词汇学构词法clipping

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词汇学论文,浅谈英语构词法,英文版

OnWordFormation★PrefaceLearnalanguage;youmustlearnpronunciation,grammar,vocabulary.Amongthethreef actors,vocabularyhasaveryimportantroleinyourlanguage-studying.AfamousscholarW ilkinssaid”withoutgrammar,verylittlecanbeconveyed,withoutvocabulary,nothingc anbeconveyed.”H eemphasizedthatinmostcases,thevocabularyismoreimportantthangr ammar.AnotherfamouslexicologistMcCarthysaid,whenastudentlearnthesecondlanguag e,nomatterhowwellthestudentlearnsgrammar,nomatterhowsuccessfullyhemastersthes econdsofaL2，withoutwordstoexpressawiderangeofmeanings,communicationinthatlanguagecannotha ppeninanymanfulway.Fromthesetwoexamplesandofcourseincludemanyothercasesthatarenotmentionedher enow,wecanconcludethatifyoudon’tcarevocabularyatall,itisimpossibletolearnala nguageinsomeway.What’smore,youcannotexpressyourrealfeelingnomatteryouarehapp y,sad,fortune,oryouareunlucky,becauseyoudon’tknowwhatwordsyoucansayoryoucanw rite.Today,IwilltellyouwhatIhadlearnedinthisclass.WhatIwillteachyouis“wordform ation”,whydoIchoosethistopictotalkBecauseinmyopinion,ifyouknowthewordformati onverywell,youcanrememberandusethenewwordseasily.Absolutely,it’sveryhelpfulf oryourlanguagestudying.D on’t youthinkso★SummaryEnglishvocabularyhasseveralof Word-formationmethods.Butthethreegreatestwordformatio npowersareaffixation,compounding,andconversion.Theothersixkindsofword-formationmethods includeblending,clipping,acronymy,back-formation,soundreduplication,andcommunizationofpr opernames.★KeywordsMorphemes,classifying,word-formation★ContextBeforetalkingaboutwordformation,maybeweshouldknowthemorphologicalstructureofEngli shwordsfirst.SowhatwewilldiscussnextismorphologicalstructureofEnglishwords.Itincludesmorph emes,morphsandallomorphs,classifyingmorphemes,identifyingmorphemes,morphemesandwor d-formation.☆morphemesTraditionally,wordsareusuallytreatedasthebasicandminimalunitsofalanguageto makesentence,whicharecombinationsofwordsaccordingtosyntacticrules.Structurall y,however,awordisnotthesmallestunitbecausemanywordscanbeseparatedintoevensmal lermeaningfulunits.Theseminimalmeaningfulunitsareknownasmorphemes.Inviewofword-formation,themorphemeisseenas‘thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionof words’.Syn tactically,however,amorphemeistheminimalformofgrammaticalanalysis.Morphemesareabstractunits,whicharerealizedinspeechbydiscreteunitsknownasmo rphs.Theyareactualspoken,minimalcarriersofmeaning.Morphemesvaryinfunction.Accordingly,wecanclassifymorphemesintoseveralgener alcategories:①FreeversusBoundMorphemes----morphemeswhichareindependentofothermorphemes arefree.Thesemorphemeshavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegramm aticalunitsinsentences.Morphemeswhichcannotoccurasseparatewordsarebound.Theya resonamedbecausetheyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwordsortoperformaparticular grammaticalfunction.②DerivationalversusInflectionalMorphemes----morphemeswhichareusedtoderive newwordsareknownasderivationalmorphemesbecausewhenthesemorphemesareconjoined, newwordsarederived.③ContentversusGrammaticalMorphemes----Onasemanticandsyntacticbasis,morphe mescanfallintocontentandgrammaticalmorphemes.Contentmorphemesarelexicalmorphe meswhichareusedasweseeabovetoderivenewwords,soalsoknownasderivationalmorpheme s.☆MorphemesandWord-formationWeknowthatwordscanbeanalyzedintomorphemes,whicharetheminimalmeaningfulunit sinthecompositionofwords.Inword-formationformation,however,morphemesareconven tionallylabeledroot,stem,baseandaffix.Affixesareformsthatareattachedtowordsorelementstomodifymeaningorfunction.A ffixesareboundmorphemesbecausenoneofthemcanstandaswordsintheirownright.Accord ingtothefunctionsofaffixes,wecandividethemintoinflectionalaffixesandderivatio nalaffixes.Derivationalandinflectionalaffixesareidenticalwithderivationalandi nflectionalmorphemes.Inviewoftheirdistributionintheformationofword,affixescan fallintoprefixandsuffix.Beforewebeginouractualdiscussionofword-buildingprocesses,therearesomebasic conceptsthatneedclarifying:1.Root:arootisthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.2.Stem:astemmayconsistofasinglerootmorphemeoroftworootmorphemes.Itcanbearootmorphemeplusoneormoreaffixationalmorphemes.3.Base:abaseisreferredtoaformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Itcanbearootorastem.☆ WordFormationTheexpansionofvocabularyinmodernEnglishdependschieflyonwordformation.There isavarietyofmeansbeingatworknow.Themostproductiveareaffixation,compoundingand conversion.⑴AffixationAffixationisgenerallydefinedastheformationofwordsbyaddingword-formingorder ivationalaffixestobase.Thisprocessisalsoknownasderivation,bywhichnewwordsared erivedfromoldorbaseforms.Thewordscreatedinthiswayarecalledderivatives.Accordi ngtothepositionsaffixesoccupyinwords,affixationfallsintotwosubcategories:prefixationandsuffixation.Prefixation includes:NegativePrefixes(a-,dis-,in-,non-,un-…)ReversativeorPrivativePrefixes(de-,dis-,un,…)PejorativePrefixes(mal-,mis-,pseudo-…)PrefixesofDegreeorSize(arch-,co-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-…) PrefixesofOrientationandAttitude(anti-,contra-,counter-,pro-…)LocativePrefixes(fore-,inter-,intra-,super-,tele-,trans-…)PrefixesofTimeandOrder(ex-,fore-,post-,pre-,re-…)NumberPrefixes(bi-,multi-,semi-,tri-,uni-…)ConversionPrefixes(a-,be-,en-…)MiscellaneousPrefixes(auto-,neo-,pan-,proto-,vice-…)Suffixation includes:Nounsuffixes(denominalnouns,deverbalnouns,de-adjectivenouns,nonandadjecti vesuffixes)Adjectivesuffixes(denominalsuffixes,deverbalsuffixes)Adverbsuffixes(Omitexample)Verbsuffixes(Omitexample)⑵CompoundingCompoundingistheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorebases.Wordsworthforme poundscanbewrittensolid,hyphenatedandopen.1.CharacteristicsofcompoundsCompoundshavenoticeablecharacteristicswhichmayinmostcasesdifferentiatethem selvesfromnounphrasesinthefollowingfouraspects:Phonologicalfeatures,semanticfeatures,grammatical,orthographicalfeatures.2.FormationofcompoundsCompoundingcantakeplacewithinanyofthewordclass,buttheproductiveonesarenoun sandadjectivesfollowedbyverbstoamuchlesserextent.Nouncompounds,adjectivecompounds,verbcompounds.⑶ConversionConversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclas s.Conversionisgenerallyconsideredtobeaderivationalprocesswherebyanitemisadapt edorconvertedtoanewwordclasswithouttheadditionofanaffix.Hencethenamezero-deri vation.Wordsproducedbyconversionareprimarilynouns,adjectives,andverbs.Conversiontonouns(deverbal,de-adjectival,miscellaneousconversion)Conversiontoverbs(denominal,de-adjectival,miscellaneousconversion)conversiontoadjectives(voicelesstovoicedconsonant,initialtoendstress) theothersixmeansofword-formationincludes:Blending,Clipping,Acronymy,Back-formation,Soundreduplication,Communizationofp ropernames.Becausethewordslimit,thesixword-formationmethodsisnotdetailedintroducedher e.Ifyouareinterestedinthem,pleaserefertothelexicology.Annotation:《英语词汇学教程》张伟友着，《词汇学学习指南》杨春慧着。

clipping构词法例子

clipping构词法例子
clipping（剪裁）可以指将一个单词的部分字母或者发声部分，截取后组成一个新的词语。

1）brunch（早午餐）：它是指将breakfast（早餐）和lunch（午餐）两个单词剪裁在一起，用来描述一顿既像早餐又像午餐的午餐食物。

2）smog（烟雾）：它是指将smoke（烟）和fog（雾）两个单词剪裁在一起，指受到明显污染的空气，气体悬浮得很雾重又烟雾缭绕。

3）hamburger（汉堡包）：它是指将ham（火腿）和burger（面包）两个单词剪裁在一起，指由面包着含火腿、生菜及其他食材组成的一种食物。

4）glamping（豪华野营）：它是指将glamour（豪华）和camping（野营）两个单词剪裁在一起，指在野外或者花园里进行的有豪华设施的野营活动。

5）techy（技术性的）：它是指将technology（技术）和y（… 的）两个单词剪裁在一起，指有着技术气息的或者与技术有关的。

以上就是关于clipping构词法的一些例子，通过简单的剪裁可以比较容
易的把两个单词合成新的一个词语，当然我们也可以将其他的多个单
词剪裁，组成一个新的字的组合，以上只是一些简单的例子，实践中，组合出来的剪裁词语有着更加广泛的应用。

词汇学构词法clipping

例子
常见的截词法单词还有“bus”（代表“omnibus”）、“copter” （代表“helicopter”）等。
首字母缩写（Acronym）
01
总结词
02
详细描述
首字母缩写是通过取单词的首字母而形成新词的方法。
例如，“NASA”是“National Aeronautics and Space Administration”的首字母缩写。
缺点
语义不明确
由于Clipping构词法是通过截取原有词汇的一部分来构成新词，有时候会导致新词的语义不明确，容易引发歧义和误解。
稳定性差
由于Clipping构词法产生的新词往往不稳定，随着时间的推移和语言的发展，有些新词可能会逐渐被淘汰或被其他新词所取代。
不符合语法规则
有时候Clipping构词法产生的新词可能不符合语法规则，需要进行一定的调整和规范，才能被广泛接受和使用。
04
Clipping构词法的优缺点
优点
简洁高效
Clipping构词法通过截取原有词汇的一部分来构成新词，使得新词简洁明了，易于记忆和使用。
形象生动
Clipping构词法常常将原有词汇中最具代表性的部分截取出来，使得新词形象生动，能够直观地表达概念或事物特征。
创新性强
Clipping构词法是一种创新性的构词方式，能够产生大量新颖的词汇，满足语言发展的需要。
“International Phone”。
行业术语
某些行业内部使用的术语或缩写，如“IPO”代替“Initial Public Offering”，“GDP”代替“Gross Domestic Product”。
学术领域的应用
学科术语

《英语词汇学》知识点归纳-（最新版）

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha. 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative （4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands atthe centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.(e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a wordmove gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are wordswhich are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees ofa given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake ) (3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation,。

英语单词构词法

英语的构词法主要有：
一、加词缀法(affixation)
加词缀法分为屈折变化法(inflexion)和派生法(derivation) 0
屈折变化法是指词尾有表示名词复数、格、第三人称单数、动词时态的后缀以及有表示形容词和副词比较级和最高级的后缀。

派生法是给词根添加上前缀或后缀而构词。

二、复合法(compound)
复合词大部分由两个自由词素构成。

三、缩合法(blending)
用两个或两个以上自由词素各自的一部分构成新词。

四、转化法(conversion)
1.名词转化为动词
2.动词转化为名词
3.形容词转化为动词
五、缩写法(abbreviation)
缩写法主要有下列六种：
1.缩略(clipping)
2.首字母缩略词(initialism)
3.省略(omission)
4.缩约(contraction)
5.替换(substitution)
具体方法如下：。

英语词汇学之构词法

The process of combining two or more words to form a compound objective
Example
"self confidence" is a compound objective formed from the words "self" and "confidence"
Example
"upload" is a compound verb formed from the words "up" and "load"
Other examples
"download", "email", "Google"
Verb synthesis
Objective synthesis
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Transforming verbs into nouns
Verb to noun transformation: In English, it is also common for verbs to transform into nouns This process is called conversion or zero differentiation For example, the verb "to run" can be transformed into the noun "run," which can refer to a single act of running or a race Other examples include "to jump" (from "leap"), "to swim" (from "swim"), and "to write" (from "script")

构词法讲解

构词法语言中词的总和构成词汇，但是词汇并不是一堆杂乱无章、互不相关的群体，而是一个严密体系，在这个结构的体系中，词与词之间有着各种各样的联系。

英语中的这些联系的规律总结起来就是构词。

英语中构词的方法就是构词法。

构词法主要有合成法、转化法、派生法和缩略法四种。

掌握构词法是迅速扩大词汇量的重要方法之一。

一、合成法(Compounding)合成法就是指由两个或两个以上的单词合成的词叫合成词。

这种构词方式主要有两种：复合法、结合法。

合成法主要是构成合成名词和合成形容词。

复合法构成的复合词，它们各个结合的部分相互间的语法关系是紧密相关的。

如blackboard和darkroom都是形容词和名词形成的结构，wr it ing desk是动词名词和名词形式的结构。

结合法形成的词是形态合成词，它的结合是用一个起来连接作用的中缀来把两个或两上以上的词根词素紧紧的连缀在一起。

如，用辅音字母－s－来缀全两个词根词素构成的词有：salesman, towns people等。

合成的方式常见的有如下几种：（一）合成名词1.名词／代词＋名词：woman-doctor, women-doctors, workshop车间, spaceship, he-goat公羊, coal fire, motorcycle, gas cooker煤气灶, oil well, power plant电厂, silk worm蚕, gold mine, bottleneck, piano keys, teleph one receiver听筒, television screen, chairman, fireman, police officer, postman, pine tree, girl/boy friend, goldfish, raindrop雨点雨滴, birdcage, breakfast time, flowerbed花坛, tearoom茶馆2.动词＋名词：flashlight手电、闪关灯, watchdog看门狗、监督部门或人员, searchlight探照灯3.形容词＋名词：blacksmith, blackboard, supermarket, superman, darkroom, highchair, hothouse, greenhouse, madman4.副词＋名词：downfall垮台, rainfall阵雨降雨量5.介词＋名词：afternoon, inland内地的, overbalance使失去平衡, crosstalk相声6.动名词＋名词：reading-room, sitting-room, classroom, schoolroom, dining room, building materials建材, dancing girl舞女, cleaning women保洁工, flying machine 飞行器, washing machine, working conditions, boiling point, drinking water, swimming pool, drinking cup, writing desk, sewing machine, walking stick.7.现在分词＋名词：running dog走狗, running water流水自来水, flying fish飞鱼, rising sun朝阳、旭日8.名词＋动名词：shoe-making, paper-correcting批卷, letter-writing, story-telling说评书、讲故事, town-planning城市规划, handwriting, sun-bathing, horse riding, daydreaming9.动词＋副词：stand-by, take-off起飞, cut-off截止终止, breakdown10.名词＋介词＋名词：man-of-war战舰, editor-in-chief总编,11.名词＋连词字母＋名词：handiwork手工艺品, nowadays当今（二）合成形容词1、形容词＋名词＋ed：five-storeyed, one-eyed, double-faced, blue-eyed蓝眼睛的、碧眼的2、名词＋名词＋ed：honey-mouthed甜言蜜语的,嘴甜的3、名词／代词＋分词：man-made, heart-broken, self-educated自学的, snow-covered, man-eating, peace-loving, paper-making造纸的, ocean-going远洋航行的, heartfelt 衷心的, handmade, home-made自制的、国产的, sunburnt, weather-beaten饱经风霜的、风吹日晒的4、名词／代词＋形容词：color-blind, ice-cool, seasick晕船的, airsick晕机的, tax-free, grass-green草绿色, snow-white, rock-hard坚硬如石的5、形容词／数词＋名词：full-time, high-grade高级, second-hand6、形容词／数词＋分词：ready-made现成的good-looking7、副词＋分词：far-reaching深远的, so-called, hard-working, well-meaning, well-meant善意的, wide-spread广泛的、普遍的8、副词＋形容词：ever-green常青树, under-ripe,9、形容词＋形容词：dark-blue, red-hot火红的、炙手可热, grey-green灰绿色10、介词＋名词：downhill下山下、向山下, overnight整夜、一夜之间（三）合成副词1、形容词＋名词：sometimes, meanwhile2、副词＋名词：indoors在户内, outdoors, overhead头顶上3、介词＋名词：alongside在..旁边、沿着..边, beforehand事先、提前4、名词＋形容词：skyhigh极高的、昂贵的, stonestill非常寂静的5、副词＋介词：nearby附近的, upalong向上（四）合成动词1、名词＋动词：overhear偷听、无意中听到, underline在下面划线2、形容词＋动词：moonwalk太空步、月球漫步3、副词＋动词：white-wash白涂料、粉刷, safeguard保卫（五）其它合成词1、合成代词：everybody, everyone, everything, anyone, anybody, anything2、合成介词：outside, inside, throughout二、转化法(Conversion)不用借助构词词缀，把一个单词从一种词类转化成另一种词类的方法就是转化法。

英语词汇学——Chapter 4

Chapter 4Affixation 词缀法（30%-40%）Compounding 复合构词法（28%-30%）Conversion 转类法（26%）Shortening 缩略法（8%-10%）包括（clipping截短法acronymy 首字母拼音法）Blending 拼缀法(1%-5%)一.Affixation 词缀法Affixation, also called derivation派生法（derivatives派生词）,is the formation of new words by adding affixes to stems.Affixation is the formation of word by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Feature: prefixes do not generally change the word –class of the stem but only modify its meaning.Classification: we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups.Negative prefixes否定意义的词缀：a-,dis-,in-(il-,ir-,im-),non-,nu-.Reversative prefixes逆向意义的词缀：de-,dis-, un-. e.g. de-compose ,unwarp.Pejorative prefixes贬义的词缀: mal-, mis- ,pseudo-. e.g. mistrust , pseudo-friend.Prefixes of degree or size表示程度、大小等意义的词缀: arch-, extra- ,hyper- ,macro- ,micro- , mini- ,out- ,over- ,sub- ,super-,sur-, ultra- ,under- . e.g. archbishop , hyperactive ,superfreeze. Prefixes of orientation and attitude表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀：anti-, contra- ,counter- pro- . e.g. anti-government,Locative prefixes方位意义的词缀：extra-,fore- ,inter- ,intra- ,tele-, trans-. E.g. extraordinary, telecommunication,Prefixes of time and order表示时间和顺序的词缀:ex-,fore-, post- ,pre- ,re- . e.g. ex-professor , foretell ,post-election.Number prefixes数字的前缀: bi- ,multi- , poly- ,semi-, hemi- ,tri- ,uni- ,mono-. E.g. multi-purpose ,semi-naked, tricycle, monorail.Miscellaneous prefixes其他种类意义的前缀: auto- ,neo- ,pan- , vice- . e.g. autobiography ,vice-chairman.Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Feature: suffixes mainly change the word class.Classification: we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes , verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes.Adjective suffixes: It is worth noting that both –ic and –ical can be affixed to the same stem in some cases , but differ in meaning . e.g. economic \economical二.Compounding 复合构词法Compounding , also called composition（compounds 复合词）,is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.Words produced through compounding yields 28%-30% of all the new words.The differences between compounds and free phrases show in three aspects:1)Phonetic features.2)Semantic features.3)Grammatical features.Formation of compounds1)Noun compoundse.g. Sit-in ，stockholder , up-bringing2)Adjective compoundse.g. law-abiding , record-breaking ,town-bred , four-leg.3)Verb compoundsThe limited number of verb compounds are created either through conversion or backformation. Verb compounds in the way of back-formation are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes:-er, -ing, -ion , etc.三.Conversion 转类法Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Conversion is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech.1.An alternative for conversion is functional shift.2.The derivational process , in which an item is converted to a new word class without theaddition of an affix , is called zero-derivation .3.Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns , adjectives ,and verbs.The most productive conversion is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.4.Full conversion and partial conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted tonouns.1)Full conversion: A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics ofnouns . It can take an indefinite article or –(e)s to indicate singular or plural number.2)partial conversion: nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all thequalities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles.3)Such words as “the poor ”,”the richer ”,”the most corrupt” are all examples of partial. 5.The conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of stress.双音节的名词转化成动词会有重音的变化。

词汇学知识要点：次要构词法

1. Abbreviation/ Shortening（缩略法）is a process of word formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.1) Clipping (截短法)Clipped words are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. Apocope/ Back clipping （截除词尾）Aphaeresis/ Front clipping （截除词首）Front and back clipping（截除首尾）Syncope/Middle clipping（截除词腰）2) Initialism（首字母缩略法）Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters.3) Acronym（首字母拼音法）is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms. Acronyms are pronounced as words.4) Blending（拼缀法）is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plusa part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends (拼缀词)，or telescope words(混成词)/ portmanteau words (行囊词). A large majority of blends are nouns.Head + head:Head + tail:Head + word:Word + head:Word + tail:2. Back Formation (逆生法) is a process of word formation by removing the supposed suffixes.It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.1) By Removing Noun SuffixesBy removing the assumed quasi-derivational suffixes of singular nouns: -or, -er, -ar, -tion, -sion, -ance, -ence, etc.By removing the assumed quasi-derivational suffixes of compound nouns: -er, -tion, -sion, -ship, -ist, etc.2) By Removing Adjective SuffixesBy removing the assumed quasi-derivational suffixes of adjectives: -ous, -ish, -some, -y.By removing the assumed quasi-past participle suffixes of adjectives: -ed, -en, etc.By removing the assumed quasi-past present suffixes of nouns, compound nouns, adjectives and adverbs: -ing.Words back formed from proper names (name of people, places and brands).3. Onomatopoeia ( 拟声法) is the process of word-formation by imitating or suggesting the source ofthe sound that it describes. Words formed in this way are called onomatopoeic words/ imitative words/ echo words.Primary Onomatopoeia (基本拟声词): the likeness between sound and meaningWords imitating sounds made by people:Words imitating sounds made by animals:Words imitate sounds in nature or in technology:Words imitating sounds made by other objects:Secondary Onomatopoeia (次要拟声词): the association between sound and certain symbolic meaning: Phonaesthemes (联觉音组) by J.R. Firth (弗斯)sk-, sl-, bl-, fl-, sn-, qu-, -ump, -ash, -ush…Sound Reduplication (语音重叠法): the formation of compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change.Words made in this way are known asreduplicatives. e.g.: tick-tick, hubble-bubble, dingdong…。

英语词汇学知识点整理

词汇期末复习（C1-C7）Chapter 1一、Word 词的定义(1) a minimal free form（最小的自由形式）(2) a sound unity(3) a semantic unity（meaning）(4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.（具有句法功能）二、V ocabulary词汇的定义All the words in a language make up what is generally known as vocabulary.一般来说，词汇指的是一种语言里所有单词的总和。

词的总和构成语言的词汇。

词与词汇之间的关系是个体与总体之间的关系。

三、Sound&Meaning发音和意义The connection between the sound (form) and meaning is arbitrary (任意的) and conventional.二者的关系是约定俗成、随意的四、Sound & Form发音和形式(1)The written form of a natural language is the orthographical（正字的）record of the oral form.自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。

(2)The reasons of differences occur between sound and form: 发音与形式不同的原因：①English alphabet was adopted from the Romans 英语字母表来自罗马②the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years. 发音改变快速③Differences created by professional scribes. 专业抄写员的不同④More differences brought by the continuing change of sounds and the standardization of spelling.发音不断变化，书写标准化。

词汇学

1.Word（词）：a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.Words obvious characteristics(词汇明显的特点)：all national character，stability，productivity，polysemy, collocability.2.Terminology（术语）：terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. 例如,sonata（奏鸣曲），calculus（微积分），concerto （大提琴）。

3.Jargon（行话）：refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts,science trades and professions communicate among themselves.例如，bottom line(不可避免的结果)，paranoid（多疑的），buster(轰炸)。

4.Slang(俚语)：slangs belongs to the sub-standard language,a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words .例如，cant(套语)，jargon（行话），argot（黑语）。

5.Argot（黑话）：generally refers to the jargon of criminals.例如，can-opener(万能钥匙)，dip(扒手)，persuader(匕首)。

词汇学4-词的构成

Words from Proper Names 1. Names of people: Watt, Ohm, pasteurize people: 2. Names of places: china, champagne places: 3. Names of books: utopia books: 4. Tradenames: nylon, orlon, dacron, rayon Tradenames:
Reduplication
Reduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a wordcompound word is created by the repetition: repetition: of one word like go-go; goof two almost identical words with a change in the vowelssuch as pingpong; of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, consonants, as in willy-nilly “willingly or unwillingly” willyunwillingly” Other examples: tick-tick (of a watch); zigzag (a line which examples: tickfiddleturns right and left alternatively at sharp angles); fiddle-faddle (trifling matters); yo-yo (a stupid or foolish person); no-no (sth. yonothat is unacceptable or forbidden).

词汇学构词法clipping

Clipping 截短法
4.1. Definition
In linguistics, clipping is the word formation process
which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its
parts (Marchand: 1969).
For convenience and casualness in speech, people often omit one or two syllables from a word, and when it’s written down, a new spelling form is coined to suit the oral form.
Chapter 4 --English Word Formation
Types of Word Formation
Affixation( Prefixation ,Suffixation) Compounding Conversion Blending
Clipping
Acronymy (Initialisms ,Acronyms) Back-formation Onomatopoeia Sound Reduplication Commonization of Proper Names
Eg.
refrigerator fridge
microphone mike
television telly
handkerchief hanky
comfortable comfy
可编辑
(5). Phrase clipping
popular music pop public house pub zoological garden zoo permanent wavesperm

高中英语构词法总结

高中英语构词法是英语学习中的重要部分，它可以帮助学生理解和记忆单词。

构词法主要分为合成法、派生法和转化法，另外还有缩写和简写。

下面是对这些构词法的简要总结：
1. **合成法（Compounding）**：
-合成法是指由两个或更多的词合成一个新词。

-合成词可以是名词、形容词或动词。

-合成词的意义通常是由组成它的各个词的意义组合而成的。

2. **派生法（Derivation）**：
-派生法是指通过在词根前加上前缀或在词根后加上后缀来构成新词。

-前缀和后缀可以改变词的意义或词性。

-派生法是英语中形成新词的主要方式。

3. **转化法（Conversion）**：
-转化法是指一个词在不改变词形的情况下，由一种词性转化为另一种词性。

-转化可以是动词转名词、名词转动词、形容词转名词等。

-转化法在英语中很常见，尤其是在动词和名词之间。

4. **缩写和简写（Abbreviation and Clipping）**：
-缩写是指将单词或词组的某些字母缩写为更短的形式，通常按照字母的发音来缩写。

-简写是指截去单词的前部或后部，或同时截去前部和后部，以形成一个新词。

学习构词法对于提高英语词汇量、理解和记忆单词非常有帮助。

掌握这些构词法可以帮助学生更好地理解单词的构成和意义，从而更有效地学习和使用英语。

赢在单词必知：英语词源入门之屈折构词法

赢在单词必知：英语词源入门之屈折构词法由词根的元音或辅音的交替来构成不同词的方法，叫屈折构词法（有点学术化），所构成的词叫做一级派生词。

1. 词根元音屈折构词法fall（落下）——fell（砍到）food（食物）——feed（喂）gold（黄金）——gild（镀金）lie（躺下）——lay（放下）hot（热）——heat（热气）rise（升）——raise（举起）2. 词根辅音屈折构词法advice（忠告）——advise（忠告）belief（信仰）——believe（相信）milk（牛奶）——milch（有奶的）speak（说话）——speech（言语）glass（玻璃）——glaze（装玻璃）3. 词根的元、辅音屈折构词法bake（烘烤面包）——batch（面包的一半）burn（燃烧）——brand（烙印）choose（选择）——choice（选择）dull（愚蠢的）——dolt（呆子）live（生活）——life（生命）lose（丢失）——loss（损失）英语词源入门2——拟声词英语中有些字母的发音象征某种气氛、意境，能使人产生相应的联想。

如： s是咝音字母，它常常和风的飕飕声、水的唰唰声、蛇的咝咝声有这样那样的联系；m是鼻音字母，它常常表示低沉的声音，如人的窃窃私语、虫子的嗡嗡声、鸽子的咕咕声和海啸声；h是吐气音，它常常和气喘、费劲相联系，如hurry, heave , huge, hurl, hoist , hop。

b和p是唇音字母，它常常表示和水有关的的声音，如boil, bubble, drip, drop, lap, plop, ripple；r是卷舌摩擦音，发音粗糙生硬，它常常表示噪音和其它令人不愉快的声音，如洪水、战争、大破坏等英语词源入门3——缩略构词法缩略构词法并不创造新词，而是将原有的词缩短，或者将原来固定词组，复合词简略缩写而成为缩略词。

缩略词就结构上来说可以分为三大类：1、音节缩略词（clipping）a. 保留词的开头部分，缩略末尾的部分bike（自行车）——bicycledoc（医生）——doctorauto（汽车）——automobilephoto（照片）——photographyb. 保留词结尾的部分，缩略开头部分plane（飞机）——aeroplanestory（故事）——historybus（公共汽车）——omnibusphone（）——telephonec. 保留中间的某一部分flu（流行性感冒）——influencefridge（冰箱）——refrigeratortec（侦探）——detectived. 保留词的某些字母加以拼合而成bldg（建筑物）——buildingft（英尺）——foot，feetin（英寸）——nich2. 紧缩词（Blends）brunch（早午餐）=breakfast+lunchheliport（直升飞机机场）=helicopter+airportnewscast（新闻广播）=news+broadcasttelecast（电视广播）=television+broadcastamog（烟雾）=smoke+fog3. 字母缩略词（Acronyms）字母缩略词是从一个词或一个词组中取一个或几个字母并列起来构成的radar（雷达）——radio detecting and ranginglaser（激光）——light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation Xmas（圣诞节）——christmas英语词源入门4——辅音的增加有些词根在派生单词时，为了语音发音上的方便，常加上一个辅音字母。

英语词汇学 conversion backformation clipping

Clipping
Clipping may be divide into four main types: A.Back clippings B.Front clippings C.Front and back clippings(not a common type of clipping) D.Phrase clippings
• Denoting peoples of a nation (ending in –sh,-se,ch);the Eglish ,the Chinese ,the Danish,the Scotch
• Denoting a quality in the abstract;a strong dislike for the sentimental,to distinguish the false and the true
Thank you!
L/O/G/O
Conversion, Back-formation,Clipping
L/O/G/O
Conversion词类转换法
The definition of conversion Conversion is a word-formation process whereby
a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.It is also called zero derivation(零位派生）

Noun-verb conversion
•He elbowed his way through the crowd. •Problems snowballed by the hour. •The newspaper headlined his long record of accomplishments. •Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to Camp David.

词汇学之构词法

Lexicology (Lecture Four)2011.9.22The structure of a wordWord is not an unanalysible unit, it can be analyzed. e.g. …M an‟can not be broken down into any smaller unit, but …manly‟ can. Word is the minimum free form (最小的自由使用单位).1. 词素morphemeMorpheme: the minimum meaningful unit. 最小的意义单位. There are two types of morphemes:Free morpheme: the morphemes that can occur alone可以独立使用, e.g. dog, nation, closeBound morpheme：the morphemes that cannot occur independently尽管能表达意义，但不能独立使用，至少要与另外的一个形位结合才能使用, e.g. the word distempered has three morphemes,namely, dis-, temper- and -ed, of which temper is a freemorpheme, dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes. Allomorph: 词素有变体，如自由词素take的变体为took和taken；粘着词素in-的变体为il-, im-, ir等。

2. Root and affixA root is the base form of word that can not further be analysed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.Affix：affixes add meaning to the rootroots may be bound or free but affixes are always bound.Inflectional and derivational affixInflectional affix: They only carry relevant grammatical information. An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. e.g. plural. Thus,book and books are both nouns referring to the same kind of entity.Derivational affix: They are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they “derive” a new word either by changing the meaning of the base to which they are attached or by changing the grammatical category (part of speech) of the base. The derivational affixes may be further classified as prefix and suffix.Example: The word "unbreakable" has three morphemes: "un-", a bound morpheme; "break", a free morpheme; and "-able", a free morpheme. "un-" is also a prefix, "-able" is a suffix. Both "un-" and "-able" are affixes.Summary:1.Words are composed of morphemes.2. Morphemes may be classified as free or bound.3. Morphemes can also be classified into roots and affixes.4 Affixes are classified into inflectional and derivational affixes. Derivational affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes,Major types of word-building1. Affixation:a process in which a free morpheme is combined with a bound morpheme, a prefix or a suffix.Prefix: generally do not change part of speech of the word 不改变词的词性Suffix: change part of speech of the word2. ConversionConversion is also referred to as Zero Derivation.It is a process that can transfer a word belonging to one word class to another word class without any change of form, either in pronunciation or spelling.3. Compounding 复合法A word made in process which consists joining two or even more words to form anew entity. A compound is the result of the process of putting together two (or more) individual words to form a complex word.Compounding is perhaps the most common way of expanding the vocabulary of English. It allows users to combine two familiar words to form a new lexeme.4. Back-formation 逆生法Back-formation is process of word building by which elements are extracted from a complex word.Burglar---to burgleHelicopter---to helicoptMass-production—to mass-produceCozy---to cozeBrowbeaten---to browbeat5. Shortening 缩短法What we get from shortening is a lesser unit. There is a trend in modern English to shorten words. Three ways of shorteninga. ClippingThe process by which one part in a word of two or more syllables is cut without changing its function.Advertisement—adExamination---examb. initialism (abbreviation)words formed from the initial letters of words which are pronounced as sequences of letterse.g. EECc. acronymsformed by the initial letters but are pronounced as a word.e.g. UNESCO OPEC6. BlendingBlending is the process of combining the first element of the first word and the last element of the second word. Blends are originally created for comic effect.telecast (television broadcast)motel (motor hotel), hotel7. Onomatopoeia(making words by echoing a sound that is linked to the thing we want to name) Classification (by Stephen Ullmann英国语言学家、语义学家奠基人)Primary onomatopoeia (基本拟声词)Secondary onomatopoeia (次要拟声词)8. Words from Proper NamesAnother minor word-formation process is the creation of new words from proper names. The transition from proper names to common nouns is a gradual one.。

词汇学构词法clipping

For convenience and casualness in speech, people often omit one or two syllables from a word, and when it's written down, a new spelling form is coined to suit the oral form.
(2). Back clipping
? doctor ?doc ? gasoline ? gas ? cablegram ? cable ? examination ? exam ? advertisement ? ad
(3).Front and back clipping
? influenza ? flu ? detective ? tec ? pre script ion ?script ? apollinaris ? polly
4.3.Five common types of clipping:
1.Front clipping 2.Back clipping 3.Front and back clipping 4.Middle clipping 5.Phrase clipping
(1).Front clipping
? robot ? bot ? Internet ?net ? turnpike ? pike ? omni bus ? bus ? telephone ?phone ? violoncello? cello ? para chute ? chute
Eg. refrigerator ? fridge microphone ? mike television ? telly handkerchief ? hanky comfortable ? comfy