语言学第一二章知识点

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语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。

该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。

Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。

1．任意性任意性是语言的核心特征，是指符号的形式或者声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。

虽然语言从本质上讲是任意的，但也不是完全任意的。

一些词语，例如一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。

2．二重性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。

二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。

3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。

4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。

移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。

5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。

2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如 (鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。

3．“噗噗”理论语言来源于人本能的情感声音，表达疼痛或喜悦。

4．“哟一嘿一吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。

5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。

Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。

人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。

3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。

在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。

语言学知识点串记

语言学知识点串记余晓敏Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is the science of language, or the scientific study of language. It is a rich and exciting field. Its object is language.The design features of language1. Arbitrariness（任意性）：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance/relationship to theirmeaning. The link between them is a matter of convention, and convention differ radically across languages.2. Duality（二重性）：Human language operates on two levels of structure, both in spoken language and inwritten language. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning.3. Creativity（创造性）：Human languages are resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We canuse human languages to create new meanings. Human languages are creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. Creativity is an important factor which differentiates human languages from sounds animals produce.4. Displacement（移位性）：Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present （in time and space）at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.Functions of language1. Informative（信息功能）：Language is the instrument of thought. The use of language to record the facts isa prerequisite of social development. Some scholars may call it as ideational function.2. Interpersonal function（人际功能）：Through this function, people establish and maintain their status in asociety.3. Performative（行事功能）：It is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies,the sentencing of criminals, etc. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized4. Emotive function（感情功能）：It is sometimes called expressive function. It is a means of getting rid of ournervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words and such.5. Phatic communion（寒喧交谈）：This function refers to expressions that help define and maintaininterpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, regional dialects. We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages if we are to interact comfortably with different people.6. Recreational function（娱乐功能）：This means language has the power of providing joy and pleasure for itsusers, for example, in the form of poems, lyrics of songs, etc.7. Metalingual function（超语言功能）：Our language can be used to talk about itself. We can change thelinear structure of the sentence to change our perspective about the concerns of the clause.Main branches of linguistics1. Phonetics It studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds areactually made, transmitted and received.2. phonology It studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and theshape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. 或Phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute the language and meaning.(some sounds are meaningless)3. Morphology It is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units ofmeaning --- morphemes and word-formation processes.4. Syntax It is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The rules of syntaxspecify word order, sentence organization and the relationships between words, word clauses and other sentence elements.5. Semantics It examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings ofwords as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.6. Pragmatics This is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particularsituations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. It is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.7. Macrolinguistics This is sub-ranches of linguistics which are interdisciplinary. That is other fields whichhave relations with language.8. Sociolinguistics It is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of theirfunctions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.9. Anthropological linguistic It concerns the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages.10. Computational linguistics This is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers toprocess or produce human language.Several important concepts in linguistics1. Descriptive vs. prescriptive (描述与规定)By descriptive rule/study, we mean the rule/study tries to describe how things (here language itself) are. By prescriptive rule/study, we mean the rule/ study tries to prescribe how things ought to be.Linguistics is a descriptive science because linguists try to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms.2. Synchronic vs. diachronic (历时与共时)A synchronic description/study takes a fixed instant (usually, but unnecessarily, the present) as its point of observation/study.A diachronic study examines things through the course of their histories. There is a way of study in linguistics, historical linguistics.3. Langue vs. paroleLangue（语言）refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole（言语）refers to the actual phenomena or utterance/data of linguistics.4. Linguistic Competence and Linguistic performanceLinguistic competence（语言能力）refers to the language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.Performance (语言运用) refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. Segment（音段）: the sound unit in a word, for example, in the word ―above‖, there are four segments. Thesound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.2. Divergence（分化）:the enormous different ways of denoting a segment, or between spelling andpronunciation. For example, the sound /f/, can be denoted by f, gh.3. Phonetic transcription（标音法）: in the course of developing a written system to record the sound system,people developed different ways of transcribing sounds into words/pronunciations. Now there is the notation system of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).4. Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract（声道）at some place to divert,impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity（口腔）.A. Manners of articulation（发音方法）: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way inwhich the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract;stop (plosive)塞(爆破)；fricative (擦音)；(median) approximant (通音)；lateral approximantB. Places of articulation（发音部位）: the places in the vocal tract where there is approximation, narrowing orthe obstruction of air.bilabiallabiodentalDentalAlveolar (齿龈音)Postalveolar(后齿龈音)Retroflex (卷舌音)Palatal (腭音)V elar (软腭音)Uvular(小舌音)Pharyngeal咽Glottal(声门音)The consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative5. Vowels (元音)：A vowel is produced without any obstruction of the air in the vocal tract so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.The criteria of vowel description (four basic requirements)①the part of the tongue that is raised the position of the highest part of the tongue – front, central or back.②The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate the height of tongue raising (high, mid,low);.③The kind of opening made at the lips lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).④the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short),Consequently, we describe the vowels in this way:[i:] high front tense unrounded vowel[u] high back lax rounded vowel[a] central lax unrounded vowel6. Co-articulation is the simultaneous or overlapping articulations of the sound segments.A. When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a BROAD TRANSCRIPTION.B. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a NARROWTRANSCRIPTION.Take [p] for example, it is ASPIRA TED in peak and UNASPIRA TED in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p =] for contrast.7. Minimal pairs: In phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, whichdiffer in only one phonological element, such as a phone, phoneme, toneme or chroneme and have a distinct meaning. They are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language.As an example for English vowels, the pair ―let‖ + ―lit‖ can be used to demonstrate that the phones [ɛ] (in let) and [ɪ] (in lit) do in fact represent distinct phonemes /ɛ/ and /ɪ/. An example for English consonants is the minimal pair of ―pat‖ + ―bat‖. In phonetics, this pair, like any other, differs in a number of ways. In this case, the contrast appears largely to be conveyed with a difference in the voice onset time of the initial consonant as the configuration of the mouth is the same for [p] and [b]; however, there is also a possible difference in duration, which visual analysis using high quality video supports.[citation needed]8. Allophone: In phonetics, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or phones) used topronounce a single phoneme. For example, [ph] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language. Although a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophones selected in a given situation are often predictable. Changing the allophone used by native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a word but the result may sound non-native or unintelligible. Speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single distinctive sound in that language and are "both unaware of and even shocked by" the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes.9. Phonological processes (音系过程)A. Assimilation（同化）is the process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of aneighboring sound.B. Phonological rules (音系规则)A phonological rule is a formal way of expressing a systematic phonological or morphophonologicalprocess or diachronic sound change in language. Phonological rules are commonly used in generative phonology as a notation to capture sound-related operations and computations the human brain performs when producing or comprehending spoken language. They may use phonetic notation or distinctive features or both.10. Sonority scale（响音阶）: A sonority hierarchy or sonority scale is a ranking of speech sounds (or phones) byamplitude. For example, if you say the vowel [a], you will produce much louder sound than if you say the plosive [t].Most sonorous 5 V owels4 Approximants3 Nasals2 FricativesLeast sonorous 1 Stops11. Syllabification and the maximal onset principle章节划分和最大节首规则12. STRESS refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Chapter 3 Lexicon1. The formation of wordA. Morpheme(语素) is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.B. Morphology(形态学) is the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.The relationship between morpheme and phonemeA phoneme is the smallest unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar. A singlephoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. Divergence: a phoneme may represent several morphemes.C. T ypes of morphemesFree morpheme and bound morphemeRoot, affix and stemInflectional affix and derivational affixD. Inflection（屈折变化）is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition ofinflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached to.E. Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships.①Compound合成词②Derivation派生词2. Morpheme and phoneme语素和音位3. Morphemic structure and phonological structure语素结构和音位结构4. Allomorph语素变体5. Lexical change词汇变化Lexeme: denotes an item of vocabulary with a single referent whether it consists of one word or more, e.g.kick the bucket = dieLexical changes take place in two ways. On the one hand, new words appear rapidly. On the other hand, there are always words that become obsolete or disappear from the language.Ways of creating new words①Invention（新创词汇）: New words have been invented in various economic activities or other fields. Sinceeconomic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xeros, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.②Blending（混成法）is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Eg. transfer + resister →transistorsmoke + fog →smogpositive + electron →positronboat + hotel →boatelbreakfast + lunch →brunchtelevision + broadcast →telecast③Abbreviation（缩写词）This is the shortening of words in different ways.. It is also called CLIPPING, that is,a new word is created by Cutting certain part of the word (or with a slight variation).advertisement adbicycle bikemathematics mathprofessor profaeroplane planetelephone phoneinfluenza flurefrigerator fridge④Acronym（首字母缩略语）is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword . (CIA, WTO, WHO, FBI....)This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields.Aids acquired immune deficiency syndromeEEG electroencephalogramRadar radio detecting and rangingV A T value added taxWTO world trade organization⑤Back-formation（逆构词法/反推法：先有派生词再找到词根）derived by deleting an imagined affix froma longer form already in the language. Take televise for example, the word television predated theoccurrence of the word televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language.gangling →gangleeditor →editpeddler →peddlehawker →hawkenthusiasm →enthuselaser →lase⑥Analogical creation (类推造字/ “将错就错”) This is the creation of new words according to grammaticalrules. The principle of ANALOGICAL CREA TION can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs. For instance, people know quite well that the past tense suffix for English verb should be -ed, and they tend to apply it to all verbs.(past tense) (old) (new)work wrought ----- workedslay ------ slew slayed⑦Borrowing（借词P101）This is a way of creating new words by taking words from other languages.Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Throughout its history, the English language has adopted a vast number of words from various sources.Chapter 4 SyntaxSyn- (together), tax (arrange)Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to from sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1. The traditional approach传统学派A. number, gender and caseNumber is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. Languages differ in numbers.Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature. In other languages, such asFrench and Russian, gender is grammatical. Chair may be male, while desk is female.Case is another category of the noun and pronouns.B. tense（时：过去/现在）and aspect（体：完成/未完成）C. Concord and government (一致与支配)Concord, also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. There is a relationship of controlling and being controlled between words.For example, in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord in number as in this man, these men;a book, some books.And the form of a subject should agree with that of the verb in terms of number in the present tense as i s shown by He speaks English, They speak English. Some languages have more cases of concord. Some have the category of gender.Government is the relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form or others in terms of certain category. It is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form as in She gave him a book. She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or the preposition, determines, or governs, the form of the pronoun after it. The former is the governed.Different languages have different ways of government.2. The structural approach结构主义学派(Saussure)A. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations(组合与聚合关系)In Saussure's view , Language is seen as a system of signs, each of which consists of two parts: signified (concept) and signifier (sound image). The relationship between the two parts is arbitrary. The linguist must try to find the value of a sign from its relations to others, or rather, its position in the system. There are two major types of relations: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. Eg.:If the weather is nice, we will go out.There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet .a. The boy kicked the ball.b. *Boy the ball kicked the.c. *The ball kicked the boy.Paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.For example, in the contextThe _______ is smiling,there are constrains on the possible elements occurring here.B. Immediate constituent analysis直接成分分析法IC analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents --- word groups, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and this process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached (till the morpheme level).There are two ways of doing IC analysis: bracketing and tree diagramming.AdvantagesThe internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly and ambiguities will be revealed.Disadvantages/Problems①Binary division or three-way division?②Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams.③The ambiguity in some structures cannot be revealed. For example: the love of god (love from / forgod)3. The generative approach生成学派ChomskyThis approach was established by American linguist Noam Chomsky. It was established to solve the problems that IC analysis cannot solve, i.e., solving the ambiguities of some structures.The earliest theory (P132)In 1957, Chomsky established the earliest generative theory. The basic idea is that superficially different sentences actually generated from deep structures of the same structure. Chomsky proposed a linguistic model consisting of three components.Phrase Structure deep Transformational surface Morpho-phonemicComponen t ———→ Component ———→Componentstructure structureAdvantage: can reveal the ambiguity which can not be revealed by IC analysis. back to the question of the love of God .The love of God is only a surface structure. There are in fact two deep structures underneath: God loves somebodySomebody loves God.It is the transformations like nominalization, object-deletion, and subject-deletion, which are responsible for the convergence of the two deep structures when they surface.the love of god (surface structure)Deep structure:A. God loves somebody.Nominalization + object deletion: God‘s love of somebody --- the love of god (of somebody)B. Somebody loves god.subject deletion+ nominalization: (somebody) loves god--- the love of godTry to analyze the following in the same way.Flying planes can be dangerous.John is eager to please.Problem:It does not include meaning in the model. Therefore it is possible to generate meaningless sentences.For example: The boy hit the dog.The dog hit the boy. (faulty)The standard theory (P135)In 1965 Chomsky introduced some modifications to his first model.The most important of them is that at the suggestion of John Katz and others he added a semantic component to it.This is a natural development in that transformational-generative grammar purports to be a description of the ideal speaker-hearer's knowledge of this language, which inevitably includes his knowledge about meaningA. Deep structure is the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e., theunderlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, or to put it in simple language, the meaning we want to convey.B. Surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closelycorresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive, or to put it in simple language, utterance that people actually produce.C. Government管辖D. Binding约束所谓管辖，就是成分之间的支配关系，它要说明短语中的各个成分是否在同一个管辖区域内，以及什么是主管成分，什么是受管成分。

(完整word版)语言学概论知识点

导言、第一章、第二章一、名词解释1、历时语言学-—就各种语言的历史事实用比较的方法去研究它的“亲属”关系和历史发展的，叫历时语言学。

2、语言——语言是一种社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。

就语言本身的结构来说,语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统.3、符号——符号是用来代表事物的一种形式，词这样的符号是声音和意义相结合的统一体。

任何符号都是由声音和意义两方面构成的。

4、语言的二层性—-语言是一种分层装置,其底层是一套音位；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列,这一层又分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。

5、社会现象——语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系.所谓“社会"，就是指生活在一个共同的地域中，说同一种语言，有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。

语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的、共同的；另一方面，语言在人们的使用中可以有不同的变异、不同的风格。

二、填空1、结构主义语言学包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学三个学派。

2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。

3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。

4、一个符号,如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有声音，我们就无法感知,符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。

5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义,完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。

6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。

7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级,第一级是语素,第二级是词，第三级是句子.8、语言系统中的所有符号,既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换,符号之间的这两种关系是组合和聚合。

9、组合是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合是指符号在性质上的归类。

三、判断正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉)1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。

语言学概论复习资料

第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型1.只有人类才有语言【领会】语言是人类所独有的。

人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较,有几个显著和重要的特点:一是“内容更多”。

多种场合、多种方式、多种内容。

二是“用处更大”。

主要:交际功能。

其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。

三是“能够创造”。

具有离散性,能用有限的声音和意义按照一定规则组配成无限的话语。

2.语言和民族、国家的关系【领会】大多数情况:一个民族使用一种语言。

但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,并进一步作为确定民族和国家的标准。

这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对一个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。

尽管“语言”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。

从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”也许是维系一个民族的最根本的因素,因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。

3.语言的谱系分类和语言的形态分类【领会】语言的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变角度划分不同的语言,是根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类。

也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。

从语言的“共时”角度来划分不同的语言,可以建立“语言的形态分类”,也叫“语言的结构类型分类”。

可分为“形态语”和“孤立语”,或者分成“综合性语言”和“分析性语言”。

4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤立语;综合性语言、分析性语言【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语支)、语言、方言、次方言(土语)。

语系是根据语言有无历史同源关系划分出来的语言类别,是语言谱系中最大的类。

语系的下一级叫作“语族”,同一语族的语言不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。

形态语(综合性语言)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。

包括“屈折语、黏着语”等小类。

如俄语、维吾尔语。

孤立语(分析性语言)指没有形态变化的语言。

如汉语。

屈折语主要是句子中某些词本身有丰富的形态变化,是形态语中的一个小类。

现代语言学知识点

4) Displacement 。It means that language can be used to talk about what happened in the past, what is happening now, or what will happen in the future. Language can also be used to talk about our real word experiences or the experiences in our imaginary world. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication
Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication
Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words
Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences
Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.

语言学概论自学考试知识点总结详细版

第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言1.人类的语言跟动物的“语言”相比较，有哪些显著特点？P50（1）“内容更多”。

人在各种场合都可以说话；人也可以用各种方式说话；人还可以说各种各样的话。

（2）“用处更大”。

交际功能；标志功能；记录功能；思维功能；认知功能。

（3）“能够创造”。

人类的语言有极强的生成能力和极高的运转效率；其他动物无论自身多么完善，都无法做到这一步。

人类与其他动物区别最重要的标志就是人类具有语言能力，只有人类才有语言。

2.为什么不能以“相互能听懂”为标准来区别方言和语言？P51-52【简】单以“相互能够听懂”为标准来确定方言和语言不但会将复杂的问题简单化，而且很可能会在政治上引起严重后果。

如果单凭这一条标准来衡量，则英国人、美国人、澳大利亚人，加拿大人等，说话相互能听懂，因此他们所说的话就都应视为英语的“方言“才对，然而这样处理，他们在民族感情上是不能接受的。

另外，北欧的瑞典，挪威，丹麦三个主权国家的语言差别很小，相互都能听懂，如果按“相互能听懂”来处理，这三个国家使用的就是同一种语言，至少是同一种语言的各个方言，但这三个国家又是不同的民族，应当承认他们使用的是不同的语言。

因此，不能以“相互能够听懂“为标准来区别方言和语言。

3.简述“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类”P53【名/简】不同的语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面有所不同，根据这些特点可以将语言分为“语言的谱系分类”和“语言的形态分类”。

1)从语言“历时”演变角度来划分不同的语言，就可以建立“语言的谱系分类”，也叫“语言的亲属关系分类”。

根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类，就是语言的谱系分类。

2)从语言“共时”状态角度来划分不同的语言，就可以建立“语言的形态分类”，也叫做“语言的结构类型分类”。

4.语言的谱系分类是个层级系统，从大到小分别是：P53语系——语族——（语支）——语言——方言——次方言（土语）5.“语言”和“言语”P54 【名/简】“语言”—说话使用的工具（比如英语、汉语）。

语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第一章)

语言学概论（00541）知识点汇总第一章语言和语言学（一）语言和民族、国家的关系★★1.一个民族使用一种语言，这种说法（不正确）2.一般而言，一个民族使用同一种语言，语言是民族的重要标志3.同一民族使用多种语言，不同民族使用同一语言的现象客观存在。

语言不是识别民族的可靠标志（二）语言特点和语言类型★★★1.从语言历时演变角度来划分不同的语言，可以建立语言的（谱系分类）2.与英语亲缘关系最近的是（德语），都属于印欧语系-日耳曼语族3.根据语言是否有形态变化，可以分为分析性语言即（孤立语）和形态语即（屈折语、黏着语）4.汉语属于（分析性语言/孤立语），没有丰富的形态变化，主要由词序和虚词来体现各种结构意义5.德语、俄语属于形态语中的（屈折语），日语、朝鲜语、维吾尔语、芬兰语属于（黏着语）（三）“语言”和“言语”★★1.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是（明确语言学的研究对象）2.（语言）是由有限材料、有限规则组成的系统，是社会的，如“语言能力是每个正常人都具有的”3.（言语）是具体的、无限的、个人的，如《红楼梦》的语言、“法官认为证人说的话可信”中的“话”（四）“口语”和“书面语”★★★1.口语就是有声的口头语言，任何一种语言都有口头存在形式，它是书面语产生的基础。

2.书面语：是用文字记录的语言形式，是文字产生后在口语的基础上产生的，书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式。

3.书面语与口语基本一致，但不是口语绝对忠实的记录，也不是口语的机械记录和重复。

（五）“能指”和“所指”★★★★★1.属于符号的是（语言、文字、红绿灯、旗语）2.符号中能够指称某种意义的成分被称为（能指），符号所指的意义内容是（所指）3.语言符号的能指是（语音），语言符号的所指是（意义）4.首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是（索绪尔）5.能指和所指的关系是（不可分割）的，一旦分开，语言符号就不存在了。

（六）“约定”和“任意”★★★★★1.交通信号灯中红灯表示“停”的意思，红灯和“停”之间的关系是（约定的）2.语言符号的任意性是指（语言符号的物质实体和意义内容之间没有必然联系），即：声音和意义之间没有必然联系的理据关系，在语言符号产生之初，它的声音和意义的结合是任意的，是由社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系是不可论证的3.语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的（任意性）4.语言符号的强制性是指（个人不能任意改变已经约定的符号）（七）“线性”和“离散”★★★1.语言结构的线性特征：语言符号的结构必须是按照时间顺序成一条线的样子排列。

(完整版)《语言学纲要》知识点整理

《语言学纲要》知识点整理导言1.语言学的研究对象是（语言）。

2.语言学的三大发源地是（中国)(印度）(希腊—罗马).古印度宗教典籍梵文古希腊拉丁语语法学中国文言文典籍小学3.什么是“小学”？分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学，被视为经学的附庸，统称“小学"。

4.语言学是(19）世纪成为独立的学科的，其标志是（历史语言学）。

第一章语言的功能1.语言的功能是多方面，从宽泛的意义上讲，大致都可归入语言的(）功能和（）功能两个方面。

2.语言的社会功能包括（信息传递功能）和(人际交往功能）。

第二章语言是符号系统1.什么是符号？符号的特点是什么？符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。

甲能代表乙或指称乙，甲就有条件成为乙的符号。

（1）符号的形式和意义是不可分离的，二者的结合才构成符号，没有无意义的符号形式.（2）符号的形式和意义是一般性的。

（3）符号的形式和意义之间没有本质上的、自然属性上的必然联系。

2.为什么说语言具有符号性？1）语言包含形式和内容两方面。

“音“是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容。

2)音义的不可分离性.语言中的语素、词、短语、句子等均有意义,也均有发音。

3)形式指示意义的一般性。

4）形式和意义结合的任意性。

3.如何理解语言符号的任意性？4方面语言符号的任意性指的是,作为符号系统的成员，单个语言符号的语音形式和意义之间没有自然属性上的必然联系，只有社会约定的关系。

1）同一意义，在不同语言中的语音形式不同.举例略。

2)同一意义，在同一语言不同历史时期的语音形式不同。

举例略。

语言符号在形成初始，音与义的结合是不可论证的,在社会交际过程中自然形成。

但一旦形成，全体成员必须遵守,任何人都无权擅自改动。

也即初始的任意性,使用的强制性。

4.什么是语言符号的线条性?语言符号在使用中以符号序列的形式出现，符号只能一个跟着一个依次出现，在时间的线条上绵延，不能在空间的面上铺开.5.（组合关系）和(聚合关系）是语言系统中最基本、最根本的结构关系。

《语言学概论》知识点复习(二)

00541《语言学概论》知识点复习（二）第二章语言的物质载体—语音第一节语音概说一、什么是语音1、语音是语言的物质载体，是人的发音器官发出的，用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音。

2、（1）语音是人的发音器官发出的声音。

（2）语音是代表一定意义的声音。

语音同语义紧密地联系在一起，须臾不可分离。

它有别于也是人的发音器官发出的无意义的声音，如：咳嗽、喷嚏、呼噜，等等。

（3）语音是一种社会现象，而语音之外的声音则是一种自然现象。

二、语音的属性语音和其他声音一样，是物体振动而产生的音波，因此具有物理属性；语音是由人的发音器官发出的，因此具有生理属性；更重要的是，“什么语音表达什么意义” 必须是使用该语言的全社会成员约定俗成的，因此语音又具有社会属性。

社会属性是语音的本质属性。

（一）语音的物理属性1、音高：声音的高低，它决定于音波的频率。

振动越快，频率越大，音高就越高。

汉语普通话语音中的声调指的便是音高。

2、音强：声音的强弱，它决定于音波的振幅。

振幅的大小同发音时用力的大小有关。

3、音长：声音的长短，它决定于发音持续时间的长短。

4、音质（音色）：声音的本质和特色，一种声音区别于其他声音的个性或特征。

是语音‚物理四要素‛中最重要的特征。

声音经过声腔使之放大并形成不同音质的语音。

由此得知造成元音音质差别的因素主要是共鸣器的形状不同。

（二）语音的生理属性1、动力部分——肺和气管2、发音体——喉头3、发音体——声带4、共鸣器（声腔）——口腔和鼻腔按照发声器官能否活动，可以将之分为‚主动发音器官‛和‚被动发音器官‛。

主动发音器官包括嘴唇、舌头、软腭、小舌、下颚等，被动发音器官包括牙齿、齿龈、硬腭等。

（三）语音的社会属性在一种语言或方言里，什么意义用什么声音来表达是任意的、约定俗成的，是社会因素决定的。

语音的社会属性还表现在语音的系统性上，不同语言有不同的语音系统，语音的社会属性是语音的本质属性，语音本质上是一种社会现象。

(自考小抄-知识点)0541__语言学概论[1]

语文出版社第一节语言的客观存在形式1．1什么是语言1．2口语和书面语1．3语言和民族1．4语言和种族1．5语言的客观存在形式和语言研究第二节语言的性质2．1语言和言语2．2语言符号2．3语言系统第三节语言学3．1语言学3．2语言研究的历史回顾3．3语言学的应用价值第二章语音第一节语音的性质1．1语音是语言的物质外壳1．2语音的物理属性l．3语音的生理属性1．4语音的心理属性l．5语音的社会属性第二节音素2．1音素和音标2．2元音和辅音2．3元音的分类2．4辅音的分类第三节音位3．1什么是音位3．2音位变体3．3区别特征第四节音位的组合4．1音节4．2复元音4．3复辅音4．4语流音变第五节韵律特征5．1韵律特征5．2长短音5．3声调5．4轻重音5．5语调第三章语汇第一节语汇的性质1．1语汇是语言的建筑材料．1．2语汇的性质和特点1．3语汇和语汇学第二节语汇的类聚系统2．1语汇系统的不同类聚关系2．2词的分类2．3语的分类第三节语汇的构造形式3．1语素和词3．2词的构造3．3语的构造3．4词语和词组的区别第四章语法第一节语法的性质1．1语法是组词造句的规则1．2语法规则的性质和特点1．3语法和其他一些现象的关系第二节语法研究的内容、类别和单位2．1语法和语法学2．2语法研究的内容2．3语法现象的分类2．4语法的单位第三节语法形式和语法意义3．1形式和意义是语法不可分割的两个方面3．12语法形式的几种主要手段3．3语法意义的几个主要范畴第四节语法单位的聚合和组合4．1词和句子是语法结构中最重要的两个单位4．2词的聚合和词类4．3词的组合和词组4．4句子的聚合和句类4．5句子的组合和句组第五章语义第一节语义的性质1．1语义是语言形式表达的内容1．2语义的概括性1．3语义的模糊性1．4语义的民族性第二节词义的结构2．1词义的构成2．2义项和非义项2．3义素和义素分析第三节词义的聚合3．1单义和多义3．2同义词3．3反义词3．4语义场第四节句义4．l句义的构成4．2句子的语义结构4．3蕴含和预设4．4歧义第六章文字第一节文字的性质1．1文字是语言的书写符号系统1．2字符1．3文字的类型第二节文字和语言2．l文字和语言的关系2．2语言对文字的影响第三节文字的起源和演变3．1文字的起源和演变3．2汉字的起源和演变第四节文字的创制和改革4．1文字的创制4．2文字改革第七章语言和社会第一节语言的起源和发展1．1语言的起源1．2语言随社会的发展而发展第二节语言的分化和统一2．1语言随社会的分化而分化2．2语言随社会的统一而统一第三节语言的接触3．1语言成分的借用和吸收3．2双语现象3．3语言转用3．4语言混合第四节语言规划4．1语言规划4．2官方语言的选择4．3民族共同语的推广和规范化4．4民族语言政策第八章语言和心理第一节语言和思维的关系1．1语言是思维的最重要的工具1．2先有思维还是先有语言1．3语言和思维是否相互对应1．4语言和思维哪个是主导第二节语言能力和语言获得2．l语言能力问题和语言获得问题2．2大脑的构造和人的语言能力2．3儿童语言获得的过程和原因第三节语言与认知活动和民族社会心理3．1语言在各种心理活动中的作用3．2语言和人的认知活动3．3语言和民族文化意识第九章语言学的应用第一节语言学的应用问题第二节语言学和语言教学2．1语言学和语言教学的关系2．2语言学和第二语言教学2．3语言学与第一语言教学和语言词典第三节语言学和信息处理3．1语言学和语言信息处理研究3．2语言学和已实现的信息处理技术3．3语言学在信息处理中的应用前景单项选择题1A1.口语是(B)。

语言学概论第1章主要知识点

二、语言的范围 *（一）语言与言语
语言系统语言（狭义）语言（广义）言语活动言语作品言语
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语言 ≠ 言语
第一节语言的性质和范围
语言与言语的主要区别：

语言是抽象的、社会的、现成的、有限的、稳定的；言语是具体的、个人的、临时的、无限的、多变的。语言来自于言语，依存于言语。语言又制约着言语，指导人们进行言语实践。

依附性副语言（交通信号等）独立性副语言（自然体态语等）
语言与副语言的关系
第一节语言的性质和范围
二、语言的范围（四）自然语言与人工语言自然语言：由社会群体共同创造的、在日常交际活动中逐渐自然形成和发展的语言。人工语言：个别人或少数人人工设计出来的语言。
第一节语言的性质和范围
第一章语言和语言学
廖继莉华中师范大学文学院语言学系 E-mail: liaojili@
内容概要
语言的性质和范围语言的结构语言的功能语言学及其发展
第一节语言的性质和范围
一、语言的性质（一）语言是什么？从结构上看，语言是一个复杂的符号系统。从功能上看，语言最重要的功能是社会交际功能和思维认知功能。定义：语言是一种复杂的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
（五）语言的其他属性 3、模糊性语言的类与类之间没有明确的界限，而是逐渐过渡的。例：少年，青年，中年，老年
第一节语言的性质和范围
二、语言的范围你的语言太生硬。莎士比亚的语言，鲁迅的语言英语，汉语口头语言，书面语言，商务语言他研究语言。
第一节语言的性质和范围

00541语言学概论知识点大全

第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言只有人类才有语言。

人类语言与其他动物鸣叫系统的区别:内容更多、用处更大，能够创造。

人类具有语言能力是人类跟其他动物区别的最重要的标志。

语言和民族、国家的关系。

确定不同的语言，涉及许多复杂的因素.其中首先涉及的就是语言跟民族和国家的关系。

应该说在大多数情况下确实是一个民族使用一种语言。

例如,汉族使用汉语,蒙古族使用蒙古语等，从不同语言的名称就可以看出，语言是民族的重要标志,或者说语言就是根据民族来划分的。

换个角度看种语言好像跟一个国家也有关系。

例如，德国人说德语，法国人说法语，从不同语言的名称也可以看出，语言很大程度上又是根据国家来划分的。

不过这样来划分“语言”就还需要区别不同时代的“民族”和不同历史时期的“国家”。

不少西方学者把相互能够听懂”作为确定语言的标准,而这样确定的“语言”又是识别“民族”甚至“国家”的标准。

其实这种“民族、国家、语言”的概念是结合着欧洲“新兴民族国家”的历史特点说的。

西方这种“一个民族、种语言、一个国家”的定义对于欧洲以外的国家就不完全适用，对于历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家则可能根本不适用。

只有全面了解从古到今的“语言”和“民族”之间“民族"和“国家”之间错综复杂的情况，才有可能对“语言、民族国家”三者之间的关系做出更加符合客观事实的结论。

语言的谱系分类:是从语言“历时”演变角度来划分不同的语言,即根据各种语言在语音、语汇语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性的大小对语言进行的分类，也叫作“语言的亲属关系分类”。

语言的谱系分类是个层级系统,从大到小通常分别叫作:“语系一语族一(语支)-语言一方言一次方言(土语)”。

其中最大的类叫作“语系",属于同一个语系的语言都有古老的共同来源。

语言的形态分类:是从语言“共时”状态角度来划分不同的语言，也叫作“语言的结构类型分类”。

"形态语"和“综合性语言”:是语言的形态分类的种分类结果，指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语言。

语言学概要必背知识点(自整——打印自检版)

u 语言系统的二层性：
语言系统分为音系和语法两个层面，在这两个层面上都有最小单位和小单位组成大单位的多级组织结构。音系层的最小单位大大少于语法层，低层级单位少于高层级单位。
u 客观现实、心理现实
现实现象分为客观现实和心理现实，客观现实是外在于人的客观存在，通过人的感官感知并在人脑中综合处理转化为心理现实。
5、说明语言系统的层级性（二层性）
层级性：语素-词-短语-句子：低层级单位比高层级单位少，高层级单位由低层级单位按规则组合而成二层性：音系层+语法层二层性的符号用较少数目的成分单位可构成很多符号形式音系层的最小单位数远远低于符号层的最小单位数
6、人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的区别
任意性、传授性（后天习得）、单位的明晰性、能产性（组合和替换）、结构的二层性（音系+语法）、不受时地环境的限制
音质音位是时间维向上线性切分的最小音系单位，如果不限于线性切分，音位还可以进一步分析为一个或几个发音特征的区分，例如辅音音位...
u 音峰、音谷 u 复元音
是在一个音节里的音值前后不一致的元音，发音时嘴唇和舌头从一个元音的位置过渡到另一个元音的位置，如普通话语音中的ɑi，ei，ɑo，ou，uɑi，uei 等
组合规则：语法单位连接起来构成更大语言片段的规则
语言学概要必背知识点
第一章导言+语言的功能 u 语言学
以回答“语言是什么”为研究内容，透过无处不在的语言现象来探索语言本质
u 语言
人类最重要的交际工具，是人们进行沟通的主要表达方式。思维工具、交际工具、社会属性作用、分类、用文字记录
u 语言交际 u 思维（特点）
认识现实世界时动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力，概念属于哲学、逻辑学、心理学等范畴，其形式、过程、生理机制都与语言密切相关，以语言为载体和动因，具有一定的生理基础。普遍性、特殊性、和语言相关性、有生理基础

语言学概论 (00541)知识点汇总(第二章)

语言学概论（00541）知识点汇总第二章语言的物质载体——语音（一）语音的物理属性★★★★1.语音：人的发音器官发出的，用于人与人之间交际并表达一定意义的声音2.语音物理性质四要素：音高、音强、音长、音色3.音高：声音的高低，决定于发音体振动的频率。

决定汉语声调的是（音高）4.音强：声音的强弱，它与发音体振动幅度的大小有关5.音长：声音的长短，它决定于发音体振动时间的长短6.音色/音质：声音的特色，是区别意义的最重要的要素，是一个声音区别于其他声音的基本特征7.对音质成分进行描写和分类的基本概念是（元音、辅音）8.影响音色的因素：发音体不同、发音方法不同、共鸣器不同（二）语音的生理属性★9.发音器官：肺——动力源；声带——发音体；声腔——共鸣器（口鼻咽喉）10.主动发音器官是（嘴唇、舌头、软腭、小舌、下腭），被动发音器官是（牙齿、齿龈、硬腭）等（三）语音的社会属性★★★11.决定语音与其他声音之不同、风声、雨声、喷嚏声、咳嗽声均不具有的、本质属性是（社会属性）12.语音所代表的意义是由这种语言的全体社会成员约定俗成的，这反映了语音的（社会性质）（四）语音的表现形式★★1.音节：语音结构的基本单位，也是人能够自然感到的最小语音片段。

一般来说，一个汉字就代表一个音节，但普通话中的儿化音节是用两个汉字来代表一个音节。

2.音位：一个语音系统中能够区别意义的最小的语音单位，也就是按语音的辨义作用归纳出的音类。

3.音素：从音色/音质角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。

可分为两大类：元音和辅音。

4.元音音素∶发音时，气流振动声带，在口腔、咽头不受阻碍而形成的音。

5.辅音音素：气流竞购口腔或咽头受阻碍而形成的音素。

6.元音和辅音最主要的区别：受阻与否。

7.音节“窗chuāng”的音素有（4）个8.声母不等于辅音，韵母不等于元音。

（五）语音的记录方式★1.标写语音的书面符号叫做（音标）2.亚，鸦去声；之，音枝；采用的注音方法是（直音法）3.国际音标：用来记录各民族语言的语音，目前是国际上最通用的记音工具。

语言学纲要知识点总结整理1-20

语言学纲要知识点整理1-20一．语言学研究对象是语言语言是语言学的研究对象。

这只是一种宽泛的说法。

对语言是什么这个问题的回答就是语言学研究的内容。

人们直接面对的一般不是确切的语言，而是无处不在的语言现象。

语言学透过语言现象探索语言的本质，这个研究对象的确定过程本身就是一个语言学的发展过程。

而语言学作为一门学科的性质和特点也是在发展中形成的。

语言学的对象和学科性质是在语言学的历史发展中逐步确定的，应该从历史的角度和发展的眼光来认识这个问题。

二．语言和思维的关系1.语言：语言是人类最重要的交际工具，是词汇和语法规则的总和，是社会现象，是社会的交际工具，同时也是心理现象，是人类思维的工具。

2.思维：思维是反映客观事物一般特征、规律及相互间联系、区别的认识过程，是人类大脑特有的一种机能。

思维功能是语言功能的另一重要方面。

思维的时候需要用语言，语言和思维不可分离。

3.思维在传统上是哲学和逻辑学的概念。

逻辑学关注的思维的形式、过程、生理机制都和语言密切相关。

逻辑学把概念、判断、推理看作是思维的基本形式，这些思维的基本形式都依靠语言。

哲学中把思维看作是人类对客观事物间接的，概括的放映。

语言是思维活动的动因和载体，是思维的出储存所。

从心理学的角度看，思维是知识的认知，获取和运用的过程，是一个信息加工的过程。

客观的现实通过认知转化为主观化的信息必须要有一套符号，人类使用的最重要的符号是语言。

语言符号帮助人打成对外界的认知，储存认知的成果，并且发展人的认知能力。

认知神经科学的研究成果证明，思维作为人脑的活动，具有大脑神经生理的基础。

大脑中有专门控制语言功能的区域，和人的抽象思维能力密切相关。

由此可见，语言和思维密不可分，语言的思维功能是语言的基本属性。

4.思维离不开语言：（1）思维以语言为工具。

（2）思维的成果需要语言来巩固。

（3）语言可以帮助思维逐步深化。

（4）语言可以帮助思维条理化。

（5）语言可以帮助将思维成果传递给别人。

简明英语语言学教程1-8章知识要点

1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics . phonetics(语音学): the study of sounds phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning Lexicon / morphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form words syntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences semantics(语义学): the study of meaning pragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language use interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguistics prescriptive(规定性 old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性 modern linguistics) synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性) 1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Arbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced. Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words) Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned. Phonetics （语音学）（定义） Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音） Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics （发音）auditory phonetics （听觉）acoustic phonetics （声学） Orthographic representation of speech sounds ：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound. Phonetics & phonology ：（定义，区别） Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.) Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phone （音素）Phoneme （音位）Allophone （音位变体）: （定义） Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段） The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’t Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位） Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素） vowels (the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed) stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness) unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips) long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels monophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning concerned with sound system of a particular language phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声 Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall tone E.g. That’s not the book he wants. ⏹ Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When the phonetically similar sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution . ⏹ The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET （节首）, the PEAK （韵峰）, the CODA （韵尾） ⏹ Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning. Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix) 3.4 V----teachN Af----er Root （词根）Stem （词干）affix(词缀）（定义，会用，选择）Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “ca refully ”. Affix:is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme 3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素) Free morphemes Bound morphemes Root Root Affix dog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffix grammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional … -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er ● Derivational morphemes ---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ● Inflectional morphemes ---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s Syntax （句法学）（定义） Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. （句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支） Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P). The structure: specifier + head + complement Head （中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier （标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement （补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP (Det 限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP (Qual 修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP (Deg 程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station S→NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. Semantics （语义学）（定义）Semantics: the study of meaning from thelinguistic point of view （对意义的研究）Behaviorism→ Bloomfield 行为主义论 based on contextualist view S: stimulus r: responseJill Jack S---------r………s ---------R(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)Pragmatics （语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics: the study of language in use orlanguage communication; the study of the use ofcontext to make inference about meaning.The study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication. (book)Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning ofa speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…Context: a basic concept in the study ofpragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background,situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic categories —word-level categories: major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布) A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria. Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP) phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement 4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase NP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement VP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement AP→(Deg) A (PP) …… PP→(Deg) P (NP) …… XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement) Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con X Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con. 5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning,which are related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog knownto both A&B Major sense relations:Synonymy (近义词）---words that are close in meaning dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall inAE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), polysemy (一词多义）one word may have morethan one meaning)homonymy (同音形异义）homophones--- twowords same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)feet 、fete meat/meet site/sighthyponymy (上下层关系）relation between a general word —superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms) flower , rose, Lilyantonymy (反义）words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalemarried. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F —Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F —Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T —Y, T; X, F —Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false. X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT) Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication (meaning in a certain context). Clause —a group of words which form a grammaticalunit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.“IC analysis” is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. ⏹ Componential analysis---- a way toanalyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹ Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Cooperative principle (CP)---- According toGrice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.。

普通语言学教程知识点总结

普通语言学教程知识点总结第一部分：语言学概论1. 语言的定义语言是一种符号系统，通过语音或文字来传递意义，是人类思维和交流的重要工具。

2. 语言学的研究对象语言学研究语言的结构、形式、功能、发展以及语言在社会和文化中的作用。

3. 语言的基本特征语言的基本特征包括：任意性、符号性、交际性、复杂性、可变性、文化载体等。

4. 语言的层次结构语言的层次结构包括语音层、词汇层、词组层、句子层和语篇层。

第二部分：语言习得1. 语言的习得过程语言习得是指个体在学习自己的母语时所经历的过程，包括语音、词汇、语法和语用等方面的发展。

2. 语言习得的阶段语言习得包括婴儿期、幼儿期、儿童期、青少年期和成人期等不同阶段，每个阶段都有其特定的语言发展特点。

3. 习得语言与学习语言的区别习得语言是指自然而然地掌握母语的过程，而学习语言则是指通过学习来掌握一门语言。

第三部分：语音学1. 语音学的对象和内容语音学研究语音的发音、形成规律和分类，以及语音在语言中的功能。

2. 语音的分类语音可以分为辅音和元音，辅音可以再分为浊音和清音，元音可以分为前元音、中元音和后元音。

3. 语音的发音器官人类语音的发音器官包括声门、喉头、口腔、舌头、鼻腔等部位。

4. 语音的基本特征语音的基本特征包括调音的高低、音量的大小、音调的升降和语调的变化等。

第四部分：语音学1. 语法学的研究对象和内容语法学研究语言的结构和形式，包括词类、句子成分、句法关系等内容。

2. 词法和句法词法研究词汇的组成和形态变化规律，句法研究句子的结构和成分之间的关系。

3. 语法现象的分类语法现象可以分为形态学现象、句法现象和语义现象等。

4. 语法规则和规则性语法规则是语言使用中的规范，语法规则性是指语法现象的稳定性和规律性。

第五部分：语义学1. 语义学的研究对象和内容语义学研究语言中的词汇和句子的意义和语用规则。

2. 语义的分类语义可以分为词义和句义两个方面，词义是指词汇的意义，句义是指句子的意义。