应用语言学总结

3.3 General Characteristics of English3.3.1 Receptivity, Adaptability and Heterogeneity English has taken to itself material from all other languages and has made the new elements its own. Having received all kinds of foreign elements, the English vocabulary is copious and heterogeneous.3.3.2 Simplicity of Inflection Old English was characte rized by ‘full endings’, Middle English by ‘leveled endings’ and Modern English by ‘lost endings’.3.3.3 Relatively Fixed Word-order In an analytic language like Modern English, the word order is required to be relatively fixed. The semantic relation is closely connected to the positions of the words. The change of word-order may result in a change of meaning.4.1.1 MorphemesA morpheme is …the smallest meaningful linguistic unit. Some words are formed by one morpheme (e.g. cat, dog) and some words are formed by two or three more (e.g. lovely, unacceptable).4.1.2 Morphs and AllomorphsMorphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morph s, that is, …they are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning‟.Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, sad, etc. These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and move freely in a sentence if necessary. Words of this category are called monomorphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorph s or morphemic variants. They are the variants of the same morpheme. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/.6.1.3 Two Processes of DevelopmentThe development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses which are called radiation and concatenation.1) RadiationIt is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meaninng are independent of one another ,but can all be traced back to the central meaning2) ConcatenationC oncatenation, literally meaning …linking together‟, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its firstsignification by successive shifts of meanings until, in many cases, there is not a shadow of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had in it at the outset .Unlike radiation where each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning,Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Radiation is concatenation is closely related， being different stages of the development leadingto polysemy..The two processes work together， complementing each other.(2) AffixesAffixes are linguistic fragments that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or change function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.a. Inflectional AffixesThey are affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships, e.g. the regular plural suffix –s (-es); the past tense marker –ed. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable, which makes English one of the easiest languages to learn.b. Derivational AffixesThey are affixes added to other morphemes to derive new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur before the word and the suffixes after the word.7.1 Types of Meaning Changeextension, narrowing, elevation, degradation, transference, and euphemism.7.1.1 Extension of meaningExtension of meaning, also known as generalization, is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept, e.g. manuscript7.1.2 Narrowing of MeaningNarrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English, e.g. garage7.1.3 Elevation of meaningElevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance, e.g. nice7.1.4 Degradation of MeaningDegradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense, e.g. boor7.1.5 Transference of MeaningSome words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer, known as transference or transfer of meaning. E.g. paper.1)Associated TransferIt is what is commonly known as figurative extension of meaning.2)Transfer between Abstract and Concrete MeaningsRoom formerly meant …space‟ as in “There is no room in the car”. Now it has developed a concrete meaning as in “This flat has three rooms”.3)Transfer between Subjective and Objective MeaningsSome words were formerly used subjectively but later shifted to an objective use, and the subjective meaning was totally lost, e.g. pitiful.4)SynesthesiaThis kind of transfer takes place between words of sensation. That is, words usually associated with one sense are used to describe another sense, e.g. clear-sounding (from sight to hearing).1.The most common types of word-meaning changes are extension and n_________.(narrowing) 2. Extension of meaning, also known as g________, is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. (generalization) 3. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words etc. are often due to p_________.(psychological factors) 4. Narrowing of meaning is the opposite of e_______meaning.(extension) 5. Words which were uesd to designate one thing but later changed tomean something else have experienced the process of semantic t________. (transfer) 6.Changes of word meaning are due to linguistic factors and e_____factors. (extra-linguistic) 7. Linguistic factors includes internal factors within the language system, the influx of borrowings and (analogy)2.nonresistance, irregular, illogical, unnecessary, impolite, dishonest3.misjudge, misunderstand anti-Japanese, counter-revolution4.-less: endless, selfless, careless5.-en: golden6.-ern: eastern, western7.-able: comfortable, suitable8.-ish: childish, foolish, bookish9.-al: national, cultural10.-ant: significant, pollutant11.-ent: different, independent12.-ous: famous, courageous13.-y: cloudy, rainy, windy14.-ic: heroic,democratic Movable comfortable applicable visible responsible Natural additional educational physicalRepublicanMerciful tactful graceful dutifulMokeyish snobbish nightmarish sixtyish wettish thinnish plum pishPriceless timelessDreamlike animallike ladylike15.bus=omnibus plane=aeroplane mod=modern demo=demonstrationad=advertisement flu=influenza tec=detective16.。