 2) avoid ambiguity. 3) be brief.4) be orderly.19.What is the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) concerning language acquisition?Critical Period Hypothesis refers to a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. During this period, if the LAD is stimulated, it will work successfully.20.To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Canyou list some proof from your own learning experience?The studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels. Theoretically, the new findings and advances in first language acquisition especially in learning theories and the learning process have shed light on the understanding of second language acquisition in general. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition issues. For example, I often define the meaning of an English word in Chinese to gain a better understanding of the word.。
语言学概论复习纲要
语言学概论复习纲要(总6页) --本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--导言索绪尔在语言研究中的贡献（选择）a. 区分语言与言语。
b. 区分共时与历时。
c. 认为语言是符号系统；语言符号的构成关系存在于组合、聚合两种关系之中。
d. 认为语言是形式而不是实体。
《普通语言学教程》的作者（选择）索绪尔第二章第一节符号和症候的不同（选择）（1）符号不同于征候。
• a征候同其所代表的事物之间有因果联系，是事物的表征，如烟和火的关系、脉息同身体的关系、花香与花的关系等。
• b符号同其所代表的事物没有必然的联系。
符号是社会的产物，它要经过人们的约定，赋以一定的价值，才能起到符号的作用。
•（2）征候跟符号的相同之处：都可以使人获得信息。
语言和言语的关系（简答）《（1）“说话”的动作、行为，我们称之为语言动作或言语行为。
（2）“说话”所使用的词语、规则。
（3）“说话”的结果，即所说的话语。
（1）、（3）属言语（2）属语言。
言语便是说话的行为和结果，语言则是说话所使用的一种工具》不考理解即可。
区别：1. 个人——社会。
言语是一种个人现象，在一个社会群体中，不同的人，说的话自然有别，但他们所使用的词语和规则是相同的，不然就没法交流2. 具体——抽象。
无限——有限。
由言语单位构成的作品是无限的，而由语言单位构成的语言系统则是高度概括的，有限的。
3. 现成——创造孩子出生后就要学习某种语言，用这种语言进行交际，不需要自己独创一种新的语言而言语作品，比如一句句的话、一段段的话，则是根据交际的需要临时创造出来的。
理解句子的意义也要借助当时的语境，可以说句子都是“一次性”产品，没有两个句子的意义完全相同。
联系：1. 语言存在于言语之中 2.言语是运用语言的行为和结果。
语言、言语（名解）在语言学上，把说出来的话中的词语和组织词语的规则叫语言。
把说话中的发音过程和所说出来的话叫言语。
语言学导论复习资料
语言学导论复习资料一：名词解释(4个）ngue & Parole（语言与言语）Langue is the linguistic competence of the speaker,which is relatively stable and systematic and also the rule that the speaker should follow.Parole is the actual phenomena or data of linguistics, which is subject to personal and situational constraints and always a naturally occurring event.2.Phonetics & Phonology （语音学与音位学）Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including three main areas: articulatory phonetics (发音语音学), acoustic phonetics(声学语音学), auditory Phonetics(听觉语音学).Phonology is the study of sound systems—the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns.3.Open-class word & Closed-class word（开放类词与封闭类词）Open-class words: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.e.g. n. v. adj. adv.E.g. regarding / with regard to ; throughout, in spite ofClosed words : their membership is fixed or limited.E.g. pro. prep. conj. art. etc.4. Immediate Constituent Analysis（直接成分分析法）The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结构体）and its Constituents（成分）. To analyze their relations is IC.5. Sense & Reference（意义与所指）Sense: The literal meaning of a word or an expression, independence of situational context. Reference: The relation between words and the things, actions, events and qualities they stand for.6. Metaphor & Metonymy （隐喻与转喻）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other.E.g. All the world is a stage.Metonymy : in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.E.g. the crown can stand for a king, and the White House for the American government.7. Performatives & Constatives（施为句与表述句）Performatives: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out. Constatives: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or false. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.二：问答题（3个）1.What are the designed features of Language？“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication, including:1. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.2. duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures.3. creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(递归性）4. displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.5. Cultural Transmission means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned by each speaker.2.What is Iconicity（句法像似性）？How to analyze some language phenomena with Iconicity?In functional-cognitive linguistics, as well as in semiotics, iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy between the form of a sign and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness.We can analyze some language phenomena with the Iconic principles.①Proximity principle: conceptual distance tends to match with linguistic distance, e.g. “give sb sth” and “give sth to sb”②Quantity principle: conceptual complexity corresponds to formal complexity, e.g. “apple, tree”, “apple tree” and “apple trees”.③Sequential order principle: the sequential order of events described is mirrored in the speech chain, e.g. “I came, I saw, I conquered”.3.What is prototype theory（原形范畴）? How to analyze some language phenomena with prototype theory?Prototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool.We can analyze some language phenomena with its three levels in categories.①basic level: This is the level where we perceive the most differences between “objects” in the word. E.g, all categories of dogs are different, but they still share enough to be distinguished from cats, birds, snakes,etc.②superordinate level: Superordinate categories are the most general ones. E.g, if someone asks you to think of a plant, you might think of a tree or a flower.③subordinate level: They have clearly identifiable gestalts(完形）and lots of individual specific features. At this level we perceive the differences between members od the basic level categories, like rain coat,apple juice and wheel chair.4.What is figure and ground theory? How to analyze some language phenomena with figure and ground theory?The figure within a scene is a substructure perceived as "standing out" from the remainder(the ground) and accorded special prominence as the pivotal(关键的）entity around which the scene is organized and for which it provides a setting. For example, you see words on a printed paper as the "figure" and the white sheet as the "background".It is believed that the selection and arrangement of the information in syntactic structure are decided by the degrees of salience of it. For example, “The car crashed into the tree” and “The tree was hit by the car”, in these two sentences, the meanings are the same, but by arranging the positions of the subject and object differently, the focus and prominence are different.5.How to analyze some language phenomena with Metaphor and Metonymy? We can analyze some language phenomena with metaphor through its three categories.1.Ontological metaphor: e.g inflation is backing us to conner.In this sentence, regarding inflation as an entity allows human beings to refer to it, identify it, treat it as a case.2.Structural metaphor imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. For example, “Argument is war”leads to an English expression like “Your claims are indefensible”.3.Orientional metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation.For example, “I’m feeling up” shows erect posture is related with a positive state, and vise versa.6. What is Speech Act theory? What is Illocutionary Act? What is Cooperative Principle?The speech act theory was originated with John Austin. A speech act is an utterance that has performative function in language and communication. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, etc.Illocutionary act means when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces.Cooperative Principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the maxim of manner.三．语言学家及其理论、作品配对1.Saussure: Course in General Linguistics 结构主义历时研究diachronic study2.Boas: discovered the framework of descriptive linguistics Handbook of American Indian languages3.Sapir: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language4.Bloomfield: stimulus-response theory Language(1993)5.Malinowski: context of situationCoral Gardens and Their Magic6.Trubetzkoy: Principles of Phonlogy7.Austin: speech act theory How to do things with words8.Grice: the cooperative principle Logic and conversation9.Halliday: systemic-functional grammarthe theory of metafunctions of language(元语言功能理论）10.Chomsky: language acquisition device(LAD) generative grammar Syntactic Structureskoff: cognitive linguistics Metaphors We Lived By12.Leech: 7 types of meaning in his Semantics13.Ogden & Richards: Semantic Triangle四．选择题，判断题重点1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. 语言的起源：the bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory, the yo-he-yo theory.3. 语言的功能:interpersonal function(人际功能），performative function(行事），emotive，expressive，phatic communication(寒暄），recreational，metalingual.4. 语言学的主要分支：phonetics[articulatory, acoustic(physical properties), auditory], phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics.5. 语音属于言语，音位属于语言,音位（phoneme)是最小的语音单位，语素（morpheme)是语法意义中最小的语言单位，单词（word）是语言最小的自由单位。
当代语言学导论复习要点(详细!含课后单词)
Introduction to Contemporary LinguisticsChapter1Human superiority lies in his unique endowment-----the ability to talk, or rather, to communicate by means of language.Talmud: god created the world by a word, instantaneously, without toil or pains.Widdowson: the primacy of language in the way human beings conceive of the world.Language is a vehicle of power, for control, for creation, and for change.The study of human language is called linguistics.Linguistics deals with human language as a whole or as particular languages.1.As a whole: the system of human communication which consists of the structuredarrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into larger units,e.g.morphemes, words, sentences, utterances.2.As particular language: like French language, they are particular systems ofhuman communication used by people living in different parts of the world.There is a continuum from one language to another.Varieties of language: Any particular language is in essence a set of varieties.1.local varieties区域变体–dialects and accents(the former differ from each otherin pronunciation, vocabulary, and even grammar; the latter only in pronunciation ) 2.social varieties—sociolects社会方言(=social dialects , used by people of differentclasses, ages, or sexes ),3.historical varieties—temporal variety.(e.g. the 17th century English)4.stylistic or occupational varieties---registers语域(e.g. formal English, scientificEnglish)5.individual varieties—idiolects个人语言.ually a language has an officially declared or generally considered standarddialect(e.g. Putonghua in China, General American in the US)From Prescriptivism to DescriptivismPrescriptivism is the view that one variety of language has an inherently higher value than others.(try to impose rules from some high prestige language to some lower prestige language, like Latin and English)Descriptivism is the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist.Usages of different varieties should be observed and recorded instead of being judged with some imposed norms.Endowed or conventional?Plato’s problem: How can every human being develop a rich system of linguistic knowledge on the basis of limited and fragmentary empirical evidence?Side of endowment: nativists(天生论) or mentalists（心智说）Plato:1.Man’s knowledge came from universal truths.2.There was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man tofollow in expressing his ideas.3.Knowledge of language was not learned but recalled.Chomsky:There is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides what we speak.Chomsky has given a name to this entity----UG, or universal grammar. His epistemology of the knowledge of language foes as follows:1.Every human being has the language competence能力, because he has the inbornUG which other species lack.2.UG is the initial state of the human language faculty语言器官/机制which alonecannot enable a human baby to speak. A baby needs to be exposed to the linguistic environment of a certain language and accumulate experience.3.Due to the effect of later experience, the baby’s mind develops from the initialstate into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a specific human language.Side of convention: behaviorist or empiricistsAristotle: knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.Xun zi: a name was accepted through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention.The power of language exists in its countless varieties, not relying on any universal standard.ConnectionismDiachronic(历经时间的): focus on the comparison between languages and the exploration of the historical change and variation of some ancient languages./ of, relating to, or dealing with phenomena (as of language or culture) as they occur or change over a period of timeSynchronic（共时的）: research of the facts of language agreed upon or shared by his members of language community at a given point in time./ concerned with events existing in a limited time period and ignoring historical antecedents GlossaryEndowments: (天赋) the natural quality that a person is made rich of from the birth.Register: (语域) the words, style, and grammar used by speakers and writers in particular conditions, namely a socially defined variety of language.Idiolect: (个人语言) the linguistic system of an individual speaker.Sociolect: (社会方言) also social dialect. Variety of a language defined by social factors such as age, religion, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Sociolects maybe classed as high or low (in status).Prescriptivism :(规定主义) the imposition of arbitrary norms upon a language, often in defiance of normal usage.Descriptivism ：（描写主义）the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist.Nativism: (天生论) philosophical and psychological position which holds that cognitive development of humans arises from “innate ideas”. The nativist position has been used to explain how children are able to learn language and contrasts with the belief that all human knowledge comes from experience (empiricism).Mentalism: （心智说）psychological and philosophical concept picked up and developed by Chomsky(1965), which attempts to describe the internal (innate) language mechanism that provides the basis for the creative aspect of language development and use.Dualism: （二元论）a philosophical system that recognizes two ultimate and independent principles in the scheme of things, such as mind and matter.Monism: (一元论) a general name for those philosophical theories which deny the duality of matter and mind.Universal Grammar (UG): （普通语法）the genetically endowed information consisting of principles and parameters that enable the child to deduce a grammar from the primary linguistic data.Language competence: (语言能力) knowledge of language; the linguistic capacity of a fluent speaker of a language.Parameter: (参数) a dimension of grammatical variation between different languages or different varieties of the same language.Empiricism: (经验论) philosophical and psychological position which holds that the psychological development of humans arise primarily from experience and learning.Connectionism: (连通主义) a theory of cognition which draws inspiration from the way the billions of neurons in the brain are interconnected in complex ways to produce a network of associations. It holds that the complexity of language emerges from associative learning processes being exposed to a massive and complex environment.Chapter2Speculations: origin of languagePlato----legislatorHerder----godUniversal harmony is embraced as the foundation of modern linguistics as a science. Galilean thesis----nature is perfectObservationResearchEvery person’s lexical knowledge of his first language is tacit and natural, with a tendency to influence, often unknowingly, his second language learning. Thisinfluence is called transfer.Three adequacies:1.Observational adequacy2.Descriptive adequacy3.Explanatory adequacy (providing a descriptively adequate grammar for everynatural language, and does so in terms of maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.)TestingA theory in science must not be pure speculation but testable at observational, descriptive, and explanatory levels.Science tells us that nature is a physical continuum连续体, which does not break itself into physics, chemistry, psychology, linguistics…; these disciplines学科are not facts but our decisions.GlossaryL1: (第一语言) a person’s first languageL2: (第二语言) a person’s second language. To be more specific, one could refer to a person’s L3, L4, and so on. However, the general term L2 is frequently used to refer to any language learning or used after the first language has been learned.Fossilization: (僵化) incomplete L2 acquisition featured by the fact that progress in a certain aspect of the target language stops and the learner’s language becomes fixed at an intermediate state. It can take a number of forms, such as fossilized accent or syntax. Fossilization can be a permanent feature of the learner’s language.Chapter3 phoneticsPhonetics: the science of speech sounds. It aims to provide the set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human language.In accordance with the three phases just mentioned, phonetics is divided into three sub-fields.1.Articulatory phonetics发音语音学studies speech production by the speechorgans;2.Acoustic phonetics声学语音学studies physical properties of speech sounds, theway sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer;3.Auditory phonetics听觉语音学studies the perception of speech sounds in thehuman auditory and cognitive system.IPA: International Phonetic AlphabetThe design principles of IPA were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.A “sound” people say they produce is actually a combination of sounds called asyllable, which is often related to a chest pulse.(syllable>=sound)The properties of these separate sounds, or segments in phonetician’s jargon, can be described in several dimensions, the place of articulation and the manner of articulation.1.The place of articulation refers to the point in the vocal tract at which the mainclosure or narrowing is made so as to modify the flow of air from the chest to the mouth in producing a sound.2.The manner of articulation refers to the type of constriction收缩or movementthat occurs at any place of articulation.ArticulationThe production of different speech sounds through the use of these organs is known as articulation.Speech organs:the vocal cords(声带)the lungsthe windpipe(trachea)the pharynx(咽)the nosethe mouthA main source of vibration is provided by the vocal cords. The vibration of the vocal cords also gives us pitch.ConsonantsConsonants are sounds made by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing from which air cannot escape without producing audible friction.摩擦Two reference points are involved in defining consonantal places of articulation. One is the active articulator which moves; the other is the passive articulator with which the active one makes contact.Classified according to the places of articulation:eleven possible places of articulation for consonants1.Bilabial双唇音, formed by bringing the lips together , e. g. [ p ] , [ m] . Here thefunction of lips is somewhat complicated: they both can be regarded as the active and passive articulators simultaneously.bio-dental唇齿音, formed by the lower lip against the upper teeth, e . g. [ f] .3.Dental齿音, formed by placing the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth, e . g.[ð].4.Alveolar齿龈音, formed by placing the tip or blade of the tongue against thealveolar ridge, e. g. [ t ] .5.Palatal腭音, formed by the front of the tongue against the hard palate, namely,the roof of the mouth, e . g. [ j] .6.Palato- alveolar腭龈音, formed midway between the places of articulation forpalatals and alveolars: the blade ( and sometimes the tip) of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge, with a simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate , e. g. [ʃ] .7.Velar软腭音, formed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate, e. g. [ k] .8.Glottal声门音, formed by the vocal cords coming together to cause a closure orfriction, e .g. [ h] .9.Retrofle卷舌音, formed when the apex of the tongue is curled back in thedirection of the hard palate, as heard in many Indian English accents.10.Uvular小舌音, formed by the back of the tongue against the uvula, as heard insome accents of French.11.Pharyngeal咽音, formed in the pharynx, the part of the throat above the larynx.Specifically, the front wall of t he pharynx articulates with the back wall, as heard in Arabic .Classified according to the manner of articulation1.The first factor is the degree of the constriction of airflow（气流的阻塞）. At leastsix main classes can be distinguished in English.1)Plosive爆破音, formed by completely closing the air passage and suddenlyremoving the obstacle , so that the air escapes making an explosive sound, e. g.[ p] ,[ d] . It belongs to a broader category called“stop”which includes closures produced by air streams not from the lungs, as encountered in some southern African languages.2)Nasal鼻音, formed with the soft palate lowered, thus allowing air to resonate inthe nose, e . g. [ m] .3)Affricate塞擦音, a consonant which starts as a plosive, but instead of endingwith plosion, ends with a fricative made in the same place, e. g. [tʃ] .4)Liquid流音, formed by some obstruction of the air stream in the mouth, whichseems not enough to cause any real constrict ion or friction, e. g. [ l] , [ r ]. [ l] is called a lateral liquid, because in making it, an obstacle is placed in the middle of the mouth, leaving the air free to escape at one or both sides.5)Fricative擦音, formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point so thatthe air in escaping makes audible frication. e. g. [ f] , [ z] . Some fricatives are also called sibilants齿擦音, which are made with a groove- like structure in the front part of the tongue, producing a kind of hissing sound, e. g. [ s] , [ʃ] .6)Glide滑音, sometimes called semi -vowel because it is typically produced withthe tongue moving, or“gliding, to or from the position of a nearby vowel, e.g.[ h] , [ w] .2.The second factor is voicing（浊音）. V oice is caused by the vibration of the vocalcords.3.The third factor is aspiration(送气音). This is the sound of air rushing through thevocal tract, usually found after the release of plosive consonants in some situation.V owelsV owels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.Different vowels result from changing the shape of the mouth; all of them are voiced continuous sounds.The qualities of vowels depend upon the positions of the tongue and lips.[i:] close vowels , [a:] open vowels, [e] semi-closed vowels, [ɔ:] semi-open vowelsV owel quality is also largely dependent on the shape of the lips.Four rounded vowels: [u:] [u][ɔ:][ɔ], they are all back vowels.[a:]is the only English back vowel that occurs without lip rounding.There is another interesting rule: all the long vowels( e.g. [i:] [u:])are tense vowels紧元音, and all the short vowels ([i] [u]) are lax vowels松元音.Every vowel constitutes a single syllable. The vowel can be a monophthong, a diphthong, or even a triphthong that contains three distinctive qualities, e.g.[ai ə]. However, not every syllable contains a vowel. The second syllable of the word little[litl] has no vowel after the plosive [t] but a liquid [l].PhonemesPhonemes have no meaning of themselves, but they are the smallest linguistic unit, whose change will lead to the change of meaning. A phoneme is defined as the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. (//) AllophoneAllophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted of another without bring about a change of meaning. ([])Complementary distribution and free variationA phonetic property特性，特质that distinguishes phonemes from one another is called a distinctive feature.Phonology and phoneticsPhonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and how they are interpreted. (how)Phonology is a description of the sounds of a particular language and the rules governing the distribution of those sounds. Furthermore, phonology is also concerned with the universal properties of natural language sound systems and aims at revealing the general principles of the sound patterns of all languages. (what)Stress and pitchPitch is the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.There are two ways in which languages make use of pitch variations in speech.1.In languages such as English, French, and German, regular sequences of differentpitches characterize stretches of speech between pauses and are known collectively as intonation. The differences of intonation may correlate with different types of utterances.2.In languages such as Chinese , Vietnamese, Thai, and Zulu, pitch differences helpto distinguish one word from another and may be the only differentiating feature between two or more words whose composition is the same in terms of consonants and vowels. Pitch differences used in these ways are called tones and these languages are called tone languages.Stress, pitch, tone and intonation are also called suprasegmentals超切分音位because they relate to aspects of pronunciation that go beyond the production of individual segments.GlossaryPhonetics: (语音学) the study of speech sounds; how they are produced in the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics发音语音学)，their physical properties (acoustic phonetics声学语音学)，and how they are perceived (auditory phonetics 听觉语音学).Phonology: (音系学) the study of the sound system of a language; how the particular sounds contrast in each language to form an integrated system for encoding information and how such systems differ from one language to another.V ocal folds: (声带) also vocal cords/lips/bands. Two muscular folds in the larynx(喉) that vibrate as a source of sounds.V ocal tract: (声道) the connected passages inside the head which form the system used to produce speech. It starts at the larynx and includes the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavity.Glottis: (声门) the aperture between the vocal folds.Larynx: (喉头) the part of the trachea containing the vocal folds.Palate: (硬腭) also known as the “hard palate”or the “roof of the mouth”; the upper surface of the mouth where there is bone beneath the skin.Soft palate: (软腭) also velum. The flap of soft tissue which forms the continuation of the palate at the back of the mouth, and may be lowered to permit nasalization.Trachea: (气管) the “windpipe”passes up from the lungs to the vocal tract beginning with the larynx.Uvula: (小舌) the small lobe hanging from the bottom of the soft palate.Aspiration: (送气音) a puff of air that follows the release of a consonant when there is a delay in the onset of voicing. It is symbolized by a superscript h (e.g. , [p h])Phoneme: (音素，音位) the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.Minimal pair: (最小语对) two words in a language that differ only by a single distinctive sound (one phoneme) in the same position and have different meanings, e.g., pin and bin.Allophone: (音位变体) one of a set of nondistinctive realizations of the same phoneme. ([])Complementary distribution: (互补分布) the occurrence of sounds in language such that they are never found in the same phonetic environment. Sounds that are in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme.Free variation: (自由变异) term used to refer to two sounds that occur in overlapping environments but cause no distinction in the meaning of their respective words.Distinctive feature: (区别性特征) a particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group. For example, in the English sound system, one distinctive feature which distinguishes the /p/ in pin from the /b/ in bin is VOICE.Stress: (重音) the increased duration and loudness of a syllable compared to othersyllables in the same word.Pitch: (音高) the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.Tone: (声调) the distinctive pitch level of a syllable.Suprasegmental: (超切分音位) a vocal effect extending over more than one segment, e.g. , tone, length, and stress.International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA): (国际音标) a system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the international phonetic association.Chapter4 morphologyWords are not the smallest unit of meaning. They are composed of smaller units of meaning, called morphemes. Morphemes are the minimal language units.Morphology deals with word structure.1.Free morphemes—morphemes that can stand alone as a word.1)Many words are themselves morphemes, such as big and book. They cannot bebroken into smaller units that in themselves carry meaning.2)Many other words are created by joining together two morphemes, e.g.blackboard,in which the two morphemes black and board can be recognized as meaningful words by themselves.2.Bound morpheme, which occurs only when attached to another morpheme, suchas -ly in happily and un-in unhappy.Such bound morphemes are called affixes, including the prefixes and the suffixes. The function of an affix can be derivational派生的，衍生的or inflectional屈折的.1) A derivational morpheme is one that is added to a root to form a new word thatdiffers, usually, in its part-of-speech词性classification. For example, when the suffix-ness is added to the adjective happy, the noun happiness is formed.Prefixes as derivational morphemes usually change the basic meaning of a word but do not change its part- of-speech classification .（即系本来系动词就系动词）2)Infix3)An inflectional morpheme indicates certain grammatical properties associatedwith nouns and verbs, such as gender, number, case, and tense. Unlike highly inflected languages such as Latin, English has very few inflectional morphemes.In English, the inflectional morphemes are all suffixes. The suffix -s, which indicates plurality in nouns as well as the third-person singular in verbs, is an inflectional morpheme; the past tense suffix-ed, which is added to verbs, is another.According to Wilhelm von Humboldt, languages of the world can be classified morphologically into three types: isolating, inflecting, and agglutinating.1.An isolating language is also called an analytic language or root language, inwhich all the words are invariable. Chinese, Vietnamese and Samoan are typical cases.2.An inflecting language is also called a synthetic language or fusional language, inwhich grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words—typically by the use of inflectional endings which express severalgrammatical meanings at once. Latin, Greek, and Arabic are clear cases.3.An agglutinating language is also called agglutinative language, in which a wordtypically consists of a neat linear sequence of morphemes, all clearlyrecognizable. Turkish, Finnish, Japanese, and Swahiliare usual cases.Morphemes in ChineseChinese is regarded as a typical analytical language and also has some inflectional and agglutinating structures.Most of Chinese free morphemes are monosyllabic because Chinese is a tone language.CompoundCompounding is a process that forms new words not by means of affixes but from two or more independent words. Compounds are different from phrases in that they symbolize an integrated整体的concept.There are different semantic relationships within the morphemes comprising a compound.Idiomatic powerIdiomatic 惯用的，成语的expressions: metaphoric(e.g. I'm really tied up无法分身.)，allusive(e.g. the ruling party met its Waterloo 毁灭性的打击in the new election.), a majority are institutionalized.GlossaryMorpheme: (词素) smallest linguistic unit that can have a meaning or grammatical function.Morphology: (形态学) the study of word-making and word-marking. On the one hand, morphology examines meaning relationships between words and the ways in which these connections are indicated. On the other, morphology looks at how grammatical relationships between words are marked. (G. Tserdanelis& W. Wong: Language files)Also the study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed, is called morphology. (V. Fromkin&R. Roman: An Introduction to Language)Free morphemes: (自由词素) morphemes that can stand alone as a word.Bound morphemes: (粘着词素) morpheme that always attaches to other morphemes, never existing as a word itself.Affix: (词缀) a bound morpheme that changes the meaning or syntactic function of the words to which it attaches. Prefixes, infixes and suffixes are the three types of affixes.Prefix: (前缀) an affix that attaches to the beginning of a stem.Suffix: (后缀) an affix that attaches to the end of a stemInfix: (中缀) a type of bound morpheme that is inserted in to the root.Derivational morpheme: (派生词素) morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach.Inflectional morphemes: (屈折词素) morphemes that serve a purely grammatical function, never creating a new word but only a different form of same word.Isolating language: (孤立语) also analytic language. A type of language in which words consist mainly of one morpheme and sentences are composed of sequences of these free morphemes. Grammatical relationships are often indicated by word order. Examples are Chinese and Vietnamese.Inflecting language: (屈折语) also fusional language. A language in which the form of a word changes to show a change in meaning or grammatical function.Agglutinating language: (粘着语) a language in which various affixes may be added to the stem of a word to add to its meaning or to show its grammatical function.Compound: (复合词) a word that is formed by combining two or more words.Idioms: (习语) an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts.Collocation: (搭配) the way in which words are used together regularly.Stem: (词干) the part of a word that serves as a base for forming new words by the addition of affixes. For example, work is the stem of worker; worker is the stem of workers.Tone language: (声调语言) a language in which word meanings or grammatical contrasts are conveyed by variations in tone.Synthetic languages: (综合语) language in which affixes are attached to other morphemes, so that a word may be made up of several meaningful elements including inflecting languages and agglutinating languages.Chapter5 syntaxSyntactic tree of a sentence reveals that the relationship between the phrases of a sentence is not linear but hierarchical.Family tree sequence次序is top-down; syntactic tree sequence is bottom-up. The bottom-up process in sentence production is called merging合并.S=NP+VP(V+NP)The two words of the VP play different roles----head and complement. A head of a phrase is the key word which determines the properties of the phrase.The I (inflectional morpheme) plays an essential role in merging an NP and a VP into a sentence.S→IP=NP+VP(V+NP)Two groups of syntactical categories:lexical categories and functional categories.1.Lexical categories: all the content words, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives, andadverbs2.Functional category: any word or morpheme which has no descriptive contentand which serves an essentially grammatical function belongs to a. A functional category plays a role like glue in combining content words into phrases and phrases into a sentence.XP can be defined as the maximal projection headed by X, and X itself, i. e. the head, as the minimal projection.I is a functional category devised by Chomsky whose members include not onlyinflectional morphemes but also finite auxiliaries限定助动词(which are inflected for tense/agreement ) , and the infinitival particle to.CP refers to complementizer phrase and can be found in analysis of complex sentence as well as wh-questions and topicalization.When a constituent is made the topic of a sentence, it may be moved into a more prominent position at the front of the sentence. This process is called topicalization.话题化Topicalization does not involve a dummy movement, unless the topicalized constituent is negative.GlossarySyntax: (句法学) syntax is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the relationship among their component parts.Content word: (实词) words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and which have meaning when the words are used alone. Content words are mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Sentence: (句子) the largest linguistic unit which is held together by rigid grammatical rules.Specifier: (指示语) the grammatical function fulfilled by certain types of constituent which (in English ) precede the head of their containing phrase.Complement: (补语) in X-bar theory, a syntactic unit that is defined as the sister to the head of a phrase.X-bar theory: (X-阶标理论) an approach to syntax which attempts to show the general principles of language rather than deal with the structures of one particular language. “X” is a variable denoting any word category concerned.Projection: (投射) a constituent which is an expansion of a head word. For example, a noun phrase such as students of linguistics is a projection of its head noun students.Topicalization: (话题化) A device which marks sth as a topic by simply moving the topic to the front of the sentence, as in This book I can’t recommend. Chapter6 semanticsPropositionAn information receiver usually focuses his attention on the meaning of a sentence rather than the form.When we put a sentence in our mind by reading or listening, our mind will immediately treat it as a set of meaning units, called propositions.The core of a proposition is a verb.1.An intransitive verb----1 NP-the subject(external argument);2.An simple transitive verb----2 NPs-subject(external argument) and object(internalargument);3.An ditransitive verb 双宾语动词----3 NPs-subject(external argument), directobject and indirect object(internal argument);4.An unusual verb in English, rain, requires no NPs.。
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区分辅音：发音部位、阻碍方法、声带状况 和气流节制。 掌握英汉中元辅音的特征： 元音差别： • 除了央元音/ə/之外几乎没有一 个处在相同部位的。 英语中的元 音都是舌面音， 没有舌尖元音和 卷舌元音。 • • 英语元音分布比较均匀， 而汉语 元音分布不够均匀， 高元音居多。 英语中的元音有长短的差别 （如 beat 和 bit，fool 和 full） ，而汉 语没有。 • • 英语前元音没有圆唇音， 而后元 音多为圆唇音。 汉语中的元音元音基本上在极 限位置上， 而英语中的语音并非 如此。 • 辅音差别： • 英汉辅音在发音部分方面虽然 有诸多相似之处， 但它们的发音 方法和发音机制有着细微的差 别。 • 英语辅音有清浊之分， 而汉语辅 音的区别并不全在清浊， 除了几 个个别的浊音，如鼻音、边音， 其余的擦音、 塞音和塞擦音的区 别在于送气与否。 • 此外， 英语辅音时长较短， 单念 时不允许延长； 汉语辅音无论是 清是浊， 无论送气不送气， 单念 时听起来较长， 似乎后面跟了一 个短暂的/ə/音。 音位和音位变体： • • 音位： 某种语言或方言中具有区 别意义功能的最小语音单位。 音位变体： 属于同一个音位的各 个音素叫音位变体。 音位变体就 是音位在语音环境中的实际发 音。 音系规则的描述方法：斜线表示变化产生的 环境，横线（称为焦点线）表示目标音段的 位置。例子如图： 汉语还有鼻化元音。
原则与参数理论 XP 规则是一个普遍规则， 语言之间的差别在 于参数不同。 The fact that Japanese and English differs due to the parameter of variation among languages, or parameter, for short.
移位与疑问句 移位的起因通常为话题化，就是根据不同的 话题而将句子成分改变位置，通常是提前。 比如一般疑问句中， 会出现 I-to-C movement， （屈折语转为补足语；一个假设：A null C triggers the movement in English questions. ） ；而特殊疑问句中会出现 Wh-movement（基于 I-to-C movement 的移 位，形成补足语短语的标志） Principle C C-command: A node alpha c- commands a node beta iff: the mother of alpha dominates beta, and alpha does not dominate beta. Principle C: If a pronoun NP x c-commands a full NP y, x and y may not be coreferent. What do we get: Although syntactic structure is independent of meaning in many ways, they do interact in many ways.
第三章：词汇 语素及语素类型 • 语素是最小的语言单位， 不能再 进一步划分为更小的单位而不 破坏或彻底改变其词汇或语法 意义。 语素类型 • • • • 自由语素（ free morpheme） ： 能够独立成词。如 dog，close 黏着语素（bound morpheme） ： 不能够独立成词。如 dis-，-ed 单语素词 vs.多语素词（复合词 和复杂词） 复合词（ Compounds ，多个自 由语素构成的词， 如 godfather， sunflower） • 复杂词（Complex words）可以 再分为词根 （root） 和词缀 （affix） 构词方法（屈折、派生及复合）及规则 屈折： 通过附加屈折词缀 （数、 人称、 有定、体、格）来表现语法关系；附加词缀 不会改变被附加词的语法类 派生：通过词根+派生词缀形成，通 常会改变被附加词的语法类 复合：指两个或两个以上词素构成的 词，或者是由两个单独的词连接起来构成一 个新的形式的构词方法。 世界语言中的主要语法范畴 与名词有关的语法范畴： 性 （阴阳中） 、 数 （单 复双） 、格（主宾通作与属） 、有定与无定 与动词有关的语法范畴：体（完成、进行、 普通、起始、持续、尝试） 、时（过去现在将 来） 、人称（一二三） 、态（主动、被动、使 动） 、 式 （陈述式、 命令式、 虚拟式、 愿望式） 与形容词和副词有关的语法范畴： 级 （原级、 比较级、最高级） 词类的划分标准： 实际中，我们可以只把其中最重要的分布差 异作为分类标准。比如： 汉语名词： 能受数量词修饰， 但不能受 “不、 很”修饰，并且常常作主语和宾语。汉语动 词：常常作谓语，能受“不”修饰，能带宾 语，不受“很”修饰。汉语形容词：常常作
第二章：语音 发音原理：人类的发音器官分为三大部分： 动力源（肺） ，发音体（声带） ，共鸣器（口 腔、鼻腔、咽腔——统称声腔） 。共鸣器部分 主要作用是调节气流，许多不同的音素就是 这一部分的变化形成的。 元辅音的区别：在于气流是否受阻。气流不 受阻的是元音，反之为辅音。 区分不同元音及辅音的要素有哪些： 区分元音：舌位前后&#划分原则：音节划分的原则就是所谓 的最大节首原则，又称 CV 原则，指的是在 一个 VCV 或 VCCV 序列中，最大限度地把 C 或 CC 划归下一个音节的节首，而不是前一 个音节的节尾，将音节结构划分为 V-CV 或 V-CCV。 声调与重音的区别：重音是一种结构属性， 其音节在节律层级上排列为相对的重轻关系； 声调则是一种特征属性，意指对比性的相对 音高（高低型） ，如非洲的声调语言，或者是 曲线声调变化（旋律性） ，如汉语。
第四章：文字 文字发展的大致脉络 欧洲：早期苏美尔文字→后期苏美尔文字→ 古波斯文字，古埃及文字→西奈、迦南文字 →腓尼基文字，塞浦路斯文字→ 希腊文字 → 拉丁文字 汉字：早期汉字（外形为象形）→后期汉字 （外形为笔画的组合） 字 拼音化的不可行性 2.方言的存在是汉字拼音化的一大阻 碍 3.汉字拼音化对阅读古籍来说有很大 的困难 4.汉字是中国传统文化的代表，不可 随意丢弃
第五章：句法 乔姆斯基转换生成语法理论的核心概念（如 语言能力、普遍语法）及基本思想（如转换 语法，生成语法） 语言能力：一名语言使用者的语言知识应当 被刻画为由有限的规则和原则构成的语法系 统，而这些规则和原则正好是他理解并产出 无限数量的短语和句子的基础， 即语言能力。 语言能力与语言运用的区别：一名语言使用 者对于语言规则系统的潜在意识成为他的语 言能力，而语言运用指在具体场景中语言的 实际运用。 普遍语法：语言成分之间的组合方式似乎受 到一些普遍规则的支配。语言学家的任务就 是要找到一个适合所有语言的语法框架（普 遍语法） 。 转换语法：以短语结构语法为基础，附加一 组能将语句深层结构映射为相应表层结构的 转换规则并以此为核心而形成的一种分析自 然语言（主要是英语等屈折语）的语法。 Chomsky proposes the idea of transformation which refers to a kind of process that transforms one sentence into another. 生成语法：This means that a grammar must generate all and only grammatical sentences of a language. 为什么说语言是结构性的 某句由一些不含歧义的词语构成，然而这些 词可以通过不同的方式组合形成完全不同的 意思。从而，我们可以找到句子结构的两个 重要性质：词语的线性排列；词语的可能集 群形式。 （验证分析方式： 对一般疑问句的构 造进行研究） 树形图（强烈建议自行看 ppt） 为了给出“主语”的结构定义，必须引入“成分 结构”和“树形图”的概念 树形图可以体现三方面的内容：词语的线性 排列顺序；词语在句子中的分类情况；词语 在句子中的集群以及结构构成。 X-bar theory（同建议看 ppt） • • Phrase categories ： NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P) The structure: (specifier) (complement) Head (中心语) ---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier (标志语) ---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement (补足语) ---- the words on the right side of the heads Conduct： • • • XP (Specifier) X’ X’ X (complement) Note that X can be extended to functional categories such as determiners, complementizers, infinitival to, and even tense. + head +
复习要点： 第一章：语言与语言学 人类语言的特性及其与动物语言的区别 一、任意性和规约性 1. 2. 任意性：语言符号的形式与所表示的 意义没有天然的联系 规约性：语言的形式和意义是约定俗 成的关系 二、二层性：上层结构的单位由底层结构的 元素组成，每层都有自身的组合规则 其中底层为音位，作为语言符号的形式；一 二三四级（均为上层）分别为语素、词、词 组、句子，前两级为音义结合的符号，后两 集为符号的序列 三、创造性：语言的能产性，来源于二层性 和递归性 四、移位性：人类语言可以让使用者在交际 时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及 的物体、时间和观点（有助于用抽象的概念 来交流思考） 与动物语言区别：用不同的姿势表达特定的 意思；因喉部构造差异不适合吐字发音，等 语言的功能 信息功能、 人际功能、 施为功能、 感情功能、 寒暄交谈、娱乐功能、元语言功能 语言学发展的脉络 传统语言学：哲学思考角度（如名实之争） 、 语文学习 （梵文研究， 希腊文拉丁文， “小学”） 、 历史比较（印欧语系的历史比较） 现代语言学：以索绪尔开创结构主义语言学 为标志→布龙菲尔德的描写语言学理论 当代语言学三个主要流派的基本思想 生成语言学派： 强调语法的天赋性、 自主性， 在探索人类语言共性的基础上探究各个语言 的特点。 “天赋假设” ：儿童生下来有普遍语 法，并具有先天的语言习得机制，婴儿的言 语获得过程就是普遍语法到个别语法转化的 过程。主要理论是转换-生成语法。代表人： 乔姆斯基 功能语言学派：认为语言的交际功能是语法 研究的出发点，也是归宿。认为人类的语言 只存在蕴含性共性。 重视语言的社会学性质， 认为语言是做事的手段不是知识的表现形式。 依靠对各种语篇的观察和统计学的手段来验 证自己的假设。主要理论是系统功能语法。 代表人：韩礼德 认知语言学派：语言是人脑心智和人的认知 能力的重要组成部分。语言世界有一个主观 的心理世界作为中介，是人的认知域。各种 语法结构的类型，都可以视为不同意象所造 成的不同结构类型，并认为均有理据性，均 可验证。认为语法不是任意性的、自主的形 式系统，而是概念化、现实化的符号表达。 认为研究人的思想以及语言不能脱离人的体 验性。 代表人物： 乔治· 雷可夫， 马克· 约翰逊， 朗奴· 兰盖克