27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 5 Morphology
chapter 5 Morphology
in April in November in Paris on course on trust thin girls thin dress
in May in December in Europe on paper on average thin boys thin excuse
in September in Britain in July on beta-blockers thin cake thin material
3.
Try to transcribe the way the nasal /n/ would be pronounced in ordinary casual conversation, rather than in carefully enunciated speech. Then, identify what the phonological process consists of and determine what conditions the change:
end product; efficiency expert;
5.6.1 types of compounds
Adverb+Noun:downtown; overburden
Noun+Verb: daybreak; nightfall; earthquake; birth
control Verb+Adverb: breakdown; hand-out; make-up Noun+Adjective: knee-deep; life-long; duty-free -ing+Noun: swimming pool; sewing machine; waiting room Others: never-to- be-forgotten; go-between; onthel rules
江苏省自学考试英语语言学概论27037判断题题库及中文翻译
江苏省自学考试《英语语言学概论》（27037）正确判断题题库及中文翻译nguage is primarily speech ,and not the written form.语言主要是口语形式而不是书面形式。
2.The relationship between the sounds and their meanings is arbitrary .声音和他们的意义之间的关系是任意的。
3.Linguistic symbols are produced by human speech organs .语言符号是通过人类语言器官形成的。
4.English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics .英语语言学是一种描述性语言学。
ngue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable .语言比言语更加抽象，因此是不能直接观察的。
（2009年10月考题）6.General linguistics deals with the whole human language .普遍语言学研究的是所有的人类语言。
7.All the English words are not symbolic .不是所有的英语单词都是有符号的。
8.Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language .描述性语言学研究的是一种具体的语言。
9.The spelling of words is not a reliable means of describing the English sounds .单词的拼写不是描述英语语音的一种可靠方式。
10.In terms of tension of the muscles at pharynx ,vowels are grouped into tense vowels andlax vowels .根据咽喉肌肉的松弛状态，元音可以分成紧元音和松元音。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 6 Syntax(word文档良心出品)
Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。
Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a lang uage can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。
It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rul es governing the production of sentences.它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。
句法研究语言的句子结构。
Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。
Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences.句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。
6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural language. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。
自考英语(本科-)《现代语言学》-复习大纲设计
what is linguistics?1.1 定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
e. The combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules.The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, syntax. 句法学how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.f. The study of meaning. semantics 语义学 (in abstraction)g. the study of meaning is conducted in context of use. pragmatics 语用学h. the study of language with reference to society. sociolinguistics.社会语言学i. the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind. psycholinguistics 心里语言学j. the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. applied linguistics1.3 语言学研究中的一些基本概念 some important distinctions in linguistics.1.3.1 规定性和描述性 prescriptive vs. descriptiveif a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use;如果一种语言学的研究是对人们实际使用中的语言进行的描述和分析——描述性的descriptiveif it aims at to lay down rules for “correct” behaviour to tell people what they should say and what they should not say如果某种研究的目的是在对所谓“正确的”行为制定一些规则——规定性的prescriptive现代语言学通常是描述性的，与“语法”的语言研究是大相径庭的1.3.2 共时性和历时性 synchronic vs. diachronicthe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更受人青睐。
Chapter 5 Morphology
Chapter Five Morphology1. Define the following terms.1) Morpheme, allomorph and morph2) free morpheme vs bound morpheme3) affix 4) acronymy5) abbreviation vs clipping 6) IC analysis7) stem,base and root 8) inflection9) compounding 10) conversion11）inflectional morpheme 12) morphology13）backformation 14) blending15) inflectional affix vs derivational affix2. Multiple Choices1) The word “hospitalize” is an example of ______.A. compoundB. derivationC. inflectionD. blending2) ____refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which wordsare formed.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Phonology3) _____ doesn’t belong to the most productive means of word-formation.A. AffixationB. CompoundingC. ConversionD. Blending4) Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words5) Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called ________morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational6) There are ________ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six7) In English -ise and -tion are called ________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes8) Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and________.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root9) The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and _______.A.derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation10) ________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words bysubtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the word.A. AffixationB. Back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition11) The word TB is formed in the way of ________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending12) Ther e are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the wo rd “learned”is known as a(n) ________.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form13) The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by ________.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformafionD. Acronymy14) The stem of disagreements is ________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement15) All of the following are meaningful except _________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphA. phonemesB. MorphsC. morphemesD. allomorphsA. phoneticsB. syntaxC. phonologyD. morphologycombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affixational19) modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech ofthe original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixesa new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word21) Compound words consist of ________ morphemes.A. boundB. freeC. both bound and free22) Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are _________.A. grammatical wordsB. lexical wordsC. neither grammatical nor lexical words23) “Radar” is a / an __________.A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping24) The words “take” and “table” are called __________ because they can occur unattached.A. form wordsB. bound morphemesC. free morphemesD. inflectional morphemes25) A __________ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectionalaffix can be added.A. stemB. rootC. allomorphD. lexeme26) __________ is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has aheavily modified headword.A. BlendingB. AcronymyC. AbbreviationD. Invention27) The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on _________.A. BorrowingB. word-formationC. conversionD. the number of the people speaking English28) ________ is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displayingsuch contrasts as masculine / feminine, animate/inanimate, etc.A. CaseB. GenderC. NumberD. Category29) The relation between words “rose” and“flower” is that of __________.A. synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy30) T he adjective word “uniform” has __________ morphemes.A. oneB. threeC. twoD. zero31) Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or________ to stems.A. affixesB. suffixesC. inflectional affixesD. derivational affixes32) Prefixes do not generally change the _________of the stem but only modify itsmeaning.A. word-classB. meaningC. formD. structure33) The primary function of suffixes is to ________.A. change the word-class of rootsB change the meaning of stemsC change the grammatical function of stems]D change the structure of roots34) Conversion is a method __________.A. of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speechB. of converting words of one meaning into different meaningC. of deriving words through grammatical meansD. of changing words in morphological structure3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.1) Combining two parts of two already existing words is called _______ inword-formation.2) Take is the ______ of taking, taken and took.3) Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ________ and ________.4) An ________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as aword.5) Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with ________.6) Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and__________.7) All words may be said to contain a root ________.8) ________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process ofshortening.9) __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of itsinflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use ofwords interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.10) Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the ______ level.11) A word formed by derivation is called a ____________, and a word formed bycompounding is called a __________.12) The poor is an example of ______ conversion.13) __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.14) The affix “-es” conveys a __________ meaning.15) morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.16) affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas number, degree, and case.17) The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called p .18) The combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words incalled .19) Semantically, the meaning of a c__________ is often idiomatic, not always being thesum total of the meanings of its components.20) __________ morphology studies word-formation.21) __________ can never stand by itself although if bears clear,definite meaning.22) __________ are added fo the end of stems.4. Make a judgment on the following statements decide whether they are true or not.1)Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words areformed.2)Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.3)The structure of words is not governed by rules.4) A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.5)Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.6)Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.7)There is only one type of affixes in the English language.8)Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.9)Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.10)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.11)Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system.12)We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because themeaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.13)All roots are free and all affixes are bound.14)Chinese language is heavily inflectional.15) A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning, which means that a morpheme has a lexicalmeaning.16)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.17)Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.18)Base refers to the part of word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.19)In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixeS change theword-class of the base.20)Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.21)Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a Word.22)The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.23)In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number ofmorphemes.24)Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.25)Inflection is a parficnlar way of word-formations.5. Tell the root, stem and base of the following words.1) desirable; 2) undesirable3) undesirables; 4) desired6. Short Answer questions1) What does morphology study?2) What is a morpheme? Dissect the following words into morphemes:description underdeveloped photosyntheticanatomy radiation geographyphilharmonic defrosted refreshmentdemobilized conducting suppressioncircumspect dialogue deformedcombination3) Describe with examples various types of morpheme used in English.4) What are the main inflectional affixes in English? What grammatical meaning do theyconvey?5) Try to find out the meaning of the following roots in English and give two or threewords that contain each of them:hydro chron demo duragr kilo nym pedrupt gress poly syn6) State the morphological rules that govern the use of the given derivational affixes.Example: -er The suffix -er is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agentthat carries out the action, e.g., write – writer-ant -ment sub- -enen- -ee -ful -some-wise un-7) What are the main features of the English compounds?8) Explain the formation and meaning of the following compounds:Example: nightcap Nightcap is a noun formed by combining two nouns, mean- inga drink one takes before going to bed.Cat’s paw tablecloth green-eyed green hornupdate jet lag bootleg built-incockpit good-for-nothingKey to Chapter Five1. Define the following terms.1) Morpheme, allomorph and morphMorpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expressions and content, unit cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning. It is not like the sound patterns or syllables, which can be further divided into segments. Words may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme.A!lomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme. Morphemes are more abstract than their allomorphs.Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2) free morpheme vs bound morphemeMorphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occurring alone.Those which may occur alone, or which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as bee, tree, sing, and dance. In contrast, those which may appear with at least one other morpheme and cannot stand by themselves are called bound morphemes, such as “-s” in dogs, “-al” in national, “dis-” in disclose, and so on.3) affixAffixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words. For example, the morpheme ful in careful and less in careless are two affixes. And the first part in each of the words irregular, disappear and enrich (i.e. ir, dis and en) is an affix. Afixes are a type of bound morphemes. They are limited in number in a language, and can be further classified in terms of either of the twocriteria: position and function. Along the dimension of their position with reference to the root or stem of the word, affixes are generally classified into three types: prefixes, suffixes and infixes. Those which are added to the beginning of roots (i.e. occur before roots) are called prefixes, e.g. dis- in dislike and re- in rebuild. The affixes which follow roots (i.e. appear after roots) are called suffixes, e.g. -ness in carelessness and -ful in careful. The affixes which interrupt roots (i.e. appear within roots) are called infixes.4) acronymyAcronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of several words together. Words created in this way are of two sorts: acronyms and initialisms. Acronyms are those which are pronounced as a single word rather than as a sequence of letters. Initials are those which are pronounced as a series of letters (i.e. pronounced letter by letter).5) abbreviation vs clippingAbbreviation, which sometimes is used in the sense of acronymy. For example, the words like USA, NA TO, AIDS, etc. are the results of the word formation of abbreviation. And sometimes, abbreviation equals to clipping. For instance, the words like Prof. (from Professor), telly (from television), etc. are considered as examples of abbreviation as well.Clipping refers to the process of word-formation in which a word (usually a noun) is shortened by deleting one or more syllables without any change in the meaning or in the part of speech. However, clipping usually results in a stylistic change: from formal to informal style.6) IC analysisImmediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis for short) is a method used to analyze the hierarchical order of morphemes. By IC Analysis, we mean that we divide the morphemes of a word (or the words of a sentence) into two groups, and then divide each of them into sub-groups, and so on, until we reach the irreducible constituents, i.e. the morphemes in the case of the analysis of a word, or the words in the case of the analysis of a sentence, which is to be discussed in the next chapter.7) stem,base and rootA root is the basic part of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is a four-morpheme derivative which keeps its free morphemes “nation” as its root when “inter-”,”-al” and “-ism” are taken away.Different from the term root, both of the terms base and stem are used to talk about such a form to which an affix will be attached. If we are going to attach an derivational affix, we will call the form a base. But if we are going to attach an inflectional affix, we call the form a stem.However, we have to see that the term base is a more general term. It can be a form that is a root and it can be a form that contains some affix already. Just take agree and disagree for example. Either of them can be a base if we are going to attach a derivational affix -ment to it. Similarly, the term stem is also more covering. It can be a form that is a root or it can be a form that contains some affix already. For example, either open or reopen can be a stem if we are going to attach an inflectional morpheme -ed to it. In fact, a stem can be any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded. It may be the same as, and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word friends, friend is both the root and the stem, but in the word friendships, friendship is its stem, while friend is its root. Some words like compounds have more than one root,e.g., mailman, girlfriend, etc.8) inflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.9) compoundingCompounding refers to a process of word-formation, in which two or more free morphemes are combined to form a new word, such as forget-me-not, waterbed, sleepwalk, etc. Words formed in this way are called compound words or compounds. Like derivation, compounding is also a very productive way to produce new words. There are three types of compounds: 1) hyphenated compounds; 2) solid compounds; and 3) open compounds.10) conversionConversion is a term used in the study of word formation to refer to the derivational process whereby an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition of an affix. The conversion process is particularly productive in modern English, with new uses occurring frequently. Conversion is also known as functional shift or zero-derivation.11）inflectional morphemeInflectional morphemes are also called inflectional affix. They manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes, e.g. -(e)s (indicating plurality of nouns or third person singular, present tense), -lng ( indicating progressive aspect), -(e)d, (indicating past tense for all three, persons), -est (indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbS).12) morphologyMorphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of inflections (also called inflectional morphology), and of word-formation (often referred to as lexical or derivational morphology).13）backformationBackformation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Take televise for example, the word television predated the occurrence of the word- televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language. Instead of taking out part of a word as a root, backformation allows us to take a word of a given category and form a new homophonous word of a different category.14) blendingBlending is a relatively complex form:of word compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. For example: transfer + resister→transistor, smoke + fog smog, boat + hotel --- boatel.15) inflectional affix vs derivational affixIf we classify affixes with reference to their function, we have the following two types: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.In all languages, there are many derivational affixes, but only a small number of inflectional affixes. Inflectional affixes serve to indicate grammatical relations, such as number, gender, tense, aspect, case and degree. For example, -s in books, -e in fiancée, -ed in (he) studied, -ing in (he is) working, -’s in Gloria’s, and -er in faster are all inflectional affixes.Inflectional affixes have different grammatical functions. However, when they are conjoined with other morphemes, they never produce new words. Nor do they cause any change in grammatical class. And, usually, no two inflectional affixes can coexist in the same word at the same time with the exception of the combination of plural number marker and possessive case marker (e.g. students’ reading room, teachers’ job). In contrast, derivational affixes can create new words. Derivational affixes often, but not always, change the grammatical classes of words.2. Multiple choice1) – 5): BADAA 6) – 10): CBCBB 11) – 15): CCADB16) – 20): CDBAC 21) – 25): BBACA 26) – 30): BBBDC31) – 34): DACA3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words1) blending 2) lexeme 3) affix, bound, root4) initialism, acronym 5) vocabulary 6) solid, hypenated, open7) morpheme 8) Backformation 9) Conversion10) morphemic 11) derivative, compound12) partial 13)moepheme 14) grammatical15) Free 16) Inflectional 17) prefixes18) derivation 19) compound 20) Derivational21) root 22) Suffixes4. Make a judgment on the following statements decide whether they are true or not.1) – 5): TTFTF 6) – 10): FFTFT 11) – 15): TFFFT16) – 20): FTFTT 21) – 25): FTFFF5. Tell the root, stem and base of the following words.1) Desirable: desire is the root or base; but there is no stem for it.2) Undesirable: desire is the root; desirable is the base; there is no stem for it.3) Undesirables: desire is the root; undes/rab/e is the stem or base.4) Desired: desire is the root, stem or base.6. Short Answer questions.1) The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.2) The smallest unit of meaning.de-scrip-tion under-develop-ed photo-synthe-ticana-tomy radia-tion geo-graph-yphil-harmon-ic de-frost-ed re-fresh-mentde-mobil-iz-ed con-duct-ing sup-press-ioncircum-spect dia-logue de-form-edcom-bina-tion3) Free morphemes: mate, sun, fame, likeBound morphemes: roots and affixesRoots: ter-, fin-, spect- , -cide, -wiseAffixes: inflectional and dcrivationalDerivational: prefix and suffixInflectional affixes: -ing, -ed, -(e)sPrefixes: un-, dis-, de-, en-Suffixes: -ly, -less, -tion, -ize4.4) (e)s: plural number(c)s: third-person singular present tense(e)d: past tense-ing: progressive aspect-er: comparative degree-est: superlative degree-s: possessive case5) hydro (water), e.g., hydraulic, dehydratechro (time), e.g., chronological, chronicledemo (people), e.g., democracy, demographydur (lasting), e.g., during, durableagr (farming), e.g., agriculture, agrariankilo (one thousand), e.g., kilometer, kilogramnym (name), e.g., pseudonym, antonymped (foot), e.g., centipede, impederupt (breaking), e.g., rupture, abruptgress (movement), e.g., progress, digresspoly (various), e.g., polygon, polyglotsyn (identical), e. g., synchronic, synonym6) -ant: suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent, e.g., assistant-ment: suffix added to a verb to form its corresponding noun, e.g., developmentsub-: prefix added to an adjective to form another adjective to indicate a lesser degree,e.g., substandard-cn: suffix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjective, e.g., darkenen-: prefix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjective, e.g., enrich-ee: suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the recipient of the action denoted by the verb, e. g.,employee-ful: suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun, e.g., plentiful-some: suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun, e.g., quarrelsome-wise: suffix added to a noun to form an adverb meaning “with regard to the area indicating by the noun”, e.g., carecrwiseun-: prefix added to an adjective to indicate the absence of the quality indicated by the adjective, e.g., unemployed7) Orthographically a compound can be written as one word,two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components.Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.。
英语自考本科语言学概论
Chapter 1: Introduction1.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”.“Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.The process of linguistic study:1)Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them;2)Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts;3)Hypotheses are tested by further observations;4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.1.1The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics –the study of language as a whole, which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study.Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication,Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.Semantics – the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use.Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics1.2Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2.1Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). (Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)1.2.2Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.2.3Speech and writingAs two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)1.2.4Langue and parole (语言和言语)The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.1)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.2)Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow whileparole is their concrete use.3)Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers tothe naturally occurring language events.4)Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from personto person, and from situation to situation.Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.1.2.5Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker‟s competence, but not his performance. As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2.What is language2.1DefinitionsNowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1)Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;2)Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what itstands for.3)V ocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.“Human”indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication”means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.2.2Design featuresRefer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here.1)ArbitrarinessNo logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.This nature is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)Productivity3)DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number ofunits of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4)DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionWe are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.Chapter 2: Phonology1.The phonic medium of languageOf two media of language, speech is more basic than writing, for the reasons:1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing;2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role in terms of the amount of informationconveyed;3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, andwriting is learned and taught later in school.This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds (语音).2.Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages. Three branches: (the most important conclusion is that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.)1)Articulatory phoneticsHow a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Longest established, highly developed.2)Auditory phoneticsHow the sounds are perceived by the hearer.3)Acoustic phoneticsStudies speech sounds by looking at the sound waves (recorder named spectrographs). It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through air from one person to another.2.2 Organs of speechThe articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities, where the air stream coming from the lungs may be modified by complete or partial interference. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉)before it reaches any of the cavities. They are:Pharyngeal cavity – the throatAir stream: lung →windpipe →glottis (vocal cord)Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. Otherwise “voiceless”Oral cavity – the mouthThe greatest source of modification of the air stream. Tongue is the most flexible organ.Nasal cavity – the noseThe velum can be drawn back to close the passage of the air stream so that all air exiting from the lungs can only pass through the oral cavity. Produced are oral sounds. Otherwise, nasalized sounds such as three nasal consonants. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed.2.3Orthographic representation of speech sounds – broad and narrow transcriptionsInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being at the end of 19th century. Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.The IPA provides a set of symbols called diacritics, which can be added to letter-symbols to make finer distinction than the letter-symbols alone. The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription, normally in dictionaries and textbooks. The other with diacritics is narrow transcription, used by phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.2.4Classification of English speech soundsTwo broad categories –vowels and consonants, the basic difference is that in pronunciation of vowels, no air stream meets obstruction, while consonant, the air stream is obstructed somehow. (the basic difference between a vowel and consonant)2.4.1Classification of English consonantsTwo ways: manner of articulation(how obstruction is created): stops, fricatives (when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point), affricates, liquids, nasals, glides; and place of articulation (where): bilabial (the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction), labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal sounds. Each classification brought about certain phonetic features of consonants.2.4.2Classification of English vowelsV owels are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth (front / central / back vowels), the openness of the mouth (close / semi-close / semi-open / open), the shape of the lips (rounded / unrounded), and the length of the vowels (with or without colon, the long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels). Monophthongs (individual vowels) and diphthongs. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.3.Phonology3.1 Phonology and phonetics (音系学和语音学)Phonetics is concerned with the description of all the speech sounds in language (the study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication), while phonology (the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication) is concerned with the study of the sound system of a particular language. Therefore, the conclusion about the phonology of one language should not be generalized into the study of another language. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning: some do, some don‟t. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones, which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimalelements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Distinctive features are language-specific, that what distinguishes meaning in one language does not necessarily do so in another language, e.g. aspiration. (鼻音, refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds)Which allophone is to be used is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard in most cases; it is rule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonology is to find out these rules.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast. Those two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution, which means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in different phonetic environments.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. The sound combinations (pill, bill, etc.) constitute a minimal set, in which they are identical in form except for initial consonant.3.4 Some rules in phonology3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules, which is language-specific.3.4.2 Assimilation rulesIt assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, caused by articulatory or physiological processes.3.4.3. Deletion rulesIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.3.5 Suprasegmental features – stress, tone, intonationRefers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.3.5.1 StressWord stress and sentence stress. In English, word stress is free. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Word stress may also be employed to distinguish meaning in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns; Sentence stress refers to the relative force, which is given to the words in a sentence.3.5.2 ToneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. English is not a tone but intonation language. Chinese is a typical tone language.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four: the falling tone (indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement), the rising tone (question of what is said), the fall-rise tone (indicates an implied message), and the rise-fall tone, in which the first three are most frequently used.Intonation can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing the nucleus on it. Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.Chapter 3: Morphology1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation.2.Morpheme2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of languageThe meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.2.2 Types of morphemes2.2.1 Free morphemesMorphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.2.2.2 Bound morphemesMorphemes, which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.RootsWith clear definite meaning, it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.AffixesInflectional affixesManifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.Derivational affixesDerivation, derivative (the word formed). The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. Prefixes: usually modify the meaning of stem but do not change the part of speech(词类)of original word, except “be-” and “en(m)-”Suffixes: modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech: noun-forming, adjective-forming, adverb-forming, verb-forming.2.2.3 Morphological rulesWe must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same meaning change.poundingRefers to combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.3.1 Types of compound words3.2 Features of compounds1)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen inbetween, or as two separate words.2)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part ofspeech of the second element.3)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.4)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the secondelement receives secondary stress.Chapter 4: Syntax1.Syntax as a system rulesAs a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances 言语that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.2.Sentence structure2.1 The basic components of a sentenceA sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject (referring expression被指对象) and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2.2 Types of sentences2.2.1 The simple sentenceConsists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.2.2.2 The coordinate sentenceContains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. Two clauses are equal parts rather than being subordinate to the other.2.2.3 The complex sentenceContains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause (子句), and the clause in which it is embedded is called a matrix clause (主句). 1) Embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause; 2) most embedded clauses require an introductory word that is called asubordinator(引导词), such as that, if, before; 3) an embedded clause may not function as a grammatical well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless its form changes.2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence (words in sentence one after another in a sequence)2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentenceSentences are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure3.Syntactic categoriesApart from sentences (S) and clauses (C), a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.3.1 Lexical categoriesCommonly known as parts of speech (词类). Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added, including 4 –noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Minor lexical categories are closed ones as the number of lexical items are fixed and no new members are allowed for, including 6.3.2 Phrasal categoriesFour: NP, VP, PP (prepositional), AP (adjective). NP and VP, which are essential components of a sentence, form the two major syntactic categories, that is, the subject and the predicate of a sentence.4.Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)binational rules5.1 Phrase structural rulesThe combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.S →NP VP “()”means optionalNP →(Det) (Adj) N (PP) (S)VP →V (NP) (PP) (S)AP →A (PP) (S)PP →P NP5.2 The recursiveness (循环性) of phrase structure rulesCan generate an indefinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length. “creative”5.3 X-bar theorya. X”b. X‟‟→ Spec X’X‟→ X complSpec X‟(specifier)X Complement(head)Commonly known as the X-bar theory, this widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the languages of the world.6.Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).6.1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.6.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)6.3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)generateD-structure (deep structure)Movement RulestransformS-structure (Surface structure)A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.6.4 More α-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate that only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7.Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary.7.1 General principles of Universal GrammarOne general principle, or condition, is the Case Condition, which requires that a noun phrase has a Case and Case is assigned by V (verb) or P (preposition) to the object position, or by AUX (auxiliary) to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. When a noun phrase moves, it can move only to the position where it can be assigned Case, in order to satisfy condition of Case requirement.Another condition is the Adjacent Condition on Case assignment. This condition states that a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. It explains why no otherphrases category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. While strictly served in English well-formed sentences, it is not the case in some other languages.7.2 The parameters of Universal GrammarParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, e.g. a plus [+] or [-], which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, i.e. the Directionality parameter, which can account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese.Chapter 5: Semantics1.What is semantics?A study of meaning in language. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theoryIt is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. The limitation: 1) applicable to nouns only; 2) within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist or abstract notions.2.2 The conceptualist viewIn the interpretation of meaning, a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind (no direct links). This theory avoids many of the problems the naming theory has met, but it also raises a completely new problem of its own: what is precisely the link between the symbol and the concept?Thought/Reference (refers to concept) :by Ogden and Richards。
自考-现代语言学-每章要点总结(希望对大家有帮助,我也是学生,这是由老师总的,我将PPT转为WORD)
第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学） The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics,（神经语言学） mathematicallinguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics.（计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctionsin linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive描写与规定If a linguistic studydescribes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use,it is said to be descriptive, if itaims to lay down rules to tellpeople what they should sayand what they should not say,it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differsfrom traditional grammar.Traditional grammar isprescriptive while modernlinguistics is descriptive.The task of linguists issupposed to describe thelanguage people actually use,whether it i s “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic共时和历时The description of alanguage at some point intime is a synchronic study; thedescription of a language as itchanges through time isa diachronic study. In modernlinguistics, synchronic study ismore important.Speech and writing口头语与书面语Speech and writing are thetwo major media ofcommunication.Modern linguistics regardsthe spoken form of languageas primary, but not the writtenform.Reasons:●1. Speech precedes writing;●2. There are still manylanguages that have only thespoken form;●3. In terms of function, thespoken language is used for awider range of purposes thanthe written, and carries alarger load of communicationthan the written.Langue and parole [pə'rəul]语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. deSaussure made the distinctionbetween langue and paroleearly 20th century.Langue refers to theabstract linguistic systemshared by all the members ofa speech community,and parole refers to therealization of langue in actualuse.Saussure made thedistinction in order to singleout one aspect of language forserious study. He believeswhat linguists should do is toabstract langue from parole, todiscover the regularitiesgoverning the actual use oflanguage and make them thesubjects of study of linguistics.语言能力和语言运用Competence andperformanceProposed by Americanlinguist N. Chomsky in the late1950’s.He defines competence asthe ideal user’s knowledge ofthe rules of his language,and performance the actualrealization of this knowledgein linguistic communication.He believes the task of thelinguists is to discover andspecify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system ofarbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.Sapir,Edward uses “ideas”“emotions” and “desires” in hisdefinition.Hall, like Sapir, treatslanguage as a purely humaninstitution.Chomsky’s definition isquite different, it focus on thepurely structural properties oflanguages and to suggest thatthese properties can beinvestigated from amathematically precise pointof view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to thedefining properties of humanlanguage that distinguish itfrom any animal system ofcommunication.American linguist CharlesHockett specified twelvedesign features.1) Arbitrariness任意性（和约定俗成性）It means that there is nological connection betweenmeanings and sounds.For instance, there is nonecessary relationshipbetween the word dog and theanimal it refers to. The factthat different sounds are usedto refer to the same object indifferent languages and thatthe same sound may be usedto refer to different objects isanother good example.Although language isarbitrary by nature, it is notentirely arbitrary. Some words,such as the words created inthe imitation of sounds bysounds are motivated in acertain degree. The arbitrarynature of language makes itpossible for language to havean unlimited source ofexpressions.2) Productivity能产性Language is productive orcreative in that it makespossible the construction andinterpretation of an infinitelylarge number of sentences,including those that they havenever said or heard before.3) Duality结构二重性It means that language is asystem, which consists of twosets of structure, or two levels,one of sounds at the lowerlevel and the other ofmeanings at the higher level.At the lower or the basic level,there is the structure ofindividual and meaninglesssounds, which can be groupedinto meaningful units at thehigher level. This duality ofstructure or double articulationof language enables its usersto talk about anything withintheir knowledge.4) Displacement语言的移位性（突破时空性）It means that language canbe used to talk about whathappened in the past, what ishappening now, or what willhappen in the future.Language can also be used totalk about our real wordexperiences or theexperiences in our imaginaryworld. In other words,language can be used to referto contexts removed from theimmediate situations of thespeaker.5) Cultural transmission文化传播性While we are born with theability to acquire language, thedetails of any language arenot genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taughtand learned anew.**********************************Chapter 2Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium oflanguage语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) .The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
英语语言学概论 Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学)
"basketball" (combination of "basket" and "ball")
"mother-in-law" (combination of "mother" and "in-law")
"blackboard" (combination of "black" and "board")
• Inflectional Variation: Morphology also deals with the inflectional variation of words, which refers to the changes in word form that indicate grammatical function or category. Understanding inflectional morphology is crucial for proper sentence structure and grammar.
Grammar
目录
• The Relationship between Morphology and Vocabulary
01
Morphological Overview
Definition and Purpose
Definition: Morphology is the study of the structure and forms of words in a language. It focuses on the internal composition of words, including the derivation of new words from existing words (derivational morphology) and the modification of words through the addition or deletion of affixes (inflectional morphology).
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理chapter4phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学)phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。
定义区别-Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds.语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。
-Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanin gs in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。
---Phonology is is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。
它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。
---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sou nd system of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。
Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。
定义：①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a streamof speech.音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。
英语语言学概论morphology
年至年第学期第周星期
课题名称（含教材章节）：Morphology
教学目的和要求：本章介绍了形态学的研究范围、语素的定义、几组重要概念之间的关系或区别（包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈折词缀和派生词缀之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语素、语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子之间）、直接成分分析、以及构词法。通过本章的学习，了解并掌握形态学的研究范围、语素的定义、几组重要概念之间的关系或区别（包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈折词缀和派生词缀之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语素、语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子之间）、直接成分分析、以及构词法。
教学重点：语素的定义以及几组重要概念之间的关系或区别包括词根、词缀、自由语素和粘着语素之间，前缀、后缀和中缀之间，屈折词缀和派生词缀之间，词根、词干和词基之间，语素、语子和语素变体之间，空语子和零语子之间）。
教学难点：直接成分分析方法以及构词法。
教学内容（要点）
Definition of Morphology
Morpheme
Classification of Morpheme
Word formation
IC analysis
徐州工程学院教案纸
5. Orthographic change (拼写变化): Changes at the graphic level
语言学课件5 Chapter Five Morphology
* It doesn‟t form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word, nor does it change the word-class of the word. * The number of the inflectional affixes are quite limited.
• 4.3.1. Inflectional affixes
--- Inflectional affixes express such features as plurality, case, tense, and aspect. There are eight inflectional morphemes in English and all the other affixes are derivational.
word. A word is loaded with a wide range of information
Phonological information By the sequence of sounds that it is made up of , we know how to pronounce it.
inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed”
【Bauer 1983】
Three cases:
root + root roots+ affixes roots may take combing forms house + hold, class +mate manly, coldness biorhythm
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
There are words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
3)Contextualism语境论
Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
Autumn fall
Lift elevator
Flat department
Windscreen windshield
Torch flashlight
b)Stylistic synonyms – synonyms differing in style.
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 5 Morphology(word文档良心出品)
Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学,词法学)5.1 what is morphology？什么是形态学？Morphology is one of subbranches of linguistics，and also a branch of grammar.形态学即使语言学的分支，也是语法的分支。
Morphology studies the internal structure of words，and the rules by which words are formed.形态学研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
可分为两个分支：inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学5.2 morphemes (词素,语素)最简单的定义Morpheme is a minimal meaningful grammatical unit.语素是最小的有意义的语法单位。
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.语素是在语音的语法系统中最小的意义单位。
1 minimal: smallest,it can not further be divided.2 meaningful: can not be further divided without destroying its meaning3 grammatical: not only lexical morphemes like ,but also grammatical ones,5.3 Classification of morphemes 语素的分类Semantically：morphemes ：root morphemes and affixational morphemes根据语义，语素可分为词根和词缀Structurally：morphemes ：free morphemes and bound morphemes根据结构，语素可分为自由语素和粘着语素5.3.1 interrelations between free morphemes，bound morphemes，roots and affixes自由语素、粘着语素、词根和词缀的相互关系1）Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.eg.book，store.自由语素是那些独立存在的单词。
(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。
Chapter 5 Morphology 英语语言学
Base
• A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.
The difference between root, stem & base
3.6 Two fields Morphology concerned • Inflection • Word formation
Morpheme & morph
• A morpheme is a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together.
• A morph is the stretch of sound. e.g. boys John’s the suffix /-z/
Morpheme & allomorphs
Chapter 3 Morphology
3.2 Open class & closed class
• Open class words---content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik (a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “达人，走秀…” in Chinese.
Root and affixes
• internationality
Root
英语语言学概论-Chapter-5-Morphology(形态学)
•
oxen=ox+en
• zero morph: a morph which has meaning but no form. They work in Nanjing.
• work=work+/ / sheep(plural)=sheep+/ /
IC analysis
• Morphemic analysis: to analyse the number of morphemes and the relationships between the morphemes.
• blackboard=black+board • disagree=dis +agree • 2 meaningful: can not be further
divided without destroying its meaning • cap+tain, man+age==manage
• 3, grammatical: not only lexical morphemes like {bird, leg, table},but also grammatical ones, like{to ,for, -s, ed, -er, the a an}
• Lexical morphemes: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs. Open class, large part of vocabulary 实词
• Functional morphemes: prepositions, conjunctions, articles, pronouns. Closed class. 虚词
• Semantically:root(词根) and affix
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 5 Morphology
Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学,词法学)5.1 what is morphology？什么是形态学？Morphology is one of subbranches of linguistics，and also a branch of grammar.形态学即使语言学的分支，也是语法的分支。
Morphology studies the internal structure of words，and the rules by which words are formed.形态学研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
可分为两个分支：inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学5.2 morphemes (词素,语素)最简单的定义Morpheme is a minimal meaningful grammatical unit.语素是最小的有意义的语法单位。
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.语素是在语音的语法系统中最小的意义单位。
1 minimal: smallest,it can not further be divided.2 meaningful: can not be further divided without destroying its meaning3 grammatical: not only lexical morphemes like ,but also grammatical ones,5.3 Classification of morphemes 语素的分类Semantically：morphemes ：root morphemes and affixational morphemes根据语义，语素可分为词根和词缀Structurally：morphemes ：free morphemes and bound morphemes根据结构，语素可分为自由语素和粘着语素5.3.1 interrelations between free morphemes，bound morphemes，roots and affixes自由语素、粘着语素、词根和词缀的相互关系1）Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.eg.book，store.自由语素是那些独立存在的单词。
自考英语语言学Chapter 5 Semantics
Chapter 5 Semantics语义学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.What is semantics? 什么是语义学A study of meaning in language（2003填空）. Linguists cannot agree among themselves as to what meaning is. Philosophers are interested in understanding the relations between linguisticexpressions and the phenomena in the real word they refer to and in evaluating the conditions of truth and falsehood of such expressions. Psychologists focus their interest on understanding the human mind through language.2.Some views concerning the study of meaning2.1 The naming theory命名论（2005单选；2007名词解释）It is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to his theory, the linguistic form of symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things. 命名论是最原始的语义理论，由古希腊学者柏拉图提出。
Chapter5Morphology
Chapter5MorphologyChapter 5 MorphologyAims:To get a general idea of morphology and morphemes.To understand morphological description.5.1 MorphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. For example, if we look at the following words: simplify, falsify, justify, diversify, identify, and beautify, we feel that they bear some similarity in their internal structure, i.e., they all end with –ify. A further look will reveal that these words are all verbs that are formed by adding –ify to either an adjective or a noun. This is a morphological rule that may function to account for the existence, or the formation, of a set of verbs ended with –ify. And these constitutive parts in each of these verbs are morphemes. Thus, to be exact, morphology is the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word formation.5.2 MorphemeWe can recognize that English word-forms such as talk, talker, talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and a number of other elements such as –s, -er, -ed, -ing. All these elements are described as morphemes. The definition of the morpheme is “a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function”. Let’s clarify this definition with some examples. The word reopened consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open, another minimal unit of meaning is –en(meaning “again”), and a minimal unit of grammatical function is –ed(indicating past tense). Can you identify themorphemes of word tourists?5.3 Types of Morphemes5.3.1 Free and Bound MorphemesFrom above two examples, we can make a broad distinction between two types of morphemes. There are free morphemes, that is, morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, e.g. open and tour. There are also bound morphemes, that is, those which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, e.g. re-, -ist, -ed, -s. You can find that this last set as a group of what we have already described in Chapter 4 as affix. So all affixes in English are bound morphemes.Free morphemes include two categories: lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. The former category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjective and verbs(e.g. book, run, yellow, quickly, look ,tiger) which carry the “content” of message we convey. The latter one consists largely of the functional words in language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns (e.g. and, about, when, on, near, the, that, it).Affixes as bound morphemes can be divided into two types: derivationalmorphemes and inflectional morphemes. The first is used to make new words in the language and is often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem. They often change the lexical meaning. They may or may not change the word class. For example, good (adj.) + ness =goodness (n.). The noun care(n.) + less = careless(adj. The suffix “less” changes its meaning). Inflectional morphemes are n ot used to produce new words in the English language, but rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. We canfind that they don’t change the word class. They are used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form. For example: Jim’s two sisters;He likes to have fun and is always laughing;One is the loudest person and the other is quieter than a mouse;Tom liked to study and has always taken things seriously.5.3.2 Root and StemRoot is a morpheme which is the basic part of a word and which may, in many languages, occur on its own (e.g. English man, hold, cold). It can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and –ism, what is left is the root nation. Roots may be joined to other roots(e.g. house + hold household) and /or take affixes(e.g. manly, coldness). Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. Friend in friends, and friendship in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix. The stem of a word may be:a. a simple stem consisting of only one morpheme(root), e.g. work;b. a root plus derivational affix, e.g. work + er = worker;c. Two or more roots, e.g. work + shop = workshop.5.4 Derivation vs. InflectionThe difference between inflectional morphology and derivational morphology is worth emphasizing. In section 5.3.1 of this chapter, we have discussed them. Let’s draw a distinctionbetween the elements –en and –ed in the word blackened. The morpheme –en created a new lexeme, a label for the action of making something black, while the element –ed restricted functionally the lexeme blacken. The first case is an example of derivation, the second an example of inflection. Derivation, being concerned with the creation of new words, draws morphology towards lexis, while inflection, being concerned with function, draws morphology towards syntax.In addition, an inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjectives. However, a derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a word. The verb teach becomes the noun teacher if we add derivational morpheme-er. So the suffix form –er can be an inflectional morpheme as part of an adjective and also a distinct derivational morpheme as part of a noun.Whenever there is a derivational suffix and an inflectional suffix attached to the same word, they always appear in that order. First the derivational –er attaches to teacher, then the inflectional –s is added to yield teachers.The distinctions between derivation and inflectionDerivationInflectionSyntactically unmarked, does not bring about changes to a sentence structure Syntactically marked in some wayse.g. number, person, tense, case etc.Affix may produce a related lexeme of a different word class Does not alter word class.Suffix are less predictable in writing, affixes are also less predictable semantically Affix are greatly predictable so affixesare more productiveInflectional affixes often form paradigms, predictable sets.5.5 Morphological descriptionArmed with all these terms for the different types of morphemes, we can now take most sentences of English apart and list the “ elements”. As an example, the English sentence The girl’s wildness shocked the teachers contains the following elements: The girl -’s wild -ness shock (functional) (lexical) (inflectional) (lexical) (derivational) (lexical)-ed the teach er s(inflectional) (functional) (lexical) (derivational) (inflectional) As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used:lexicalFreefunctionalMorphemesderivationalBoundInflectional5.5.1 Problems of morphological descriptionSo far, we have only considered examples of English words in which the different morphemes are easily identifiable as separate elements. The words gums and lambs are easily described as the composition of the lexical morphemes (gum, lamb) and the inflectional morpheme –s realized as /z/. But how do we describe the words teeth and sheep? A related question concerns the inflection which makes went the past tense of go. These problems, and many others which arise in the analysis of different languages, have not been full resolved by linguists.5.5.2 Morphs and allomorphsOne way to treat differences in inflectional morphemes is by proposing variationon morphological realization rules. In order to do this, we draw an analogy with some processes already noted in phonology (chapter 3). If we consider “phones” as the actual phonetic realization of “phonemes”, then we can propose morphs as the actua l forms used to realize morphemes. Thus, the form cat is a single morph realizing a lexical morpheme. The form cats consist of two morphs, realizing a lexical morpheme and an inflectional morpheme (“plural”). This plural form ends with the segment /s/, but the plural form lambs ends with /z/. Thus, a morpheme may have different phonetic realizations. The variation is often determined by phonological environment; the final segments of the words boat, train, and bus determine that the plural morpheme will be realized phonetically as /s/, /z/, and /iz/ respectively.So, morph(形素) is the phonetic realization of a morpheme or the phonological representation of a morpheme. Thus we might say that the plural morpheme is realized in English by the morphs /s/, /z/, and /iz/. As realizations of a morpheme that are in complementary distribution to each other we can call /s/, /z/, and /iz/ allomorphs (词素变体) of the plural morpheme. Morpheme is realized by morphs,而且这些morphs 又成互补分布，所以这些morphs叫这个morpheme的allomorphs.Exercises1. Define the following terms:morphology; morpheme; free morpheme; bound morpheme; lexical morpheme; functional morpheme; derivational morpheme; inflectional morpheme; allomorph2. List the bound morphemes to be found in these words:misleads; previewer, shortened, unhappier; fearlessly3. Identify in the following sentences four bound morphemes. State the function of each and say whether each is derivational or inflectional:The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.4. What are the functional morphemes in the following sentence:The old man sat on a chair and told them tales of woe.5. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases and sentences:(a). the singer’s songs (b). the newest style(c). It’s raining (d). The cow jumped over the moon.6. What would we list as allomorphs of the morpheme “plural” from this set of English words: dogs; oxen; deer; judges; curricular?7. For each of the following words transcribe phonetically and account for the allomorphs of the past tense morphemes.waited waved waded wiped8. Here are some examples of Swahili sentences. Can you work out the forms which correspond to the elements in English translation?Example: ni -ta -ku -pendaI will you loveutawauza ( “you will sell them”)utanipiga (“you will beat me”)niliwapika (“I cooked them”)waliondaka (“they left”)alikupiga (“she beat you”)。
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Chapter 5 Morphology(形态学,词法学)5.1 what is morphology？什么是形态学？Morphology is one of subbranches of linguistics，and also a branch of grammar.形态学即使语言学的分支，也是语法的分支。
Morphology studies the internal structure of words，and the rules by which words are formed.形态学研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
可分为两个分支：inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学5.2 morphemes (词素,语素)最简单的定义Morpheme is a minimal meaningful grammatical unit.语素是最小的有意义的语法单位。
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.语素是在语音的语法系统中最小的意义单位。
1 minimal: smallest,it can not further be divided.2 meaningful: can not be further divided without destroying its meaning3 grammatical: not only lexical morphemes like ,but also grammatical ones,5.3 Classification of morphemes 语素的分类Semantically：morphemes ：root morphemes and affixational morphemes根据语义，语素可分为词根和词缀Structurally：morphemes ：free morphemes and bound morphemes根据结构，语素可分为自由语素和粘着语素5.3.1 interrelations between free morphemes，bound morphemes，roots and affixes自由语素、粘着语素、词根和词缀的相互关系1）Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.eg.book，store.自由语素是那些独立存在的单词。
再可深层分为两个分支：1词义语素Lexical morphemes: nouns, adjectives, verbs which carry the content of the messages we conver.名词、形容词、动词携带内容信息的。
2功能语素Functional morphemes: prepositions, conjunctions, articles, pronouns.介词、连词、冠词、代词。
2）Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur alone as separate words.eg.de-，dis-. 粘着语素是那些不能单独作为单词的语素。
3)Roots:词根The root is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meani ng.词根被定义为单词最重要的部分,携带一词的主要意义。
It is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of iden tity.它是一个单词的基本形式,在不损失意义的情况下无法再细分。
4）Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamen tal meaning of words.词缀是词汇方面依靠词根和不传达单词的根本意思的语素。
5）Interralation: all free morphemes(like bird) are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.(like spect). All affixes are bound morphemes but not all bound morphemes are affixes (like ceive)所有自由语素都是词根,但并不是所有的词根都是自由语素。
所有的词缀都是粘着语素但并非所有粘着语素都是词缀。
5.3.2 prefixes，suffixes and infixes前缀、后缀、中缀Position: prefixes, suffixes and inffixes按位置分Which are added to the beginning of roots are prefixes.加在词根前面的前缀。
The affixes which follow roots are suffixes.跟在词根后面的后缀。
The affixes which interrupt roots are infixes.打断词根的是中缀。
5.3.3 inflectional affixes and derivational affixes 屈折词缀和派生词缀Function: affixes can be divided into inflectional affixes and derivational affixes 按功能分Inflectional affixes indicate grammatical relations, such as number，gender，tense，aspect，case and degree.屈折词缀表明语法关系,如数量、性别、时态、方面,情况和程度。
They never produce new words or cause a change in grammatical class.他们从不产生新单词或改变语法种类。
Derivational affixes can produce new words, some change grammatical classes of words. 派生词缀可以产生新单词,一些改变单词语法等级。
dis-,un-,re-,in-, -ly,-y, ful, -er, ment, tion, (P 61)5.3.4 root，stem and base 词根，词干和词基A root is the basic part of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.它是一个单词的基本形式,在不损失意义的情况下无法再细分。
A“root”is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.一个“词根”,是一个词的所有词缀都被移除后剩下的部分。
（扒光了衣服剩下来的，哈哈）base: the form that a derivational affix is attached, disagree+ment=disagreement 可加派生词缀的是词基。
stem: the form that an inflectional affix is attached: reopen+ing=reopening.可加屈折词缀的是词干。
•eat+ing=eating(stem) eat+able=eatable(base) eat+er=eater5.4 Morphemes, morphs, allomorphs 语素，语子和语素变体5.4.1 Morphemes语素Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in a grammatical system of a language.语素是语法系统中最小的有意义的单位。
5.4.2Morphs 语子Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.语子是语素在语言中的具体体现，用来实现语素的具体形式。
5.4.3Allomorphs 语素变体Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme. 语素变体是某一具体语素的体现形式。
{d}:/t/ after voiceless consonants except /t/; hoped, looked, stopped, finished/d/ after vowels and voiced consonants except /d/; loved, lived, realized/id/ after /t/ and /d/. Visited, stated, headedMorphs are related to morphemes in general and allomorphs are related to a specific morpheme.语子与一般语素相关而语素变体与一个特定的语素有关。
5.4.4 empty morph and zero morph 空语子和零语子empty morph: a morph which has form but no meaning. children=child+r+en有形却无义zero morph: a morph which has meaning but no form. They work in Nanjing.有义却无形5.5 IC analysis 直接成分分析Morphemic analysis: to analyse the relationships between the morphemes in a word .语素分析：分析一个单词里语素之间的关系。
单词内的语素有两种排序：①linear order of morphemes: the horizontal order or the sequential characteristics of themorphemes .线性排序：指词素的水平排序或顺序特征。