干扰检测中英文对照外文翻译文献

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传感器技术论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献

传感器技术论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献Development of New Sensor TechnologiesSensors are devices that can convert physical。

chemical。

logical quantities。

etc。

into electrical signals。

The output signals can take different forms。

such as voltage。

current。

frequency。

pulse。

etc。

and can meet the requirements of n n。

processing。

recording。

display。

and control。

They are indispensable components in automatic n systems and automatic control systems。

If computers are compared to brains。

then sensors are like the five senses。

Sensors can correctly sense the measured quantity and convert it into a corresponding output。

playing a decisive role in the quality of the system。

The higher the degree of n。

the higher the requirements for sensors。

In today's n age。

the n industry includes three parts: sensing technology。

n technology。

and computer technology。

光纤光栅技术中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)使用了光纤光栅技术的光学水位传感器基于光纤光栅( FBG )技术我们开发了一种光学高精度水位传感器。

该传感器可用于测量河流,湖泊和污水处理系统的水位。

传感头由一个膜片,一个特制的弹簧管和两个光纤光栅组成, 一个用于张力测量另外一个用于温度补偿。

光纤光栅贴在弹簧管上，由于水位的上升，来自光纤光栅的发射光，使中心波长改变。

通过波长检测设备检测中心波长，波长检测设备由一个调谐F-P滤波器组成。

我们实现了传感器精度为±0.1%即为±1CM，水位测量范围为10m。

几个传感头可以通过一个光纤串联在一起。

用一块波长讯问设备可以同时测量不同的水位。

1简介：河川管理员具有非常重要的责任,是维护其河设施和监测流域状况。

由于河川设施是沿着河流域分散的，管理员要定期检查这些设施。

这一工作是非常花费员工的时间和体力的。

此外, 很难对这些设施进行抽查,以确定其结构完整性,在发生自然灾害 ,如洪水冲刷,地震干扰。

从这个角度出发，日本政府沿着其河川流域建立了光纤网络。

利用这种光纤网络近日有效地研制光纤传感器和传感系统, 而适用于流域防洪设施的安全管理。

光纤传感器及其系统,有以下的优点：1.低传输损耗使光纤遥感超过几十公里。

2.实时监控是通过传感头连接在一起，测量设备直接使用光纤。

3.传感头为全光通信无源器件,不需要进行电力供应，传感器头已装入。

4.由于是不受电磁干扰的一个光学传感器, 它不遭受触电有害影响的,如发生了雷击。

水位传感是一个河川最关键的问题,无论是河流管理者和附近居住的立足点都是一个流域设施的维修以及预防自然灾害。

我们已开发出光学水位传感器利用光纤光栅(FBG),拥有的优势比上述更多。

在本文中,我们详细阐述了光纤光栅作为应变传感器, 水位传感应用的业绩,获得了实用领域。

2光纤光栅技术及传感应用：2.1 光纤光栅的原理FBG 是一个沿着给定长度光纤的折射率的调制解调器。

外文文献及翻译；其中参考文献一般不少于10篇，其中至少参考一篇外文...

河北大学本科生毕业论文（设计）撰写规范一、毕业论文（设计）撰写结构要求1、题目：应简洁、明确、有概括性，字数不宜超过20个字。

2、摘要：要有高度的概括力，语言精练、明确。

同时有中、英文对照，中文摘要约300—400汉字；英文摘要约200—300个实词。

3、关键词：从论文标题或正文中挑选3～5个最能表达主要内容的词作为关键词，同时有中、英文对照，分别附于中、英文摘要后。

5、正文：（1）毕业论文正文：包括前言、本论、结论三个部分。

前言（引言）是论文的开头部分，主要说明论文写作的目的、现实意义、对所研究问题的认识，并提出论文的中心论点等。

前言要写得简明扼要，篇幅不要太长。

本论是毕业论文的主体，包括研究内容与方法、实验材料、实验结果与分析（讨论）等。

在本部分要运用各方面的研究方法和实验结果，分析问题，论证观点，尽量反映出自己的科研能力和学术水平。

结论是毕业论文的收尾部分，是围绕本论所作的结束语。

其基本的要点就是总结全文，加深题意。

6、谢辞：简述自己通过做毕业论文（设计）的体会，并应对指导教师和协助完成论文（设计）的有关人员表示谢意。

7、参考文献：在毕业论文（设计说明书）末尾要列出在论文（设计）中参考过的专著、论文及其他资料，所列参考文献应按文中参考或引证的先后顺序排列。

8、注释：在论文（设计说明书）写作过程中，有些问题需要在正文之外加以阐述和说明。

9、附录：对于一些不宜放在正文中，但有参考价值的内容，可编入附录中。

例如，公式的推演、编写的算法、语言程序等。

10.根据《河北省教育厅关于开展普通高等学校2006届本专科毕业生毕业设计（论文）检查的通知》（冀高教[2006]5号）文件的精神，“毕业设计（论文）相关的外文文献的中文翻译一般不少于2000字，文献综述一般不少于1000字”。

二、毕业论文（设计）撰写格式要求1、毕业论文一律打印，采取A4纸张，页边距一律采取：上、下2.5cm，左3cm,右1.5cm，行间距取多倍行距（设置值为1.25）；字符间距为默认值（缩放100%，间距：标准），封面采用教务处统一规定的封面。

社交网络审查中英文对照外文翻译文献

社交网络审查中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文:社交网络阻碍审查的研究摘要许多国家利用对互联网基础设施的控制阻止访问"灰色"的材料。

一种常见方式就是要通过畅通中继经营代理服务器。

本文讨论了任何基于代理的规避所面临的挑战系统和传播成功的系统代理服务器的地址，以合法用户同时屏蔽检查员人冒充用户，可以从地址了解和阻止自己的代理服务器。

我们建议的万花筒，分发代理地址的规避系统通过其链接对应于现有的社会网络现实世界。

万花筒确保每个节点学会只有一个小的一致的子集代理。

因为检查员不太可能颠覆大社交图的分数，他不能了解这样大量的代理服务器。

1简介互联网最初被为了确保稳健在通讯攻击基础上架构本身。

一个受欢迎的报价说互联网将视为故障及路线的审查制度围绕着它。

相反，互联网审查制度是流行今天。

实证研究揭示，数以百万计的用户在世界许多地区患有互联网审查制度[4]和新闻报告了堵塞的各种从 Flickr[6][27]，YouTube 等网站的[6] 维基百科或甚至 Google [2]。

审查并不只是一个技术问题。

虽然审查人员经常聘请技术方法，访问许多类型的截尾材料被无法通过非技术性的方法，如拘留，威胁失去了工作，等等。

了解全部范围的方法（技术和非技术性）可用检查员服务概述的任何技术可能的范围审查制度问题的解决办法，并通知这一系统的设计。

图 1 提供一种粗糙分类的方法审查制度。

截尾材料绘制的根据用于防止访问材料技术。

X 轴对应于技术的程度手段（阻塞，数据包检测，IP 地址等）；y 轴对应于非技术性的方法(监狱服刑，暴力的威胁)。

材料可以大致分为四个象限。

右上方，强制执行检查是通过这两种技术手段，以及不同程度的真实世界的惩罚。

例如，在最近的政治抗议活动期间，缅甸政府去了极端的这两种技术和非技术性的审查制度。

政府暂时打乱了整个国家的外部互联网连接也被拘留那些人和那些张贴截尾材料使用外部代理被封锁的网站 [5]。

红外传感器中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照翻译外文资料Moving Object Counting with an Infrared Sensor NetworkAbstractWireless Sensor Network (WSN) has become a hot research topic recently. Great benefit can be gained through the deployment of the WSN over a wide range ofapplications, covering the domains of commercial, military as well as residential. In this project, we design a counting system which tracks people who pass through a detecting zone as well as the corresponding moving directions. Such a system can be deployed in traffic control, resource management, and human flow control. Our design is based on our self-made cost-effective Infrared Sensing Module board which co-operates with a WSN. The design of our system includes Infrared Sensing Module design, sensor clustering, node communication, system architecture and deployment. We conduct a series of experiments to evaluate the system performance which demonstrates the efficiency of our Moving Object Counting system.Keywords:Infrared radiation，Wireless Sensor Node1.1 Introduction to InfraredInfrared radiation is a part of the electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength lying between visible light and radio waves. Infrared have be widely used nowadaysincluding data communications, night vision, object tracking and so on. People commonly use infrared in data communication, since it is easily generated and only suffers little from electromagnetic interference. Take the TV remote control as an example, which can be found in everyone's home. The infrared remote control systems use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to send out an IR (infrared) signal when the button is pushed. A different pattern of pulses indicates the corresponding button being pushed. To allow the control of multiple appliances such as a TV, VCR, and cable box, without interference, systems generally have a preamble and an address to synchronize the receiver and identify the source and location of the infrared signal. To encode the data, systems generally vary the width of the pulses (pulse-width modulation) or the width of the spaces between the pulses (pulse space modulation). Another popular system, bi-phase encoding, uses signal transitions to convey information. Each pulse is actually a burst of IR at the carrier frequency.A 'high' means a burst of IR energy at the carrier frequency and a 'low' represents an absence of IR energy. There is no encoding standard.However, while a great many home entertainment devices use their own proprietary encoding schemes, some quasi-standards do exist. These include RC-5, RC-6, and REC-80. In addition, many manufacturers, such as NEC, have also established their own standards.Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) has become a hot research topic recently. Great benefit can be gained through the deployment of the WSN over a wide range ofapplications, covering the domains of commercial, military as well as residential. In this project, we design a counting system which tracks people who pass through a detecting zone as well as the corresponding moving directions. Such a system can be deployed in traffic control, resource management, and human flow control. Our design is based on our self-made cost-effective Infrared Sensing Module board which co-operates with a WSN. The design of our system includes Infrared Sensing Module design, sensor clustering, node communication, system architecture and deployment. We conduct a series of experiments to evaluate the system performance which demonstrates the efficiency of our Moving Object Counting system.1.2 Wireless sensor networkWireless sensor network (WSN) is a wireless network which consists of a vast number of autonomous sensor nodes using sensors to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature,acoustics, vibration, pressure, motion or pollutants, at different locations. Each node in a sensor network is typically equipped with a wireless communications device, a small microcontroller, one or more sensors, and an energy source, usually a battery. The size of a single sensor node can be as large as a shoebox and can be as small as the size of a grain of dust, depending on different applications. The cost of sensor nodes is similarly variable, ranging from hundreds of dollars to a few cents, depending on the size of the sensor network and the complexity requirement of the individual sensor nodes. The size and cost are constrained by sensor nodes, therefore, have result in corresponding limitations on available inputs such as energy, memory, computational speed and bandwidth. The development of wireless sensor networks (WSN) was originally motivated by military applications such as battlefield surveillance. Due to the advancement in micro-electronic mechanical system technology (MEMS), embedded microprocessors, and wireless networking, the WSN can be benefited in many civilian application areas, including habitat monitoring, healthcare applications, and home automation.1.3 Types of Wireless Sensor NetworksWireless sensor network nodes are typically less complex than general-purpose operating systems both because of the special requirements of sensor network applications and the resource constraintsin sensor network hardware platforms. The operating system does not need to include support for user interfaces. Furthermore, the resource constraints in terms of memory and memory mapping hardware support make mechanisms such as virtual memory either unnecessary or impossible to implement. TinyOS [TinyOS] is possibly the first operating system specifically designed for wireless sensor networks. Unlike most other operating systems, TinyOS is based on an event-driven programming model instead of multithreading. TinyOS programs are composed into event handlers and tasks with run to completion-semantics. When an external event occurs, such as an incoming data packet or a sensor reading, TinyOS calls the appropriate event handler to handle the event. The TinyOS system and programs are both written in a special programming language called nesC [nesC] which is an extension to the C programming language. NesC is designed to detect race conditions between tasks and event handlers. There are also operating systems that allow programming in C. Examples of such operating systems include Contiki [Contiki], and MANTIS. Contiki is designed to support loading modules over the network and supports run-time loading of standard ELF files. The Contiki kernel is event-driven, like TinyOS, but the system supports multithreading on a per-application basis. Unlike the event-driven Contiki kernel, the MANTIS kernel is based on preemptive multithreading. With preemptive multithreading, applications do not needto explicitly yield the microprocessor to other processes.1.4 Introduction to Wireless Sensor NodeA sensor node, also known as a mote, is a node in a wireless sensor network that is capable of performing processing, gathering sensory information and communicating with other connected nodes in the network. Sensor node should be in small size, consuming extremely low energy, autonomous and operate unattended, and adaptive to the environment. As wireless sensor nodes are micro-electronic sensor device, they can only be equipped with a limited power source. The main components of a sensor node include sensors, microcontroller, transceiver, and power source. Sensors are hardware devices that can produce measurable response to a change in a physical condition such as light density and sound density. The continuous analog signal collected by the sensors is digitized by Analog-to-Digital converter. The digitized signal is then passed to controllers for further processing. Most of the theoretical work on WSNs considers Passive and Omni directional sensors. Passive and Omni directional sensors sense the data without actually manipulating the environment with active probing, while no notion of “direction” involved in these measurements. Commonly people deploy sensor for detecting heat (e.g. thermal sensor), light (e.g. infrared sensor), ultra sound (e.g. ultrasonic sensor), or electromagnetism (e.g. magnetic sensor). In practice, a sensor node can equip with more than one sensor.Microcontroller performs tasks, processes data and controls the operations of other components in the sensor node. The sensor node is responsible for the signal processing upon the detection of the physical events as needed or on demand. It handles the interruption from the transceiver. In addition, it deals with the internal behavior, such as application-specific computation.The function of both transmitter and receiver are combined into a single device know as transceivers that are used in sensor nodes. Transceivers allow a sensor node to exchange information between the neighboring sensors and the sink node (a central receiver). The operational states of a transceiver are Transmit, Receive, Idle and Sleep. Power is stored either in the batteries or the capacitors. Batteries are the main source of power supply for the sensor nodes. Two types of batteries used are chargeable and non-rechargeable. They are also classified according to electrochemical material used for electrode such as NiCd(nickel-cadmium), NiZn(nickel-zinc), Nimh(nickel metal hydride), and Lithium-Ion. Current sensors are developed which are able to renew their energy from solar to vibration energy. Two major power saving policies used areDynamic Power Management (DPM) and Dynamic V oltage Scaling (DVS). DPM takes care of shutting down parts of sensor node which are not currently used or active. DVS scheme varies the power levelsdepending on the non-deterministic workload. By varying the voltage along with the frequency, it is possible to obtain quadratic reduction in power consumption.1.5 ChallengesThe major challenges in the design and implementation of the wireless sensor network are mainly the energy limitation, hardware limitation and the area of coverage. Energy is the scarcest resource of WSN nodes, and it determines the lifetime of WSNs. WSNs are meant to be deployed in large numbers in various environments, including remote and hostile regions, with ad-hoc communications as key. For this reason, algorithms and protocols need to be lifetime maximization, robustness and fault tolerance and self-configuration. The challenge in hardware is to produce low cost and tiny sensor nodes. With respect to these objectives, current sensor nodes usually have limited computational capability and memory space. Consequently, the application software and algorithms in WSN should be well-optimized and condensed. In order to maximize the coverage area with a high stability and robustness of each signal node, multi-hop communication with low power consumption is preferred. Furthermore, to deal with the large network size, the designed protocol for a large scale WSN must be distributed.1.6 Research IssuesResearchers are interested in various areas of wireless sensornetwork, which include the design, implementation, and operation. These include hardware, software and middleware, which means primitives between the software and the hardware. As the WSNs are generally deployed in the resources-constrained environments with battery operated node, the researchers are mainly focus on the issues of energy optimization, coverage areas improvement, errors reduction, sensor network application, data security, sensor node mobility, and data packet routing algorithm among the sensors. In literature, a large group of researchers devoted a great amount of effort in the WSN. They focused in various areas, including physical property, sensor training, security through intelligent node cooperation, medium access, sensor coverage with random and deterministic placement, object locating and tracking, sensor location determination, addressing, energy efficient broadcasting and active scheduling, energy conserved routing, connectivity, data dissemination and gathering, sensor centric quality of routing, topology control and maintenance, etc.中文译文移动目标点数与红外传感器网络摘要无线传感器网络(WSN)已成为最近的一个研究热点。

数字频率计中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Introduction of digital frequency meterDigital Frequency is an indispensable instrument of communications equipment, audio and video, and other areas of scientific research and production . In addition to the plastic part of the measured signal, and digital key for a part of the show, all the digital frequency using Verilog HDL designed and implemented achieve in an FPGA chip. The entire system is very lean, flexible and have a modification of the scene.1 、And other precision measuring frequency PrincipleFrequency measurement methods can be divided into two kinds:(1) direct measurement method, that is, at a certain time measurement gate measured pulse signal number.(2) indirect measurements, such as the cycle frequency measurement, VF conversion law. Frequency Measurement indirect measurement method applies only to low-frequency signals.Based on the principles of traditional frequency measurement of the frequency of measurement accuracy will be measured with the decline in signal frequency decreases in the more practical limitations, such as the accuracy and frequency of measurement not only has high accuracy, but also in the whole frequency region to maintain constant test accuracy. The main method of measurement frequency measurement Preferences gated signal GATE issued by the MCU, GATE time width on the frequency measurement accuracy of less impact, in the larger context of choice, as long as the FPGA in 32 of 100 in the counter b M Signals are not overflow line, in accordance with the theoretical calculation GATE time can be greater than the width Tc 42.94 s, but due to the single-chip microcomputer data processing capacity constraints, the actual width of less time, generally in the range of between 0.1 s choice, that is, high-frequency, shorter gate;, low gate longer. This time gate width Tc based on the size of the measured frequency automatically adjust frequency measurement in order to achieve the automatic conversion range, and expanded the range of frequency measurement; realization of the entire scope of measurement accuracy, reduce the low-frequency measurement error.The design of the main methods of measuring the frequency measurement and control block diagram as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 Preferences gated signal GA TE issued by the MCU, GA TE time width of less frequency measurement accuracy, in the larger context of choice, as long as the FPGA in 32 of 100 in the counter b M signal Overflow will do, according to theoretical calculations GA TE time width T c can be greater than 42194 s, but due to the single-chip microcomputer data processing capacity constraints, the actual width of less time, generally 10 to 011 s in the inter-choice, that is, high - band, the gate time shorter, low gate longer. This time gate width based on the measured T c automatically adjust the size of frequency measurement frequency range to achieve the automatic conversion, and expanded the range of frequency measurement; realization of the entire scope of measurement accuracy, reduce the low-frequency measurement error.2、Frequency of achievingFrequency Measurement accuracy of such method. Can be simplified as shown in the diagram. Map CNT1 and CNT2 two controllable counter, standard frequency (f) signal from the CN F1 clock input cI K input, the signal measured after the plastic (f) CNT2 clock input cI K input. Each counter in the CEN input as enable end, used to control the counter count. When the gate signal is HIGH Preferences (Preferencesstart time). Signal measured by the rising edge of the D flip-flop input, launched at the same time with two counts of juice; Similarly, when preferences for low gate signal (the end of Preferences time), the rising edge of the measured signals through D Trigger output end of the counter to stop counting.3、And the median frequency of relevant indicatorsMedian: At the same time the figures show that up to the median. The usual eight-count frequency of only several hundred yuan can buy. For high precision measurements, nine just beginning, the middle is 11, 13 can be relatively high.Overflow of:-the ability to promote itself to overflow the equivalent of the total. Some of the frequency with overflow function, which is the highest overflow does not display only shows that the bit behind, in order to achieve the purpose of the median. Here is the estimated value of individual indicators.Speed: namely, the number of per second. With the high number of measurement particularly slow but also lose its significance. Counting of the usual eight frequency measurement 10 MHz signals, one second gate will be 10000000 Hz, which is actually seven (equivalent to the median number of common admission after the value), to obtain eight needed 10 seconds gate ; to obtain nine needed 100 seconds gate, followed by analogy, shows that even the permission of 11 need 10,000 second measurement time. But in any case, or seven per second. Therefore, to fast must be a few high speed.Distinction: it is like a minimum voltage meter can tell how much voltage indicators are similar, the smaller the better, unit ps (picoseconds). 1000ps = 1ns. Suppose you use the frequency of 1 ns to differentiate between an e-12 error, we need a ns/1e-12 = 1000 seconds. Also assume that you have a frequency resolution of 100 ps, the measurement time can be shortened by 10 times for 100 seconds, or can be in the same 1000 second measured under an e-14 Error.4、Time and Frequency MeasurementCompared to traditional methods of circuit design, EDA technology uses VHDL language to describe circuit system, including circuit structure, behavior, function and interface logic. Verilog HDL description of a multi-level system hardware functions, and support top-down design features. Designers can not understand the hardware structure. Start from the system design, on the top floor of a system block diagram of the structure and design, in a diagram with Ver-ilog HDL acts on the circuit description and simulation and error correction, and then the system level verification,and finally use logic synthesis optimization tool to create specific gate-level logic circuit netlist, download to the specific FPGA device to in order to achieve FPGA design.Time and frequency measurement is an important area of electronic measurement. Frequency and time measurement has been receiving increasing attention, length, voltage, and other parameters can be transformed into a frequency measurement and related technologies to determine. Based on the more traditional method of synchronization cycle, and has proposed a multi-cycle synchronization and quantitative method of measuring delay frequency method.The most simple method of measuring the frequency of direct frequency measurement method. Direct Frequency Measurement is scheduled to enter the gate signal pulse, the adoption of the necessary counting circuit, the number of pulses are filled to calculate the frequency or analyte signal cycle. In the direct frequency measurement on the basis of the development of multi-cycle synchronous measurement method, in the current frequency monitoring system to be more widely used. Multi-cycle synchronization frequency measurement technology actual gate time is not fixed value, but the measured signals in the whole cycle times, and the measured signal synchronization, thereby removing the measured signal count on when the word ± 1 error, measurement accuracy greatly improved, and reached in the entire spectrum of measurement, such as precision measurement.In the time-frequency measurement method, the multi-cycle synchronization is a high precision, but still unresolved ± a word error, mainly because of the actual gate edge and standard frequency synchronization is not filling pulse edge Tx=N0T0-△t2+△t1, if accurately measured short interval Δ t1 and Δ t2, will be able to accurately measure time intervals Tx, eliminating ± a word counting error, so as to further enhance accuracy.To measure a short time interval Δ t1 and Δ t2, commonly used analog interpolation method with the cursor or more combined cycle synchronization, although accuracy is greatly improved, but eventually failed to resolve ± a word error this fundamental issue, but these methods equipment complex and not conducive to the promotion.To obtain high precision, fast response time, simple structure and the frequency and time measurement method is relatively difficult.Judging from the structure as simple as possible at the same time take intoaccount the point of view of accuracy, multi-cycle synchronization and delay based on the quantitative methods in a short period of time interval measurement, achieved within the scope of broadband, such as high-resolution measurement accuracy.Quantified by measuring short time intervals DelayPhotoelectric signal can be in a certain stability in the medium of rapid spread, and in different media have different delay. By signals generated by the delay to quantify, and gave a short period of time interval measurement.The basic principle is that "delay serial, parallel count", and different from the traditional counter serial number, that is, to signal through a series of delay unit, the delay unit on the delay stability, under the control of the computer Delay on the state of high-speed acquisition and data processing, for a short period of time to achieve accurate measurement interval.Delay quantitative thinking depend on the realization of the delay stability delay unit, the unit depends on the resolution of the delay time delay element.Delay device as a unit can be passive conduit, or other active devices gate circuit. Among them, Traverse shorter delay time (nearly the speed of light transmission delay), the gate delay time longer. Taking into account delays can be predictive ability final choice of the CPLD devices, the realization of the short time interval measurement.Will be the beginning of a short time interval signal sent delay in the transmission chain, when the advent of the end of signal, this signal delay in the delay in the chain latch state, read through the CPU, the judge signal a delay unit on the few short-term time interval can be the size of the unit decided to delay resolution of the unit delay time.Generally speaking, in order to measure both short interval, the use of two modules delay and latches, but in reality, given the time software gate large enough to allow completion from the number of CPU operation, which can be measured in the time interval taken before the end of a short period of time at Δ t1 corresponding delay the number of units through the control signals must be used only a delay and latches units, it saves CPLD internal resources. Synchronization and multi-cycle latency to quantify the method of combining The formula is:T=n0t0+n1t1-n2t1On, n0 for the filling pulse of value; t0 for filling pulse cycle, that is 100 ns; n1 for a short period of time at Δ t1 corresponding delay the number of modules; n2 for ashort period of time at Δ t2 corresponding delay unit Number; t1 quantify delay devices for the delay delay unit volume (4.3 ns). In this way, using multi-cycle synchronization and realized the gate and measured signal synchronization; Delay of using quantitative measurement of the original measured not by the two short intervals, to accurately measure the size of the actual gate, it raised frequency measurement accuracy.The frequency synthesizer output frequency signal can only be transferred to the minimum 10 Hz, XDU-17 as a standard of measurement can be calculated prototype frequency measurement accuracy.For example, the measured signal is measured at 15.000010 MHz MHz signal to 5.00001002, from the calculation can be seen above, the resolution of the prototype has reached ns order of magnitude below from the perspective of theoretical analysis to illustrate this point.It has been anal yzed,multi-cycle synchronization frequency measurement, the measurement uncertainty:When the input f0 10 MHz, 1 s gate time, the uncertainty of measurement of ±1×10-7/s. When the measurement and quantification of delay circuit with short intervals combined, the uncertainty of measurement can be derived from the following.In the use of cycle synchronization, multi-analyte Tx for the cycle value of T0 time base for the introduction of the cycle.Tx= NT0+△t1-△t2Delay circuit and quantitative combined:Tx= NT0+(N1-N2)td±δTxHere, δTx not for the accuracy of the measurement.On the decline of the share: δTx≤±2tdFrom the details of the measuring accuracy of this method depends on the td, and its direct impact on the stability and size of the uncertainty of measurement. Therefore, the application of methods, counters can be achieved within the entire frequency range, such as the accuracy of measurement, and measurement accuracy is significantly improved, measuring improvement in resolution to 4.3 ns, and the elimination of the word ± a theoretical error, the accuracy is increased by 20 times.CONCLUSION This paper presents a new method of measuring frequency. Based on the frequency of this method of digital integrated circuit in a CPLD, greatlyreduced the volume of the entire apparatus, improved reliability, and a high-resolution measurements.5 、Frequency of VHDL DesignALTERA use of the FPGA chip EPF10K10 companies, the use of VHDL programming language design accuracy of frequency, given the core course. ISPEXPER simulation, design verification is successful, to achieve the desired results. Compared to the traditional frequency of FPGA simplify the circuit board design. Increased system design and the realization of reliability, frequency measurement range of up to 100 MHz and achieve a digital system hardware and software, which is digital logic design the new trend.The design uses the AL TERA EPF10K FPGA chip, the chip pin the delay of 5 ns, frequency of 200 MHz，the standardization of application VHDL hardware description language has a very rich data types, the structure of the model of a complex digital system logic design and computer simulation, and gradually improve after the automatic generation integrated to meet the requirements of the circuit structure of the digital logic can be realized, then can be downloaded to programmable logic devices, to complete design tasks.数字频率计的介绍数字频率计是通信设备、音、视频等科研生产领域不可缺少的测量仪器。

生物科学论文中英文资料外文翻译文献

生物科学论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway in the Citrus Genus: Number of Copies and Phylogenetic Diversity of Seven GeneThe first objective of this paper was to analyze the potential role of allelic variability of carotenoid biosynthetic genes in the interspecifi diversity in carotenoid composition of Citrus juices. The second objective was to determine the number of copies for each of these genes. Seven carotenoid biosynthetic genes were analyzed using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and simple sequence repeats (SSR) markers. RFLP analyses were performed with the genomic DNA obtained from 25 Citrus genotypes using several restriction enzymes. cDNA fragments of Psy, Pds, Zds, Lcyb, Lcy-e, Hy-b, and Zep genes labeled with [R-32P]dCTP were used as probes. For SSR analyses, two primer pairs amplifying two SSR sequences identified from expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of Lcy-b and Hy-b genes were designed. The number of copies of the seven genes ranged from one for Lcy-b to three for Zds. The genetic diversity revealed by RFLP and SSR profiles was in agreement with the genetic diversity obtained from neutral molecμLar markers. Genetic interpretation of RFLP and SSR profiles of four genes (Psy1, Pds1, Lcy-b, and Lcy-e1) enabled us to make inferences on the phylogenetic origin of alleles for the major commercial citrus species. Moreover, the resμLts of our analyses suggest that the allelic diversity observed at the locus of both of lycopene cyclase genes, Lcy-b and Lcy-e1, is associated with interspecific diversity in carotenoid accumμLation in Citrus. The interspecific differences in carotenoid contents previously reported to be associated withother key steps catalyzed by PSY, HY-b, and ZEP were not linked to specific alleles at the corresponding loci.KEYWORDS: Citrus; carotenoids; biosynthetic genes; allelic variability; phylogeny INTRODUCTIONCarotenoids are pigments common to all photosynthetic organisms. In pigment-protein complexes, they act as light sensors for photosynthesis but also prevent photo-oxidat ion induced by too strong light intensities. In horticμLtural crops, they play a major role in fruit, root, or tuber coloration and in nutritional quality. Indeed some of these micronutrients are precursors of vitamin A, an essential component of human and animal diets. Carotenoids may also play a role in chronic disease prevention (such as certain cancers), probably due to their antioxidant properties. The carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is now well established. Carotenoids are synthesized in plastids by nuclear-encoded enzymes. The immediate precursor of carotenoids (and also of gibberellins, plastoquinone, chlorophylls,phylloquinones, and tocopherols) is geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP). In light-grown plants, GGPP is mainly derivedcarotenoid, 15-cis-phytoene. Phytoene undergoes four desaturation reactions catalyzed by two enzymes, phytoene desaturase (PDS) and β-carotene desaturase (ZDS), which convert phytoene into the red-colored poly-cis-lycopene. Recently, Isaacson et al. and Park et al. isolated from tomato and Arabidopsis thaliana, respectively, the genes that encode the carotenoid isomerase (CRTISO) which, in turn, catalyzes the isomerization of poly-cis-carotenoids into all-trans-carotenoids. CRTISO acts on prolycopene to form all-trans lycopene, which undergoes cyclization reactions. Cyclization of lycopene is abranching point: one branch leads to β-carotene (β, β-carotene) and the other toα-carotene (β, ε-carotene). Lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-b) then converts lycopene intoβ-carotene in two steps, whereas the formation of α-carotene requires the action of two enzymes, lycopene ε- cyclase (LCY-e) and lycopene β-cyclase (LCY-b). α- carotene is converted into lutein by hydroxylations catalyzed by ε-carotene hydroxylase (HY-e) andβ-carotene hydroxylase (HY-b). Other xanthophylls are produced fromβ-carotene with hydroxylation reactions catalyzed by HY-b and epoxydation catalyzed by zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP). Most of the carotenoid biosynthetic genes have been cloned and sequenced in Citrus varieties . However, our knowledge of the complex regμLation of carotenoid biosynthesis in Citrus fruit is still limited. We need further information on the number of copies of these genes and on their allelic diversity in Citrus because these can influence carotenoid composition within the Citrus genus.Citrus fruit are among the richest sources of carotenoids. The fruit generally display a complex carotenoid structure, and 115 different carotenoids have been identified in Citrus fruit. The carotenoid richness of Citrus flesh depends on environmental conditions, particμLarly on growing conditions and on geogr aphical origin . However the main factor influencing variability of caro tenoid quality in juice has been shown to be genetic diversity. Kato et al. showed that mandarin and orange juices accumμLated high levels of β-cryptoxanthin and violaxanthin, respectively, whereas mature lemon accumμLated extremely low levels of carotenoids. Goodner et al. demonstrated that mandarins, oranges, and their hybrids coμLd be clearly distinguished by theirβ-cryptoxanthin contents. Juices of red grapefruit contained two major carotenoids: lycopene and β-carotene. More recently, we conducted a broad study on the organization of the variability of carotenoid contents in different cμLtivated Citrus species in relation with the biosynthetic pathway . Qualitative analysis of presence or absence of the different compounds revealed three main clusters: (1) mandarins, sweet oranges, and sour oranges;(2) citrons, lemons, and limes; (3) pummelos and grapefruit. Our study also enabled identification of key steps in the diversification of the carotenoid profile. Synthesis of phytoene appeared as a limiti ng step for acid Citrus, while formation of β-carotene and R-carotene from lycopene were dramatically limited in cluster 3 (pummelos and grapefruit). Only varieties in cluster 1 were able to produce violaxanthin. In the same study , we concluded that there was a very strong correlation between the classification of Citrus species based on the presence or absence of carotenoids (below,this classification is also referred to as the organization of carotenoid diversity) and genetic diversity evaluated with bi ochemical or molecμLar markers such as isozymes or randomLy amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). We also concluded that, at the interspecific level, the organization of the diversity of carotenoid composition was linked to the global evolution process of cμLt ivated Citrus rather than to more recent mutation events or human selection processes. Indeed, at interspecific level, a correlation between phenotypic variability and genetic diversity is common and is generally associated with generalized gametic is common and is generally associated with generalized gametic disequilibrium resμLting from the history of cμLtivated Citrus. Thus from numerical taxonomy based on morphologicaltraits or from analysis of molecμLar markers , all authors agreed on the existence o f three basic taxa (C. reticμLata, mandarins; C. medica, citrons; and C. maxima, pummelos) whose differentiation was the resμLt of allopatric evolution. All other cμLtivated Citrus specie s (C. sinensis, sweet oranges; C. aurantium, sour oranges;C. paradi si, grapefruit; and C. limon, lemons) resμLted from hybridization events within this basic pool except for C. aurantifolia, which may be a hybrid between C. medica and C. micrantha .Our p revious resμLts and data on Citrus evolution lead us to propose the hypothesis that the allelic variability supporting the organization of carotenoid diversity at interspecific level preceded events that resμLted in the creation of secondary species. Such molecμLar variability may have two different effects: on the one hand, non-silent substitutions in coding region affect the specific activity of corresponding enzymes of the biosynthetic pathway, and on the other hand, variations in untranslated regions affect transcriptional or post-transcriptional mechanisms.There is no available data on the allelic diversity of Citrus genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. The objective of this paper was to test the hypothesis that allelic variability of these genes partially determines phenotypic variability at the interspecific level. For this purpose, we analyzed the RFLPs around seven genes of the biosynthetic pathway of carotenoids (Psy, Pds, Zds, Lcy-b, Lcy-e, Hy-b, Zep) and the polymorphism of two SSR sequences found in Lcy-b and Hy-b genes in a representative set of varieties of the Citrus genus already analyzed for carotenoid constitution. Our study aimed to answer the following questions: (a) are those genes mono- or mμLtilocus, (b) is the polymorphism revealed by RFLP and SSR markers inagreement with the general histor y of cμLtivated Citrus thus permitting inferences about the phylogenetic origin of genes of the secondary species, and (c) is this polymorphism associated with phenotypic (carotenoid compound) variations.RESΜLTS AND DISCUSSIONGlobal Diversity of the Genotype Sample Observed by RFLP Analysis. RFLP analyses were performed using probes defined from expressed sequences of seven major genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway . One or two restriction enzymes were used for each gene. None of these enzymes cut the cDNA probe sequence except HindIII for the Lcy-e gene. Intronic sequences and restriction sites on genomic sequences werescreened with PCR amplification using genomic DNA as template and with digestion of PCR products. The resμLts indicated the absence of an intronic sequence for Psy and Lcy-b fragments. The absence of intron in these two fragments was checked by cloning and sequencing corresponding genomic sequences (data not shown). Conversely, we found introns in Pds, Zds, Hy-b, Zep, and Lcy-e genomic sequences corresponding to RFLP probes. EcoRV did not cut the genomic sequences of Pds, Zds, Hy-b, Zep, and Lcy-e. In the same way, no BamHI restriction site was found in the genomic sequences of Pds, Zds, and Hy-b. Data relative to the diversity observed for the different genes are presented in Table 4. A total of 58 fragments were identified, six of them being monomorphic (present in all individuals). In the limited sample of the three basic taxa, only eight bands out of 58 coμLd not be observed. In the basic taxa, the mean number of bands per genotype observed was 24.7, 24.7, and 17 for C. reticμLata, C. maxima, and C. medica, respectively. It varies from28 (C. limettioides) to 36 (C. aurantium) for the secondary species. The mean number of RFLP bands per individual was lower for basic taxa than for the group of secondary species. This resμLt indicates that secondary species are much more heterozygous than the basic ones for these genes, which is logical if we assume that the secondary species arise from hybridizations between the three basic taxa. Moreover C. medica appears to be the least heterozygous taxon for RFLP around the genes of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway, as already shown with isozymes, RAPD, and SSR markers.The two lemons were close to the acid Citrus cluster and the three sour oranges close to the mandarins/sweet oranges cluster. This organization of genetic diversity based on the RFLP profiles obtained with seven genes of the carotenoid pathway is very similar to that previously obtained with neutral molecμLar markers such as genomic SSR as well as the organization obtained with qualitative carotenoid compositions. All these resμLts suggest that the observed RFLP and SSR fragments are good phylogenetic markers. It seems consistent with our basic hypothesis that major differentiation in the genes involved in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway preceded the creation of the secondary hybrid species and thus that the allelic structure of these hybrid species can be reconstructed from alleles observed in the three basic taxa.Gene by Gene Analysis: The Psy Gene. For the Psy probe combined with EcoRV or BamHI restriction enzymes, five bands were identified for the two enzymes, and two to three bands were observed for each genotype. One of these bands was present in all individuals. There was no restriction site in the probe sequence. These resμLts lead us to believe that Psy is present at two loci,one where no polymorphism was found with the restriction enzymes used, and one that displayed polymorphism. The number of different profiles observed was six and four with EcoRV and BamHI, respectively, for a total of 10 different profiles among the 25 individuals .Two Psy genes have also been found in tomato, tobacco, maize, and rice . Conversely, only one Psy gene has been found in Arabidopsis thaliana and in pepper (Capsicum annuum), which also accumμLates carotenoids in fruit. According to Bartley and Scolnik, Psy1 was expressed in tomato fruit chromoplasts, while Psy2 was specific to leaf tissue. In the same way, in Poaceae (maize, rice), Gallagher et al. found that Psy gene was duplicated and that Psy1 and notPsy2 transcripts in endosperm correlated with endosperm carotenoid accumμLation. These resμLts underline the role of gene duplication and the importance of tissue-specific phytoene synthase in the regμLation of carotenoid accumμLation.All the polymorphic bands were present in the sample of the basic taxon genomes. Assuming the hypothesis that all these bands describe the polymorphism at the same locus for the Psy gene, we can conclude that we found allelic differentiation between the three basic taxa with three alleles for C. reticμLata, four for C. maxima, and one for C. medica.The alleles observed for the basic taxa then enabled us to determine the genotypes of all the other species. The presumed genotypes for the Psy polymorphic locus are given in Table 7. Sweet oranges and grapefruit were heterozygous with one mandarin and one pummelo allele. Sour oranges were heterozygous; they shared the same mandarin allele with sweet oranges but had a different pummelo allele. Clementine was heterozygous with two mandarin alleles; one shared with sweetoranges and one with “Willow leaf” mandarin. “Meyer” lemon was heterozygous, with the mandarin allele also found in sweet oranges, and the citron allele. “Eureka”lemon was also heterozygous with the same pummelo allele as sour oranges and the citron allele. The other acid Citrus were homozygous for the citron allele.The Pds Gen. For the Pds probe combined with EcoRV, six different fragments were observed. One was common to all individuals. The number of fragments per individual was two or three. ResμLts for Pds led us to believe that this gene is present at two loci, one where no polymorphism was found with EcoRV restriction, and one displaying polymorphism. Conversely, studies on Arabidopsis, tomato, maize, and rice showed that Pds was a single copy gene. However, a previous study on Citrus suggests that Pds is present as a low-copy gene family in the Citrus genome, which is in agreement with our findings.The Zds Gene. The Zds profiles were complex. Nine and five fragments were observed with EcoRV and BamHI restriction, respectively. For both enzymes, one fragment was common to all individuals. The number of fragments per individual ranged from two to six for EcoRV and three to five for BamHI. There was no restriction site in the probe sequence. It can be assumed that several copies (at least three) of the Zds gene are present in the Citrus genome with polymorphism for at least two of them. In Arabidopsis, maize, and rice, like Pds, Zds was a single-copy gene .In these conditions and in the absence of analysis of controlled progenies, we are unable to conduct genetic analysis of profiles. However it appears that some bands differentiated the basic taxa: one for mandarins, one for pummelos, and one for citrons with EcoRV restriction and one for pummelos and onefor citrons with BamHI restriction. Two bands out of the nine obtained with EcoRV were not observed in the samples of basic taxa. One was rare and only observed in “Rangpur” lime. The other was found in sour oranges, “V olkamer” lemon,and “Palestine sweet” lime suggesting a common ancestor for these three genotypes.This is in agreement with the assumption of Nicolosi et al. that “V olkamer” lemon resμLts from a complex hybrid combination with C. aurantium as one parent. It will be necessary to extend the analysis of the basic taxa to conclude whether these specific bands are present in the diversity of these taxa or resμLt from mutations after the formation of the secondary species.The Lcy-b Gene with RFLP Analysis.After restriction with EcoRV and hybridization with the Lcy-b probe, we obtained simple profiles with a total of four fragments. One to two fragments were observed for each individual, and seven profiles were differentiated among the 25 genotypes. These resμLts provide evidence that Lcy-b is present at a single locus in the haploid Citrus genome. Two lycopene β-cyclases encoded by two genes have been identified in tomato. The B gene encoded a novel type of lycopene β-cyclase whose sequence was similar to capsanthin-capsorubin synthase. The B gene expressed at a high level in βmutants was responsible for strong accumμLation ofβ-carotene in fruit, while in wild-type tomatoes, B was expressed at a low level.The Lcy-b Gene with SSR Analysis. Four bands were detected at locus 1210 (Lcy-b gene). One or two bands were detected per variety confirming that this gene is mono locus. Six different profiles were observed among the 25 genotypes. As with RFLPanalysis, no intrataxon molecμLar polymorphism was found within C. Paradisi, C. Sinensis, and C. Aurantium.Taken together, the information obtained from RFLP and SSR analyses enabled us to identify a complete differentiation among the three basic taxon samples. Each of these taxons displayed two alleles for the analyzed sample. An additional allele was identified for “Mexican” l ime. The profiles for all secondary species can be reconstructed from these alleles. Deduced genetic structure is given in. Sweet oranges and clementine were heterozygous with one mandarin and one pummelo allele. Sour oranges were also heterozygous sharing the same mandarin allele as sweet oranges but with another pummelo allele. Grapefruit were heterozygous with two pummelo alleles. All the acid secondary species were heterozygous, having one allele from citrons and the other one from mandarins except for “Mexican” lime, which had a specific allele.柑桔属类胡萝卜素生物合成途径中七个基因拷贝数目及遗传多样性的分析摘要：本文的首要目标是分析类胡萝卜素生物合成相关等位基因在发生变异柑橘属类胡萝卜素组分种间差异的潜在作用；第二个目标是确定这些基因的拷贝数。

电磁干扰开关电源中英文对照外文翻译文献

(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文翻译外文资料（原文）Modeling, Simulation, and Reduction of Conducted Electromagnetic Interference Due to a PWM Buck Type Switching Power Supply IAbstract:Undesired generation of radiated or conducted energy in electrical systems is called Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). High speed switching frequency in power electronics converters especially in switching power supplies improves efficiency but leads to EMI. Different kind of conducted interference, EMI regulations and conducted EMI measurement are introduced in this paper. Compliancy with national or international regulation is called Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). Power electronic systems producers must regard EMC. Modeling and simulation is the first step of EMC evaluation. EMI simulation results due to a PWM Buck type switching power supply are presented in this paper. To improve EMC, some techniques are introduced and their effectiveness proved by simulation.Index Terms:Conducted, EMC, EMI, LISN, Switching SupplyI. INTRODUCTIONFAST semiconductors make it possible to have high speed and high frequency switching in power electronics []1. High speed switching causes weight and volume reduction of equipment, but some unwanted effects such as radio frequency interference appeared []2. Compliance with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations is necessary for producers to present their products to the markets. It is important to take EMC aspects already in design phase []3. Modeling and simulation is the most effective tool to analyze EMC consideration before developing theproducts. A lot of the previous studies concerned the low frequency analysis of power electronics components []4[]5. Different types of power electronics converters are capable to be considered as source of EMI. They could propagate the EMI in both radiated and conducted forms. Line Impedance Stabilization Network (LISN) is required for measurement and calculation of conducted interference level []6. Interference spectrum at the output of LISN is introduced as the EMC evaluation criterion []7[]8. National or international regulations are the references for the evaluation of equipment in point of view of EMC []7[]8. II. SOURCE, PATH AND VICTIM OF EMIUndesired voltage or current is called interference and their cause is called interference source. In this paper a high-speed switching power supply is the source of interference.Interference propagated by radiation in area around of an interference source or by conduction through common cabling or wiring connections. In this study conducted emission is considered only. Equipment such as computers, receivers, amplifiers, industrial controllers, etc that are exposed to interference corruption are called victims. The common connections of elements, source lines and cabling provide paths for conducted noise or interference. Electromagnetic conducted interference has two components as differential mode and common mode []9.A. Differential mode conducted interferenceThis mode is related to the noise that is imposed between different lines of a test circuit by a noise source. Related current path is shown in Fig. 1 []9. The interference source, path impedances, differential mode current and load impedance are also shown in Fig. 1.B. Common mode conducted interferenceCommon mode noise or interference could appear and impose between the lines, cables or connections and common ground. Any leakage current between load and common ground could be modeled by interference voltage source.Fig. 2 demonstrates the common mode interference source, commonmode currents Icm1 and Icm2and the related current paths[]9.The powerelectronics converters perform as noise source between lines of the supply network. In this study differential mode of conducted interferenceis particularly important and discussion will be continued considering this mode only.III. ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY REGULATIONSApplication of electrical equipment especially static power electronic converters in different equipment is increasing more and more. As mentioned before, power electronics converters are considered as an important source of electromagnetic interference and have corrupting effects on the electric networks []2. High level of pollution resulting from various disturbances reduces the quality of power in electric networks. On the other side some residential, commercial and especially medical consumers are so sensitive to power system disturbances including voltage and frequency variations. The best solution to reduce corruption and improve power quality is complying national or international EMCregulations. CISPR, IEC, FCC and VDE are among the most famous organizations from Europe, USA and Germany who are responsible for determining and publishing the most important EMC regulations. IEC and VDE requirement and limitations on conducted emission are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 []7[]9.For different groups of consumers different classes of regulations could be complied. Class A for common consumers and class B with more hard limitations for special consumers are separated in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. Frequency range of limitation is different for IEC and VDE that are 150 kHz up to 30 MHz and 10 kHz up to 30 MHz respectively. Compliance of regulations is evaluated by comparison of measured or calculated conducted interference level in the mentioned frequency range with the stated requirements in regulations. In united European community compliance of regulation is mandatory and products must have certified label to show covering of requirements []8.IV. ELECTROMAGNETIC CONDUCTED INTERFERENCE MEASUREMENTA. Line Impedance Stabilization Network (LISN)1-Providing a low impedance path to transfer power from source to power electronics converter and load.2-Providing a low impedance path from interference source, here power electronics converter, to measurement port.Variation of LISN impedance versus frequency with the mentioned topology is presented in Fig. 7. LISN has stabilized impedance in the range of conducted EMI measurement []7.Variation of level of signal at the output of LISN versus frequency is the spectrum of interference. The electromagnetic compatibility of a system can be evaluated by comparison of its interference spectrum with the standard limitations. The level of signal at the output of LISN in frequency range 10 kHz up to 30 MHz or 150 kHz up to 30 MHz is criterion of compatibility and should be under the standard limitations. In practical situations, the LISN output is connected to a spectrum analyzer and interference measurement is carried out. But for modeling and simulation purposes, the LISN output spectrum is calculated using appropriate software.外文资料（译文）基于压降型PWM开关电源的建模、仿真和减少传导性电磁干扰摘要：电子设备之中杂乱的辐射或者能量叫做电磁干扰(EMI)。

数据采集外文文献翻译中英文

数据采集外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Txomin Nieva. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS [J]. Computers in Industry, 2013, 4(2):215-237.英文原文DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMSTxomin NievaData acquisition systems, as the name implies, are products and/or processes used to collect information to document or analyze some phenomenon. In the simplest form, a technician logging the temperature of an oven on a piece of paper is performing data acquisition. As technology has progressed, this type of process has been simplified and made more accurate, versatile, and reliable through electronic equipment. Equipment ranges from simple recorders to sophisticated computer systems. Data acquisition products serve as a focal point in a system, tying together a wide variety of products, such as sensors that indicate temperature, flow, level, or pressure. Some common data acquisition terms are shown below.Data collection technology has made great progress in the past 30 to 40 years. For example, 40 years ago, in a well-known college laboratory, the device used to track temperature rises in bronze made of helium was composed of thermocouples, relays, interrogators, a bundle of papers, anda pencil.Today's university students are likely to automatically process and analyze data on PCs. There are many ways you can choose to collect data. The choice of which method to use depends on many factors, including the complexity of the task, the speed and accuracy you need, the evidence you want, and more. Whether simple or complex, the data acquisition system can operate and play its role.The old way of using pencils and papers is still feasible for some situations, and it is cheap, easy to obtain, quick and easy to start. All you need is to capture multiple channels of digital information (DMM) and start recording data by hand.Unfortunately, this method is prone to errors, slower acquisition of data, and requires too much human analysis. In addition, it can only collect data in a single channel; but when you use a multi-channel DMM, the system will soon become very bulky and clumsy. Accuracy depends on the level of the writer, and you may need to scale it yourself. For example, if the DMM is not equipped with a sensor that handles temperature, the old one needs to start looking for a proportion. Given these limitations, it is an acceptable method only if you need to implement a rapid experiment.Modern versions of the strip chart recorder allow you to retrieve data from multiple inputs. They provide long-term paper records of databecause the data is in graphic format and they are easy to collect data on site. Once a bar chart recorder has been set up, most recorders have enough internal intelligence to operate without an operator or computer. The disadvantages are the lack of flexibility and the relative low precision, often limited to a percentage point. You can clearly feel that there is only a small change with the pen. In the long-term monitoring of the multi-channel, the recorders can play a very good role, in addition, their value is limited. For example, they cannot interact with other devices. Other concerns are the maintenance of pens and paper, the supply of paper and the storage of data. The most important is the abuse and waste of paper. However, recorders are fairly easy to set up and operate, providing a permanent record of data for quick and easy analysis.Some benchtop DMMs offer selectable scanning capabilities. The back of the instrument has a slot to receive a scanner card that can be multiplexed for more inputs, typically 8 to 10 channels of mux. This is inherently limited in the front panel of the instrument. Its flexibility is also limited because it cannot exceed the number of available channels. External PCs usually handle data acquisition and analysis.The PC plug-in card is a single-board measurement system that uses the ISA or PCI bus to expand the slot in the PC. They often have a reading rate of up to 1000 per second. 8 to 16 channels are common, and the collected data is stored directly in the computer and then analyzed.Because the card is essentially a part of the computer, it is easy to establish the test. PC-cards are also relatively inexpensive, partly because they have since been hosted by PCs to provide energy, mechanical accessories, and user interfaces. Data collection optionsOn the downside, the PC plug-in cards often have a 12-word capacity, so you can't detect small changes in the input signal. In addition, the electronic environment within the PC is often susceptible to noise, high clock rates, and bus noise. The electronic contacts limit the accuracy of the PC card. These plug-in cards also measure a range of voltages. To measure other input signals, such as voltage, temperature, and resistance, you may need some external signal monitoring devices. Other considerations include complex calibrations and overall system costs, especially if you need to purchase additional signal monitoring devices or adapt the PC card to the card. Take this into account. If your needs change within the capabilities and limitations of the card, the PC plug-in card provides an attractive method for data collection.Data electronic recorders are typical stand-alone instruments that, once equipped with them, enable the measurement, recording, and display of data without the involvement of an operator or computer. They can handle multiple signal inputs, sometimes up to 120 channels. Accuracy rivals unrivalled desktop DMMs because it operates within a 22 word, 0.004 percent accuracy range. Some data electronic automatic recordershave the ability to measure proportionally, the inspection result is not limited by the user's definition, and the output is a control signal.One of the advantages of using data electronic loggers is their internal monitoring signals. Most can directly measure several different input signals without the need for additional signal monitoring devices. One channel can monitor thermocouples, RTDs, and voltages.Thermocouples provide valuable compensation for accurate temperature measurements. They are typically equipped with multi-channel cards. Built-in intelligent electronic data recorder helps you set the measurement period and specify the parameters for each channel. Once you set it all up, the data electronic recorder will behave like an unbeatable device. The data they store is distributed in memory and can hold 500,000 or more readings.Connecting to a PC makes it easy to transfer data to a computer for further analysis. Most data electronic recorders can be designed to be flexible and simple to configure and operate, and most provide remote location operation options via battery packs or other methods. Thanks to the A/D conversion technology, certain data electronic recorders have a lower reading rate, especially when compared with PC plug-in cards. However, a reading rate of 250 per second is relatively rare. Keep in mind that many of the phenomena that are being measured are physical in nature, such as temperature, pressure, and flow, and there are generallyfewer changes. In addition, because of the monitoring accuracy of the data electron loggers, a large amount of average reading is not necessary, just as they are often stuck on PC plug-in cards.Front-end data acquisition is often done as a module and is typically connected to a PC or controller. They are used in automated tests to collect data, control and cycle detection signals for other test equipment. Send signal test equipment spare parts. The efficiency of the front-end operation is very high, and can match the speed and accuracy with the best stand-alone instrument. Front-end data acquisition works in many models, including VXI versions such as the Agilent E1419A multi-function measurement and VXI control model, as well as a proprietary card elevator. Although the cost of front-end units has been reduced, these systems can be very expensive unless you need to provide high levels of operation, and finding their prices is prohibited. On the other hand, they do provide considerable flexibility and measurement capabilities.Good, low-cost electronic data loggers have the right number of channels (20-60 channels) and scan rates are relatively low but are common enough for most engineers. Some of the key applications include:•product features•Hot die cutting of electronic products•Test of the environmentEnvironmental monitoring•Composition characteristics•Battery testBuilding and computer capacity monitoringA new system designThe conceptual model of a universal system can be applied to the analysis phase of a specific system to better understand the problem and to specify the best solution more easily based on the specific requirements of a particular system. The conceptual model of a universal system can also be used as a starting point for designing a specific system. Therefore, using a general-purpose conceptual model will save time and reduce the cost of specific system development. To test this hypothesis, we developed DAS for railway equipment based on our generic DAS concept model. In this section, we summarize the main results and conclusions of this DAS development.We analyzed the device model package. The result of this analysis is a partial conceptual model of a system consisting of a three-tier device model. We analyzed the equipment project package in the equipment environment. Based on this analysis, we have listed a three-level item hierarchy in the conceptual model of the system. Equipment projects are specialized for individual equipment projects.We analyzed the equipment model monitoring standard package in the equipment context. One of the requirements of this system is the ability to use a predefined set of data to record specific status monitoring reports. We analyzed the equipment project monitoring standard package in the equipment environment. The requirements of the system are: (i) the ability to record condition monitoring reports and event monitoring reports corresponding to the items, which can be triggered by time triggering conditions or event triggering conditions; (ii) the definition of private and public monitoring standards; (iii) Ability to define custom and predefined train data sets. Therefore, we have introduced the "monitoring standards for equipment projects", "public standards", "special standards", "equipment monitoring standards", "equipment condition monitoring standards", "equipment project status monitoring standards and equipment project event monitoring standards, respectively Training item triggering conditions, training item time triggering conditions and training item event triggering conditions are device equipment trigger conditions, equipment item time trigger conditions and device project event trigger condition specialization; and training item data sets, training custom data Sets and trains predefined data sets, which are device project data sets, custom data sets, and specialized sets of predefined data sets.Finally, we analyzed the observations and monitoring reports in the equipment environment. The system's requirement is to recordmeasurements and category observations. In addition, status and incident monitoring reports can be recorded. Therefore, we introduce the concept of observation, measurement, classification observation and monitoring report into the conceptual model of the system.Our generic DAS concept model plays an important role in the design of DAS equipment. We use this model to better organize the data that will be used by system components. Conceptual models also make it easier to design certain components in the system. Therefore, we have an implementation in which a large number of design classes represent the concepts specified in our generic DAS conceptual model. Through an industrial example, the development of this particular DAS demonstrates the usefulness of a generic system conceptual model for developing a particular system.中文译文数据采集系统Txomin Nieva数据采集系统, 正如名字所暗示的, 是一种用来采集信息成文件或分析一些现象的产品或过程。

质量与检测外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、检测检验类外文翻译

Quality and InspectionAccording to the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC), quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy given needs. The definition implies that the needs of the customer must be identified first because satisfaction of those needs is the “bottom line” of achieving quality. Customer needs should then be transformed into product features and characteristics so that a design and the product specifications can be prepared.In addition to a proper understanding of the term quality, it is important to understand the meaning of the terms quality management, quality assurance, and quality control.Quality management is that aspect of the overall management function that determines and implements the quality policy. The responsibility for quality management belongs to senior management. This activity includes strategic planning, allocation of resources, and related quality program activities.Quality assurance includes all the planned or systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given needs. These actions are aimed at providing confidence that the quality system is working properly and include evaluating the adequacy of the designs and specifications or auditing the production operations for capability. Internal quality assurance aims at providing confidence to the management of a company, while external quality assurance provides assurance of product quality to those who buy from that company.Quality control companies the operational techniques and activities that sustain a quality of product or service so that the product will satisfy given needs. The quality control function is closest to the product in that various techniques of unsatisfactory sources of quality performance.Many of the quality systems of the past were designed with the objective of sorting good products from bad products during the various processing steps. Those products judged to be bad had to be reworked to meet specifications. If they could not be reworked, they were scrapped. This type of system is known as a “detection correction” system. With this system, problems were not found until the products were inspected or when they were used by the customer. Because of the inherent nature of human inspectors, the effectiveness of the sorting operations was often less than 90%. Quality systems that are preventive in nature are being widely implemented. These systems prevent problems from occurring in the fist place by placing emphasison proper planning and problem prevention in all phases of the product cycle.The final word on how well a product fulfills needs and expectations is given by the customers and users of that product and is influenced by the offering of competitors that may also be available to those customers and users. It is important to recognize that final word is formed over the entire life of the product, not just when it was purchased.Being aware of customers’ needs and expectat ions is very important, as was previously discussed. In addition, focusing the attention of all employees in an enterprise on the customers and users and their needs will result in a more effective quality system. For example, group discussions on product designs and specifications should include specific discussion of the needs to be satisfied.A basic commitment management should be that quality improvement must be relentlessly pursued. Actions should be ingrained in the day-to-day working of the company that recognize that quality is a moving target in today’s marketplace driven by constantly rising customer expectations. Traditional efforts that set a quality level perceived to be right for a product and direct all efforts to only maintain that level will not be successful in the long haul. Rather, management must orient the organization so that once the so--called right quality level for a product has been attained; improvement efforts continue to achieve progressively higher quality levels.To achieve the most effective improvement efforts, management should understand that quality and cost are complementary and not conflicting objectives. Traditionally, recommendations were made to management that a choice had to be made between quality and cost--the so--called tradeoff decision--because better quality inevitably would somehow cost more and make production difficult. Experience throughout the world has shown that this is not true. Good quality fundamentally leads to good resource utilization and consequently means good productivity and low quality costs. Also significant is the higher sales and market penetration result from products that are perceived by customers to have high quality and performance reliability during use.Four basic categories of quality costs are described in the following:（1）Prevention--costs incurred in planning, implementing, and maintaining a quality system that will ensure conformance to quality requirement at economical levels. An example of prevention cost is training in the use of statistical process control.（2）Appraisal—costs incurred in determining the degree of conformance toquality requirements. An example of appraisal cost is inspection.（3）Internal failure—costs arising when products, components, and materials fail to meet quality requirements prior to transfer of ownership to the customer. An example of internal failure cost is scrap.（4）External failure—costs incurred when products fail to meet quality requirements after transfer of ownership to the customer. An example of external failure cost is warranty claims.A problem—solving approach should be followed in seeking quality improvement. The results of any improvement effort will not be permanent unless the root causes of the problems have been found so appropriate (irreversible) corrective action can be implemented.The root cause can be defined as the real cause of a problem. This is often quite different from the apparent cause, which appears after a superficial investigation. A frequently asked question is how to known when the root cause is found and when the investigator is not still being deceived by the apparent cause. A meaning answer is that if the root cause has been found, the problem is able to be turned on and off by adding or removing the cause.Once the root cause has been found, an irreversible corrective action must be implemented so there is no foreseeable situation by which the root cause can return and so permanent improvement results.Although the level of quality control is determined in large part by probability theory and statistical calculations, it is very important that the data collection processes on which these procedures depend be appropriate and accurate. The best statistical procedure is worthless if fed faulty data, and like machining processes, inspection data collection is itself a process with practical limits of accuracy, precision, resolution, and repeatability.All inspection and/or measurement processes can be defined in terms of their accuracy and repeatability, just as a manufacturing process is evaluated for accuracy and repeatability. Controlled experiments can be performed, and statistical measures of the results can be made to determine the performance of a method of inspection relative to the parts to be inspected. Suitability of one or another method can be judged on the basis of standard deviations and confidence levels that apply to each approach as used in a given inspection situation.质量与检测根据美国质量管理协会的定义，质量是产品或服务能够满足规定需求而具有的特性和特征的总和。

临床化学的干扰试验(EP7)修改版

临床化学的干扰试验（EP7-A）NCCLS文件（2002年7月翻译）摘要NCCLS EP7-A文件使临床实验室方法的干扰特性评估方式的一直。

EP7-A叙述了厂商过筛可能的干扰物、确认干扰作用、和肯定病人样品中的干扰等的方法。

这个文件也叙述了临床实验室为了确认干扰结果、和研究因为未预期干扰物使结果离散的方法。

提供了详细的例子。

EP7-A也含有干扰实验概念的背景信息，分析物和预期干扰物实验推荐浓度表，以及数据收集和分析工作表。

前言干扰物可以是临床检验的显著误差[1，2，3]。

常规使用内部质量控制监测精密度，和参考材料的比较确认准确度，但是实验室不能方便地检测干扰物引起的误差。

虽然不断改进方法的特异性是一个目标。

本文件让实验室和以医学需要来评估干扰物。

注意到严密评估方案和配合评价技术的灵活性间的平衡。

实验室和厂商需要理解一些概念，进行必要的选择，并且一起实现改善病人结果的共同目标很清楚，证实某干扰的作用、确定它的原因、设计改进方法等都需要实验室和厂商的合作。

资料包括解释化学和统计的概念。

注意：本文件注重分析过程的干扰。

不是因药物和它的代谢物引起的生理作用。

1 引言1.1 目的本文件用于以下2个目的：1)支持厂商和方法的开发人员确定方法对干扰物敏感的做法通过科学的证实的实验设计、规定实验的相应物质和浓度、明确数据分析和解释的方法，这样得到有意义的结果给用户。

2)使实验室在研究因干扰造成结果离散时，进行系统的研究，明确数据收集和分析要求，鼓励实验室用户和厂商间的紧密合作，才能证实、揭示、最终消除新的干扰物。

1.2 采用的用户2 范围2.1 分析方法任何分析方法，定量或定性的，都会受干扰。

本文件适用各种方法和分析仪。

2.1.2 干扰物干扰物来自内源性和外源性：●在病理条件下产生的代谢物，如：糖尿病，多发性骨髓瘤，胆汁阻塞性肝炎，等。

●在病人治疗中引入的化合物，如：药物，非肠道（注射）引入的营养物，血浆扩充剂，抗凝剂，等。

毕业论文文献外文翻译----危机管理：预防,诊断和干预文献翻译-中英文文献对照翻译

第1页共19页中文3572字毕业论文（设计）外文翻译标题：危机管理-预防，诊断和干预一、外文原文标题：标题：Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis and Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis andintervention 原文：原文：The Thepremise of this paper is that crises can be managed much more effectively if the company prepares for them. Therefore, the paper shall review some recent crises, theway they were dealt with, and what can be learned from them. Later, we shall deal with the anatomy of a crisis by looking at some symptoms, and lastly discuss the stages of a crisis andrecommend methods for prevention and intervention. Crisis acknowledgmentAlthough many business leaders will acknowledge thatcrises are a given for virtually every business firm, many of these firms do not take productive steps to address crisis situations. As one survey of Chief Executive officers of Fortune 500 companies discovered, 85 percent said that a crisisin business is inevitable, but only 50 percent of these had taken any productive action in preparing a crisis plan(Augustine, 1995). Companies generally go to great lengths to plan their financial growth and success. But when it comes to crisis management, they often fail to think and prepare for those eventualities that may lead to a company’s total failure.Safety violations, plants in need of repairs, union contracts, management succession, and choosing a brand name, etc. can become crises for which many companies fail to be prepared untilit is too late.The tendency, in general, is to look at the company as a perpetual entity that requires plans for growth. Ignoring the probabilities of disaster is not going to eliminate or delay their occurrences. Strategic planning without inclusion ofcrisis management is like sustaining life without guaranteeinglife. One reason so many companies fail to take steps to proactively plan for crisis events, is that they fail to acknowledge the possibility of a disaster occurring. Like an ostrich with its head in the sand, they simply choose to ignorethe situation, with the hope that by not talking about it, it will not come to pass. Hal Walker, a management consultant, points out “that decisions will be more rational and better received, and the crisis will be of shorter duration, forcompanies who prepare a proactive crisis plan” (Maynard, 1993) .It is said that “there are two kinds of crises: those that thatyou manage, and those that manage you” (Augustine, 1995). Proactive planning helps managers to control and resolve a crisis. Ignoring the possibility of a crisis, on the other hand,could lead to the crisis taking a life of its own. In 1979, theThree-Mile Island nuclear power plant experienced a crisis whenwarning signals indicated nuclear reactors were at risk of a meltdown. The system was equipped with a hundred or more different alarms and they all went off. But for those who shouldhave taken the necessary steps to resolve the situation, therewere no planned instructions as to what should be done first. Hence, the crisis was not acknowledged in the beginning and itbecame a chronic event.In June 1997, Nike faced a crisis for which they had no existi existing frame of reference. A new design on the company’s ng frame of reference. A new design on the company’s Summer Hoop line of basketball shoes - with the word air writtenin flaming letters - had sparked a protest by Muslims, who complained the logo resembled the Arabic word for Allah, or God.The council of American-Islamic Relations threatened aa globalNike boycott. Nike apologized, recalled 38,000 pairs of shoes,and discontinued the line (Brindley, 1997). To create the brand,Nike had spent a considerable amount of time and money, but hadnever put together a general framework or policy to deal with such controversies. To their dismay, and financial loss, Nike officials had no choice but to react to the crisis. This incident has definitely signaled to the company that spending a little more time would have prevented the crisis. Nonetheless,it has taught the company a lesson in strategic crisis management planning.In a business organization, symptoms or signals can alert the strategic planners or executives of an eminent crisis. Slipping market share, losing strategic synergy anddiminishing productivity per man hour, as well as trends, issues and developments in the socio-economic, political and competitive environments, can signal crises, the effects of which can be very detrimental. After all, business failures and bankruptcies are not intended. They do not usually happen overnight. They occur more because of the lack of attention to symptoms than any other factor.Stages of a crisisMost crises do not occur suddenly. The signals can usuallybe picked up and the symptoms checked as they emerge. A company determined to address these issues realizes that the real challenge is not just to recognize crises, but to recognize themin a timely fashion (Darling et al., 1996). A crisis can consistof four different and distinct stages (Fink, 1986). The phasesare: prodromal crisis stage, acute crisis stage, chronic crisisstage and crisis resolution stage.Modern organizations are often called “organic” due tothe fact that they are not immune from the elements of their surrounding environments. Very much like a living organism, organizations can be affected by environmental factors both positively and negatively. But today’s successfulorganizations are characterized by the ability to adapt by recognizing important environmental factors, analyzing them, evaluating the impacts and reacting to them. The art of strategic planning (as it relates to crisis management)involves all of the above activities. The right strategy, in general, provides for preventive measures, and treatment or resolution efforts both proactively and reactively. It wouldbe quite appropriate to examine the first three stages of acrisis before taking up the treatment, resolution or intervention stage.Prodromal crisis stageIn the field of medicine, a prodrome is a symptom of the onset of a disease. It gives a warning signal. In business organizations, the warning lights are always blinking. No matter how successful the organization, a number of issues andtrends may concern the business if proper and timely attentionis paid to them. For example, in 1995, Baring Bank, a UK financial institution which had been in existence since 1763,ample opportunitysuddenly and unexpectedly failed. There wasfor the bank to catch the signals that something bad was on thehorizon, but the company’s efforts to detect that were thwarted by an internal structure that allowed a single employee both to conduct and to oversee his own investment trades, and the breakdown of management oversight and internalcontrol systems (Mitroff et al., 1996). Likewise, looking in retrospect, McDonald’s fast food chain was given the prodromalsymptoms before the elderly lady sued them for the spilling ofa very hot cup of coffee on her lap - an event that resulted in a substantial financial loss and tarnished image of thecompany. Numerous consumers had complained about thetemperature of the coffee. The warning light was on, but the company did not pay attention. It would have been much simplerto pick up the signal, or to check the symptom, than facing the consequences.In another case, Jack in the Box, a fast food chain, had several customers suffer intestinal distress after eating at their restaurants. The prodromal symptom was there, but the company took evasive action. Their initial approach was to lookaround for someone to blame. The lack of attention, the evasiveness and the carelessness angered all the constituent groups, including their customers. The unfortunate deaths thatptoms,occurred as a result of the company’s ignoring thesymand the financial losses that followed, caused the company to realize that it would have been easier to manage the crisis directly in the prodromal stage rather than trying to shift theblame.Acute crisis stageA prodromal stage may be oblique and hard to detect. The examples given above, are obvious prodromal, but no action wasWebster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, an acute stage occursacutewhen a symptom “demands urgent attention.” Whether the acutesymptom emerges suddenly or is a transformation of a prodromalstage, an immediate action is required. Diverting funds and other resources to this emerging situation may cause disequilibrium and disturbance in the whole system. It is onlythose organizations that have already prepared a framework forthese crises that can sustain their normal operations. For example, the US public roads and bridges have for a long time reflected a prodromal stage of crisis awareness by showing cracks and occasionally a collapse. It is perhaps in light of the obsessive decision to balance the Federal budget that reacting to the problem has been delayed and ignored. This situation has entered an acute stage and at the time of this writing, it was reported that a bridge in Maryland had just collapsed.The reason why prodromes are so important to catch is thatit is much easier to manage a crisis in this stage. In the caseof most crises, it is much easier and more reliable to take careof the problem before it becomes acute, before it erupts and causes possible complications (Darling et al., 1996). In andamage. However, the losses are incurred. Intel, the largest producer of computer chips in the USA, had to pay an expensiveprice for initially refusing to recall computer chips that proved unreliable o n on certain calculations. The f irmfirm attempted to play the issue down and later learned its lesson. At an acutestage, when accusations were made that the Pentium Chips were not as fast as they claimed, Intel quickly admitted the problem,apologized for it, and set about fixing it (Mitroff et al., 1996). Chronic crisis stageDuring this stage, the symptoms are quite evident and always present. I t isIt is a period of “make or break.” Being the third stage, chronic problems may prompt the company’s management to once and for all do something about the situation. It may be the beginning of recovery for some firms, and a deathknell for others. For example, the Chrysler Corporation was only marginallysuccessful throughout the 1970s. It was not, however, until the company was nearly bankrupt that amanagement shake-out occurred. The drawback at the chronic stage is that, like in a human patient, the company may get used to “quick fixes” and “band “band--aid”approaches. After all, the ailment, the problem and the crisis have become an integral partoverwhelmed by prodromal and acute problems that no time or attention is paid to the chronic problems, or the managers perceive the situation to be tolerable, thus putting the crisison a back burner.Crisis resolutionCrises could be detected at various stages of their development. Since the existing symptoms may be related todifferent problems or crises, there is a great possibility thatthey may be misinterpreted. Therefore, the people in charge maybelieve they have resolved the problem. However, in practicethe symptom is often neglected. In such situations, the symptomwill offer another chance for resolution when it becomes acute,thereby demanding urgent care. Studies indicate that today anincreasing number of companies are issue-oriented and searchfor symptoms. Nevertheless, the lack of experience in resolvinga situation and/or inappropriate handling of a crisis can leadto a chronic stage. Of course, there is this last opportunityto resolve the crisis at the chronic stage. No attempt to resolve the crisis, or improper resolution, can lead to grim consequences that will ultimately plague the organization or even destroy it.It must be noted that an unsolved crisis may not destroy the company. But, its weakening effects can ripple through the organization and create a host of other complications.Preventive effortsThe heart of the resolution of a crisis is in the preventiveefforts the company has initiated. This step, similar to a humanbody, is actually the least expensive, but quite often the mostoverlooked. Preventive measures deal with sensing potential problems (Gonzales-Herrero and Pratt, 1995). Major internalfunctions of a company such as finance, production, procurement, operations, marketing and human resources are sensitive to thesocio-economic, political-legal, competitive, technological, demographic, global and ethical factors of the external environment. What is imminently more sensible and much more manageable, is to identify the processes necessary forassessing and dealing with future crises as they arise (Jacksonand Schantz, 1993). At the core of this process are appropriate information systems, planning procedures, anddecision-making techniques. A soundly-based information system will scan the environment, gather appropriate data, interpret this data into opportunities and challenges, and provide a concretefoundation for strategies that could function as much to avoid crises as to intervene and resolve them.Preventive efforts, as stated before, require preparations before any crisis symptoms set in. Generally strategic forecasting, contingency planning, issues analysis, and scenario analysis help to provide a framework that could be used in avoiding and encountering crises.出处：出处：Toby TobyJ. Kash and John R. Darling . Crisis management: prevention, diagnosis 179-186二、翻译文章标题：危机管理：预防，诊断和干预译文：本文的前提是，如果该公司做好准备得话，危机可以更有效地进行管理。

IEC标准目录11页

序号标准代号英文名称中文名称1CISPR16-2-1:2008Ed.2.0Specification for radio disturbance and immunitymeasuring apparatus and methods-Part2-1:Methods of measurement of disturbances andimmunity-Conducted disturbancemeasurements...无线电干扰和抗干扰测量设备和方法规范第2-1部分：干扰和抗干扰的测量方法传导干扰测量2IEC60050-121Amd.1:2008Ed.2.0Amendment2-International ElectrotechnicalVocabulary - Part 121: Electromagnetism修改2《国际电工词汇第121部分：电磁学》3IEC60050-131Amd.1:2008Ed.2.0Amendment1-International ElectrotechnicalVocabulary - Part 131: Circuit theory.修改1《国际电工词汇第131部分：电路理论》4IEC60050-581:2008Ed.2.0International Electrotechnical Vocabulary-Part581:Electromechanical components forelectronic equipment国际电工词汇第581部分：电子设备用机电元件5IEC60626-3:2008Ed.3.0Combined flexible materials for electricalinsulation-Part3:Specifications for individualmaterials电气绝缘用符合柔性材料第3部分：单个材料规范6IEC60641-3-1:2008Ed.2.0Pressboard and presspaper for electrical purposes-Part3:Specifications for individual materials-Sheet1:Requirements for pressboard,typesB.0.1,B.0.3,B.2.1,B.2.3,B.3.1,B.3.3,B.4.1,B.4.3, B.5.1, B.5.3 and B.6.1电气用层压纸板和层压纸规范第3部分：专用材料规范活页1:B.0.1,B.0.3，B.2.1,B.2.3,B.3.1,B.3.3,B.4.1,B.4.3,B.5.1,B.5.3，和B.6.1型层压纸板要求7IEC60724Amd.1:2008Ed.Amendment1-Short-circuit temperature limitsof electric cables with rated voltages of1kV(Um = 1,2 kV) and 3 kV (Um = 3,6 kV)...修改1《额定电压为1kV(Um=1.2kV)和3kV (Um = 3.6 kV) 的电缆短路温度限制》8IEC60724:2008Ed.3.0Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cableswith rated voltages of1kV(Um=1,2kV)and3kV (Um = 3,6 kV)额定电压为1kV(Um=1.2kV)和3kV(Um=3.6 kV) 的电缆短路温度限制9IEC60853-1Amd.2:2008Ed.1.0Amendment2-Calculation of the cyclic andemergency current rating of cables-Part1:Cyclic rating factor for cables up to and including18/30 (36) kV.修改2《电缆的周期性突发事件电流额定值的计算第1部分：在电压值≤18/30(36)kV时的电缆周期额定值因素》10IEC60853-2Amd.1:2008Ed.1.0Amendment1-Calculation of the cyclic andemergency current rating of cables-Part2:Cyclic rating of cables greater than 18/30 (36) kVand emergency ratings for cables of all voltages.修改1《电缆的周期性突发事件电流额定值的计算第2部分：在电压值>18/30(36)kV时的电缆周期额定值和所有电压下电缆的紧急情况额定值》11IEC60949Amd.1:2008Ed.1.0Amendment1-Calculation of thermallypermissible short-circuit currents,taking intoaccount non-adiabatic heating effects修改1《当为无绝热加热效应时的允许热短路电流的计算》12IEC60986:2008Ed.2.1Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cableswith rated voltages from6kV(Um=7,2kV)upto 30 kV (Um = 36 kV)额定电压为从6kV(Um=7.2kV)到30kV(Um = 36 kV) 的电缆短路温度限制13IEC60986Amd.1:2008Ed.2.0Amendment1-Short-circuit temperature limitsof electric cables withrated voltages from6kV(Um = 7,2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um = 36 kV).修改1《额定电压为从6kV(Um=7.2kV)到30 kV (Um = 36 kV) 的电缆短路温度限制》14IEC61443Amd.1:2008Ed.1.0Amendment1-Short-circuit temperature limitsof electric cables with rated voltages above30kV(Um = 36 kV).修改1《额定电压为30kV(Um=36kV)以上的电缆短路温度限制》15IEC61443:2008Ed.1.1Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cableswith rated voltages above 30 kV (Um = 36 kV)...额定电压为30kV(Um=36kV)以上的电缆短路温度限制16IEC60669-2-1Amd.1:2008Ed.4.0Amendment1-Switches for household andsimilar fixed electrical installations-Part2-1:Particular requirements - Electronic switches.修改1《家用和类似固定电气设备用开关第2-1部分：专门要求电子开关》17IEC62080Amd.1:2008Ed.1.0Amendment1-Sound signalling devices forhousehold and similar purposes修改1《家用和类似目的用的声音信号显示装置》18IEC60115-1:2008Ed.4.0Fixed resistors for use in electronic equipment-Part 1: Generic specification电子设备用固定电阻器第1部分：总规范19IEC/PAS60539-1-1:2008Ed.1.0Directly heated negative temperature coefficientthermistors-Part1-1:Blank detail specification-Sensing application - Assessment level EZ直热式负温度系数热敏电阻器第1-1部分：空白详细规范敏感应用评估级别EZ20IEC60966-3:2008Ed.3.0Radio frequency and coaxial cable assemblies-Part3:Sectional specification for semi-flexiblecoaxial cable assemblies.射频和同轴电缆组件第3部分:半柔软同轴电缆组件分规范21IEC61169-38:2008Ed.1.0Radio-frequency connectors-Part38:Sectionalspecification-Radio frequency coaxialconnectors model,slide-in(rack and panelapplications)-Characteristic impedance50Ω(type TMA) - 50 Ω applications.射频连接器第38部分：无线电频率同轴连接器模式滑入（架子或面板用）性能阻抗50Ω（TMA型） 50 Ω用22IEC60747-1cor.1:2008Ed.2.0Semiconductor devices - Part 1: General半导体器件第1部分：总则23IEC62047-4:2008Ed.1.0Semiconductor devices-Micro-electromechanical devices-Part4:Genericspecification for MEMS半导体器件微电机器件第4部分：MEMS总规范24IEC62433-2:2008Ed.1.0EMC IC modelling-Part2:Models of integratedcircuits for EMI behavioural simulation-Conducted emissions modelling (ICEM-CE)EMC IC模拟第2部分：EMI行为模拟的集成电路模型传导辐射模拟(ICEM-CE)25IEC60512-16-14:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part16-14:Mechanical tests oncontacts and terminations-Test16n:Bendingstrength, fixed male tabs电子设备连接器测试和测量第16-14部分：接触件和引出线机械试验试验16n:固定凸片的弯曲强度26IEC60512-16-16:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part16-16:Mechanical tests oncontacts and terminations-Test16p:Torsionalstrength, fixed male tabs电子设备用连接器测试和测量第16-16部分：接触件和引出线机械试验试验16P：固定凸片的扭曲强度27IEC60512-16-3:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part16-3:Mechanical tests oncontacts and terminations-Test16c:Contact-bending strength电子设备用连接器测试和测量第16-3部分：接触件和引出线机械试验试验16C：接触件挠曲强度28IEC60512-16-17:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part16-17:Mechanical tests oncontacts and terminations-Test16q:Tensile andcompressive strength, fixed male tabs电子设备用连接器测试和测量第16-17部分：接触件和引出线机械试验试验16Q：固定凸片抗张和抗压强度29IEC60512-16-5:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part16-5:Mechanical tests oncontacts and terminations-Test16e:Gaugeretention force (resilient contacts)电子设备用连接器测试和测量第16-5部分：接触件和引出线机械试验试验16e：保持力测量(弹性接触件)30IEC60512-16-7:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part16-7:Mechanical tests oncontacts and terminations-Test16g:Measurement of contact deformation aftercrimping电子设备用连接器测试和测量第16-7部分：接触件和引出线机械试验试验17e：保持力测量(弹性接触件)31IEC61076-2-105:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Productrequirements-Part2-105:Circular connectors-Detail specification for M5connectors withscrew-locking电子设备用连接器产品要求第2-105部分：环型连接器有螺旋锁定连接器M5型详细规范32IEC60512-26-100:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part26-100:Measurement setup,test and reference arrangements andmeasurements for connectors according to IEC60603-7 - Tests 26a to 26g.电子设备用连接器测试和测量第26-100部分：符合IEC60603-7连接器的测量设备、试验及其安排和测量试验26a～26g33IEC60512-16-6:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part16-6:Mechanical tests oncontacts and terminations-Test16f:Robustnessof terminations电子设备用连接器测试和测量第16-6部分：接触件和引出线机械试验试验16f：引出端强度34IEC60512-25-9:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Tests andmeasurements-Part25-9:Signal integrity tests-Test 25i: Alien crosstalk电子设备用连接器测试和测量第25-9部分：信号完整性试验试验25i：不同色度亮度干扰35IEC61076-3-116:2008Ed.1.0Connectors for electronic equipment-Productrequirements-Part3-116:Rectangularconnectors-Detail specification for protectivehousings for use with8-way shielded andunshielded connectors for frequencies up to600MHz for industrial environments电子设备用连接器产品要求第3-116部分：矩形连接器工业环境、频率≤600MHz具有8路屏蔽和非屏蔽连接器的住宅保护详细规范36IEC61984:2008Ed.2.0Connectors - Safety requirements and tests连接器安全要求和测试37IEC60689:2008Ed.2.0Measurement and test methods for tuning forkquartz crystal units in the range from10kHz to200 kHz and standard values…频率为10kHz～200kHz音叉石英晶体元件的测量和试验方法及标准值38IEC60758:2008Ed.4.0Synthetic quartz crystal-Specifications andguidelines for use…人造石英晶体规范和使用指南39IEC62317-14:2008Ed.1.0Ferrite cores-Dimensions-Part14:EFD-coresfor use in power supply applications铁氧体磁芯尺寸第14部分:电源用EFD芯40IEC62024-2:2008Ed.1.0High frequency inductive components-Electricalcharacteristics and measuring methods-Part2:Rated current of inductors for DC to DCconverters.高频感应部件电气特性和测量方法第2部分：DC至DC变流器感应器的额定电流41IEC61649:2008Ed.2.0Weibull analysis…威布尔分析42IEC60300-3-16:2008Ed.1.0Dependability management-Part3-16:Application guide-Guidelines for specificationof maintenance support services…可信性管理第3-16部分：应用指南维修保障服务规范指南43IEC62419:2008Ed.1.0Control technology-Rules for the designation ofmeasuring instruments.控制技术测量工具命名规则44IEC62424:2008Ed.1.0Representation of process control engineering-Requests in P&I diagrams and data exchangebetween P&ID tools and PCE-CAE tools过程控制工程的描述方法P&I图表和P&ID工具和 PCE-CAE工具之间的数据交换中的要求45IEC60404-4Amd.2:2008Ed.2.0Amendment2-Magnetic materials-Part4:Methods of measurement of d.c.magneticproperties of magnetically soft materials.修改2《磁性材料第4部分：软糍材料的直流磁性能测量方法》46IEC60404-4:2008Ed.2.2Magnetic materials-Part4:Methods ofmeasurement of d.c.magnetic properties ofmagnetically soft materials磁性材料第4部分：软糍材料的直流磁性能测量方法47IEC61000-4-6:2008Ed.3.0Electromagnetic compatibility(EMC)-Part4-6:Testing and measurement techniques-Immunityto conducted disturbances,induced by radio-frequency fields…电磁兼容（EMC）第4-6部分：试验和测量技术射频场感应的传导骚扰抗扰度48IEC62288:2008Ed.1.0Maritime navigation and radiocommunicationequipment and systems-Presentation ofnavigation-related information on shipbornenavigational displays-General requirements,methods of testing and required test results…海上导航与无线电通信设备及系统在船舶导航显示器上显示导航相关信息的表述通用要求试验方法与要求的试验结果49IEC61174:2008Ed.3.0Maritime navigation and radiocommunicationequipment and systems-Electronic chart displayand information system(ECDIS)-Operationaland performance requirements,methods oftesting and required test results.海上导航与无线电通信设备及系统电子海图显示与信息系统（ECDIS）操作和性能要求试验方法与要求的试验结果50IEC62320-1Amd.1:2008Ed.1.0Amendment1-Maritime navigation andradiocommunication equipment and systems-Automatic identification system(AIS)-Part1:AIS Base Stations-Minimum operational andperformance requirements,methods of testingand required test results.修改1《海上导航与无线电通信设备及系统自动识别系统（AIS）第1部分：AIS的基本配置最低操作和性能要求试验方法与要求的试验结果》51IEC60904-7:2008Ed.3.0Photovoltaic devices-Part7:Computation of thespectral mismatch correction for measurements ofphotovoltaic devices光电器件第7部分：光电器件测量的光谱失谐修正的估算52IEC62116:2008Ed.1.0Test procedure of islanding prevention measuresfor utility-interconnected photovoltaic inverters有互联效应的光电变极器的孤立障碍测量试验程序53IEC62257-9-1:2008Ed.1.0Recommendations for small renewable energyand hybrid systems for rural electrification-Part9-1: Micropower systems.乡村电气化的小型更新能源和混合系统推荐标准第9-1部分：微动力系统54IEC/TS62257-9-6:2008Ed.1.0Recommendations for small renewable energyand hybrid systems for rural electrification-Part9-6:Integrated system-Selection of PhotovoltaicIndividual Electrification Systems (PV-IES)乡村电气化的小型更新能源和混合系统推荐标准第9-6部分：综合系统光电单独充电系统(PV-IES)的选择55IEC/TS62538:2008Ed.1.0Categorization of optical devices光学器件分类56IEC60794-2-20:2008Ed.2.0Optical fibre cables-Part2-20:Indoor cables-Family specification for multi-fibre opticaldistribution cables光纤电缆第2-20部分：室内光缆多纤配电光缆的类规范57IEC60794-2-30:2008Ed.2.0Optical fibre cables-Part2-30:Indoor cables-Family specification for ribbon cables光纤电缆第2-30部分：室内光缆带状光缆系列规范58IEC60794-3-40:2008Ed.1.0Optical fibre cables-Part3-40:Outdoor cables-Family specification for sewer cables andconduits for installation by blowing and/orpulling in non-man accessible storm and sanitarysewers光纤电缆第3-40部分：室外光缆过鼓风或拉入非人可达的暴风雨袭击和生活污水管道的安装用下水道光缆和导管系列规范59IEC60794-3-60:2008Ed.1.0Optical fibre cables-Part3-60:Outdoor cables-Family specification for drinking water pipecables and subducts for installation by blowingand/or pulling/dragging/floating in drinkingwater pipes光纤电缆第3-60部分：室外电缆通过鼓风或拉入/拖入/浮入饮用水管道安装的饮用水管道光缆和输送管道系列规范60IEC60794-3-50:2008Ed.1.0Optical fibre cables-Part3-50:Outdoor cables-Family specification for gas pipe cables andsubducts for installation by blowing and/orpulling/dragging in gas pipes.光纤电缆第3-50部分：室外电缆通过鼓风或拉入/拖入煤气管道安装的煤气管道光缆和输送管道系列规范61IEC61300-2-44:2008Ed.2.0Fibre optic interconnecting devices and passivecomponents-Basic test and measurementprocedures-Part2-44:Tests-Flexing of thestrain relief of fibre optic devices光学纤维互连器件和无源元件基础试验和测量程序第2-44部分：试验光纤器件挠曲应变消除62IEC61753-084-2 Cor.1.0Fibre optic interconnecting devices and passivecomponents performance standard-Part084-2:Non connectorised single-mode980/1550nmWWDM devices for category C-Controlledenvironment.光学纤维互连器件和无源元件性能标准第084-2部分：非连接器化的单模980/1550nmWWEM器件 C类可控环境63IEC61754-25:2008Ed.1.0Fibre optic connector interfaces-Part25:TypeRAO connector family光纤连接器接口第25部分：RAO连接器系列类型64IEC61290-3:2008Ed.2.0Optical amplifiers-Test methods-Part3:Noisefigure parameters光学放大器测试方法第3部分：噪声指数参数65IEC61290-3-2:2008Ed.2.0Optical amplifiers-Test methods-Part3-2:Noise figure parameters-Electrical spectrumanalyzer method...光学放大器测试方法第3-2部分：噪声指数参数电器光谱分析器方法66IEC61291-6-1:2008Ed.1.0Optical amplifiers-Part6-1:Interfaces-Command set.光学放大器第6-1部分：接口指挥台67IEC62007-1:2008Ed.2.0Semiconductor optoelectronic devices for fibreoptic system applications-Part1:Specificationtemplate for essential ratings and characteristics.光纤系统应用的半导体光电子器件第1部分：:基本等级和特性的规范模版68IEC/TR62572-2:2008Ed.1.0Fibre optic active components and devices-Reliability standards-Part2:Laser moduledegradation光纤有源元件及器件可靠性标准第2部分：激光模块的衰变69IEC60695-1-30:2008Ed.2.0Fire hazard testing-Part1-30:Guidance forassessing the fire hazard of electrotechnicalproducts-Preselection testing process-Generalguidelines火险试验第1-30部分：电工产品着火危险评定指南预选试验过程总则70IEC/TS60695-11-11:2008Ed.1.0Fire hazard testing-Part11-11:Test flames-Determination of the characteristic heat flux forignition from a non-contacting flame source火险试验第11-11部分：试验火焰不接触火焰点火的特有热通量的测量71IEC60068-2-20:2008Ed.5.0Environmental testing-Part2-20:Tests-Test T:Test methods for solderability and resistance tosoldering heat of devices with leads.火险试验第2-20部分：试验试验T：有引线元器件可焊性和耐焊接热试验方法72IEC61249-2-35:2008Ed.1.0Materials for printed boards and otherinterconnecting structures-Part2-35:Reinforcedbase materials,clad and unclad-Modifiedepoxide woven E-glass laminate sheets ofdefined flammability(vertical burning test),copper-clad for lead-free assembly印制板及其他互连结构用材料第2-35部分：覆箔和未覆箔增强基材无铅组装件用有燃烧性(垂直燃烧试验)要求的覆铜箔改进环氧E玻璃布层压板73IEC61249-2-36:2008Ed.1.0Materials for printed boards and otherinterconnecting structures-Part2-36:Reinforcedbase materials,clad and unclad-Epoxide wovenE-glass laminate sheets of defined flammability(vertical burning test),copper-clad for lead-freeassembly.印制板及其他互连结构用材料第2-36部分：覆箔和未覆箔增强基材无铅组装件用有燃烧性(垂直燃烧试验)要求的覆铜箔环氧E玻璃布层压板74IEC61249-2-37:2008Ed.1.0Materials for printed boards and otherinterconnecting structures-Part2-37:Reinforcedbase materials,clad and unclad-Modified non-halogenated epoxide woven E-glass laminatesheets of defined flammability(vertical burningtest), copper-clad for lead-free assembly.印制板及其他互连结构用材料第2-37部分：覆箔和未覆箔增强基材无铅组装件用有燃烧性(垂直燃烧试验)要求的覆铜箔改进非卤化环氧E玻璃布层压板75IEC61249-2-38:2008Ed.1.0Materials for printed boards and otherinterconnecting structures-Part2-38:Reinforcedbase materials,clad and unclad-Non-halogenated epoxide woven E-glass laminatesheets of defined flammability(vertical burningtest), copper-clad for lead-free assembly.印制板及其他互连结构用材料第2-38部分：覆箔和未覆箔增强基材无铅组装件用有燃烧性(垂直燃烧试验)要求的覆铜箔非卤化环氧E玻璃布层压板76IEC62137-1-3:2008Ed.1.0Surface mounting technology-Environmental andendurance test methods for surface mount solderjoint - Part 1-3: Cyclic drop test.表面安装技术表面安装焊点环境及耐久力试验方法第1-3部分：周期性跌落试验77IEC/PAS62137-3:2008Ed.1.0Electronics assembly technology-Selectionguidance of environmental and endurance testmethods for solder joints电子组装技术焊接点的环境和耐久力试验的选择指南78IEC60958-4:2008Ed.2.1Digital audio interface-Part4:Professionalapplications数字音频接口第4部分：专业应用技术委员会TC/SC CISPR/ATC1TC1TC1TC15TC15TC20TC20TC20TC20TC20TC20TC20TC20TC20TC23B TC40 TC40 TC46 TC46FTC47 TC47 TC47A TC48B TC48B TC48B TC48B TC48B TC48BTC48B TC48B TC48B TC48B TC48B TC49 TC49 TC51 TC51 TC56 TC56 TC65 TC65 TC68TC77B TC80 TC80 TC80 TC82 TC82 TC82 TC82 TC86 TC86A TC86A TC86A TC86ATC86B TC86B TC86BTC86C TC86C TC86C TC86C TC86C TC89 TC89 TC91 TC91TC91TC91TC91 TC91 TC100。

小波分析中英文对照外文翻译文献

小波分析中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文：一小波研究的意义与背景在实际应用中，针对不同性质的信号和干扰，寻找最佳的处理方法降低噪声，一直是信号处理领域广泛讨论的重要问题。

目前有很多方法可用于信号降噪，如中值滤波，低通滤波，傅立叶变换等，但它们都滤掉了信号细节中的有用部分。

传统的信号去噪方法以信号的平稳性为前提，仅从时域或频域分别给出统计平均结果。

根据有效信号的时域或频域特性去除噪声，而不能同时兼顾信号在时域和频域的局部和全貌。

更多的实践证明，经典的方法基于傅里叶变换的滤波，并不能对非平稳信号进行有效的分析和处理，去噪效果已不能很好地满足工程应用发展的要求。

常用的硬阈值法则和软阈值法则采用设置高频小波系数为零的方法从信号中滤除噪声。

实践证明，这些小波阈值去噪方法具有近似优化特性，在非平稳信号领域中具有良好表现。

小波理论是在傅立叶变换和短时傅立叶变换的基础上发展起来的，它具有多分辨分析的特点，在时域和频域上都具有表征信号局部特征的能力，是信号时频分析的优良工具。

小波变换具有多分辨性、时频局部化特性及计算的快速性等属性，这使得小波变换在地球物理领域有着广泛的应用。

随着技术的发展，小波包分析(Wavelet Packet Analysis)方法产生并发展起来，小波包分析是小波分析的拓展，具有十分广泛的应用价值。

它能够为信号提供一种更加精细的分析方法，它将频带进行多层次划分，对离散小波变换没有细分的高频部分进一步分析，并能够根据被分析信号的特征，自适应选择相应的频带，使之与信号匹配，从而提高了时频分辨率。

小波包分析(wavelet packet analysis)能够为信号提供一种更加精细的分析方法，它将频带进行多层次划分，对小波分析没有细分的高频部分进一步分解，并能够根据被分析信号的特征，自适应地选择相应频带,使之与信号频谱相匹配，因而小波包具有更广泛的应用价值。

利用小波包分析进行信号降噪，一种直观而有效的小波包去噪方法就是直接对小波包分解系数取阈值，选择相关的滤波因子，利用保留下来的系数进行信号的重构，最终达到降噪的目的。

翻译专业中英文对照外文翻译文献

翻译专业中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Translation EquivalenceDespite the fact that the world is becoming a global village, translation remains a major way for languages and cultures to interact and influence each other. And name translation, especially government name translation, occupies a quite significant place in international exchange.Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. While interpreting—the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication between users of different languages—antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature. There exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh (ca. 2000 BCE) into Southwest Asian languages of the second millennium BCE. Translators always risk inappropriate spill-over of source-language idiom and usage into the target-language translation. On the other hand, spill-overs have imported useful source-language calques and loanwords that have enriched the target languages. Indeed, translators have helped substantially to shape the languages into which they have translated. Due to the demands of business documentation consequent to the Industrial Revolution that began in the mid-18th century, some translation specialties have become formalized, with dedicated schools and professional associations. Because of the laboriousness of translation, since the 1940s engineers havesought to automate translation (machine translation) or to mechanically aid the human translator (computer-assisted translation). The rise of the Internet has fostered a world-wide market for translation services and has facilitated language localizationIt is generally accepted that translation, not as a separate entity, blooms into flower under such circumstances like culture, societal functions, politics and power relations. Nowadays, the field of translation studies is immersed with abundantly diversified translation standards, with no exception that some of them are presented by renowned figures and are rather authoritative. In the translation practice, however, how should we select the so-called translation standards to serve as our guidelines in the translation process and how should we adopt the translation standards to evaluate a translation product?In the macro - context of flourish of linguistic theories, theorists in the translation circle, keep to the golden law of the principle of equivalence. The theory of Translation Equivalence is the central issue in western translation theories. And the presentation of this theory gives great impetus to the development and improvement of translation theory. It‟s not difficult for us to discover that it is the theory of Translation Equivalence that serves as guidelines in government name translation in China. Name translation, as defined, is the replacement of the name in the source language by an equivalent name or other words in the target language. Translating Chinese government names into English, similarly, is replacing the Chinese government name with an equivalentin English.Metaphorically speaking, translation is often described as a moving trajectory going from A to B along a path or a container to carry something across from A to B. This view is commonly held by both translation practitioners and theorists in the West. In this view, they do not expect that this trajectory or something will change its identity as it moves or as it is carried. In China, to translate is also understood by many people normally as “to translate the whole text sentence by sentence and paragraph by paragraph, without any omission, addition, or other changes. In both views, the source text and the target text must be “the same”. This helps explain the etymological source for the term “translation equivalence”. It is in essence a word which describes the relationship between the ST and the TT.Equivalence means the state or fact or property of being equivalent. It is widely used in several scientific fields such as chemistry and mathematics. Therefore, it comes to have a strong scientific meaning that is rather absolute and concise. Influenced by this, translation equivalence also comes to have an absolute denotation though it was first applied in translation study as a general word. From a linguistic point of view, it can be divided into three sub-types, i.e., formal equivalence, semantic equivalence, and pragmatic equivalence. In actual translation, it frequently happens that they cannot be obtained at the same time, thus forming a kind of relative translation equivalence in terms of quality. In terms of quantity, sometimes the ST and TT are not equivalent too. Absolutetranslation equivalence both in quality and quantity, even though obtainable, is limited to a few cases.The following is a brief discussion of translation equivalence study conducted by three influential western scholars, Eugene Nida, Andrew Chesterman and Peter Newmark. It‟s expected that their studies can instruct GNT study in China and provide translators with insightful methods.Nida‟s definition of translation is: “Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” It is a replacement of textual material in one language〔SL〕by equivalent textual material in another language（TL）. The translator must strive for equivalence rather than identity. In a sense, this is just another way of emphasizing the reproducing of the message rather than the conservation of the form of the utterance. The message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language to reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the form and content of the original. Translation equivalence is an empirical phenomenon discovered by comparing SL and TL texts and it‟s a useful operational concept like the term “unit of translation”.Nida argues that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content, whereas dynamic equivalence is based upon “the principle of equivalent effect”.Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a ST word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language pairs. Therefore, formal equivalents should be used wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the TT since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. According to Nida and Taber, formal correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard.Dynamic equivalence is based on what Nida calls “the principle of equivalent effect” where the relat ionship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message. The message has to be modified to the receptor‟s linguistic needs and cultural expectation and aims at complete naturalness of expression. Naturalness is a key requirement for Nida. He defines the goal of dynamic equivalence as seeking the closest natural equivalent to the SL message. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness; the TL should not show interference from the SL, and the …foreignness …of the ST setting is minimized.Nida is in favor of the application of dynamic equivalence, as a moreeffective translation procedure. Thus, the product of the translation process, that is the text in the TL, must have the same impact on the different readers it was addressing. Only in Nida and Taber's edition is it clearly stated that dynamic equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct communication of information.As Andrew Chesterman points out in his recent book Memes of Translation, equivalence is one of the five element of translation theory, standing shoulder to shoulder with source-target, untranslatability, free-vs-literal, All-writing-is-translating in importance. Pragmatically speaking, observed Chesterman, “the only true examples of equivalence (i.e., absolute equivalence) are those in which an ST item X is invariably translated into a given TL as Y, and vice versa. Typical examples would be words denoting numbers (with the exception of contexts in which they have culture-bound connotations, such as “magic” or “unlucky”), certain technical terms (oxygen, molecule) and the like. From this point of view, the only true test of equivalence would be invariable back-translation. This, of course, is unlikely to occur except in the case of a small set of lexical items, or perhaps simple isolated syntactic structure”.Peter Newmark. Departing from Nida‟s rece ptor-oriented line, Newmark argues that the success of equivalent effect is “illusory “and that the conflict of loyalties and the gap between emphasis on source and target language will always remain as the overriding problem in translation theory and practice. He suggests narrowing the gap by replacing the old terms with those of semanticand communicative translation. The former attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meani ng of the original, while the latter “attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.” Newmark‟s description of communicative translation resembles Nida‟s dynamic equivalence in the effect it is trying to create on the TT reader, while semantic translation has similarities to Nida‟s formal equivalence.Meanwhile, Newmark points out that only by combining both semantic and communicative translation can we achieve the goal of keeping the …spirit‟ of the original. Semantic translation requires the translator retain the aesthetic value of the original, trying his best to keep the linguistic feature and characteristic style of the author. According to semantic translation, the translator should always retain the semantic and syntactic structures of the original. Deletion and abridgement lead to distortion of the author‟s intention and his writing style.翻译对等尽管全世界正在渐渐成为一个地球村，但翻译仍然是语言和和文化之间的交流互动和相互影响的主要方式之一。

数据采集系统中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Data Acquisition SystemsData acquisition systems are used to acquire process operating data and store it on，secondary storage devices for later analysis. Many or the data acquisition systems acquire this data at very high speeds and very little computer time is left to carry out any necessary, or desirable, data manipulations or reduction. All the data are stored on secondary storage devices and manipulated subsequently to derive the variables ofin-terest. It is very often necessary to design special purpose data acquisition systems and interfaces to acquire the high speed process data. This special purpose design can be an expensive proposition.Powerful mini- and mainframe computers are used to combine the data acquisition with other functions such as comparisons between the actual output and the desirable output values, and to then decide on the control action which must be taken to ensure that the output variables lie within preset limits. The computing power required will depend upon the type of process control system implemented. Software requirements for carrying out proportional, ratio or three term control of process variables are relatively trivial, and microcomputers can be used to implement such process control systems. It would not be possible to use many of the currently available microcomputers for the implementation of high speed adaptive control systems which require the use of suitable process models and considerable online manipulation of data.Microcomputer based data loggers are used to carry out intermediate functions such as data acquisition at comparatively low speeds, simple mathematical manipulations of raw data and some forms of data reduction. The first generation of data loggers, without any programmable computing facilities, was used simply for slow speed data acquisition from up to one hundred channels. All the acquired data could be punched out on paper tape or printed for subsequent analysis. Such hardwired data loggers are being replaced by the new generation of data loggers which incorporate microcomputers and can be programmed by the user. They offer an extremely good method of collecting the process data, using standardized interfaces, and subsequently performing the necessary manipulations to provide the information of interest to the process operator. The data acquired can be analyzed to establish correlations, if any, between process variables and to develop mathematical models necessary for adaptive and optimal process control.The data acquisition function carried out by data loggers varies from one to 9 in system to another. Simple data logging systems acquire data from a few channels while complex systems can receive data from hundreds, or even thousands, of input channels distributed around one or more processes. The rudimentary data loggers scan the selected number of channels, connected to sensors or transducers, in a sequential manner and the data are recorded in a digital format. A data logger can be dedicated in the sense that it can only collect data from particular types of sensors and transducers. It is best to use a nondedicated data logger since any transducer or sensor can be connected to the channels via suitable interface circuitry. This facility requires the use of appropriate signal conditioning modules.Microcomputer controlled data acquisition facilitates the scanning of a large number of sensors. The scanning rate depends upon the signal dynamics which means that some channels must be scanned at very high speeds in order to avoid aliasing errors while there is very little loss of information by scanning other channels at slower speeds. In some data logging applications the faster channels require sampling at speeds of up to 100 times per second while slow channels can be sampled once every five minutes. The conventional hardwired, non-programmable data loggers sample all the channels in a sequential manner and the sampling frequency of all the channels must be the same. This procedure results in the accumulation of very large amounts of data, some of which is unnecessary, and also slows down the overall effective sampling frequency. Microcomputer based data loggers can be used to scan some fast channels at a higher frequency than other slow speed channels.The vast majority of the user programmable data loggers can be used to scan up to 1000 analog and 1000 digital input channels. A small number of data loggers, with a higher degree of sophistication, are suitable for acquiring data from up to 15, 000 analog and digital channels. The data from digital channels can be in the form of Transistor- Transistor Logic or contact closure signals. Analog data must be converted into digital format before it is recorded and requires the use of suitable analog to digital converters (ADC)．The characteristics of the ADC will define the resolution that can be achieved and the rate at which the various channels can be sampled. An in-crease in the number of bits used in the ADC improves the resolution capability. Successive approximation ADC's arefaster than integrating ADC's. Many microcomputer controlled data loggers include a facility to program the channel scanning rates. Typical scanning rates vary from 2 channels per second to 10, 000 channels per second.Most data loggers have a resolution capability of ±0.01% or better, It is also pos-sible to achieve a resolution of 1 micro-volt. The resolution capability, in absolute terms, also depends upon the range of input signals, Standard input signal ranges are 0-10 volt, 0-50 volt and 0-100 volt. The lowest measurable signal varies form 1 t, volt to 50, volt. A higher degree of recording accuracy can be achieved by using modules which accept data in small, selectable ranges. An alternative is the auto ranging facil-ity available on some data loggers.The accuracy with which the data are acquired and logged-on the appropriate storage device is extremely important. It is therefore necessary that the data acquisi-tion module should be able to reject common mode noise and common mode voltage. Typical common mode noise rejection capabilities lie in the range 110 dB to 150 dB. A decibel (dB) is a tern which defines the ratio of the power levels of two signals. Thus if the reference and actual signals have power levels of N, and Na respectively, they will have a ratio of n decibels, wheren＝10 Log10（Na /Nr）Protection against maximum common mode voltages of 200 to 500 volt is available on typical microcomputer based data loggers.The voltage input to an individual data logger channel is measured, scaled and linearised before any further data manipulations or comparisons are carried out.In many situations, it becomes necessary to alter the frequency at which particu-lar channels are sampled depending upon the values of data signals received from a particular input sensor. Thus a channel might normally be sampled once every 10 minutes. If, however, the sensor signals approach the alarm limit, then it is obviously desirable to sample that channel once every minute or even faster so that the operators can be informed, thereby avoiding any catastrophes. Microcomputer controlledintel-ligent data loggers may be programmed to alter the sampling frequencies depending upon the values of process signals. Other data loggers include self-scanning modules which can initiate sampling.The conventional hardwired data loggers, without any programming facilities, simply record the instantaneous values of transducer outputs at a regular samplingin-terval. This raw data often means very little to the typical user. To be meaningful, this data must be linearised and scaled, using a calibration curve, in order to determine the real value of the variable in appropriate engineering units. Prior to the availability of programmable data loggers, this function was usually carried out in the off-line mode on a mini- or mainframe computer. The raw data values had to be punched out on pa-per tape, in binary or octal code, to be input subsequently to the computer used for analysis purposes and converted to the engineering units. Paper tape punches are slow speed mechanical devices which reduce the speed at which channels can be scanned. An alternative was to print out the raw data values which further reduced the data scanning rate. It was not possible to carry out any limit comparisons or provide any alarm information. Every single value acquired by the data logger had to be recorded eventhough it might not serve any useful purpose during subsequent analysis; many data values only need recording when they lie outside the pre-set low and high limits.If the analog data must be transmitted over any distance, differences in ground potential between the signal source and final location can add noise in the interface design. In order to separate common-mode interference form the signal to be recorded or processed, devices designed for this purpose, such as instrumentation amplifiers, may be used. An instrumentation amplifier is characterized by good common-mode- rejection capability, a high input impedance, low drift, adjustable gain, and greater cost than operational amplifiers. They range from monolithic ICs to potted modules, and larger rack-mounted modules with manual scaling and null adjustments. When a very high common-mode voltage is present or the need for extremely-lowcom-mon-mode leakage current exists（as in many medical-electronics applications），an isolation amplifier is required. Isolation amplifiers may use optical or transformer isolation.Analog function circuits are special-purpose circuits that are used for a variety of signal conditioning operations on signals which are in analog form. When their accu-racy is adequate, they can relieve the microprocessor of time-consuming software and computations. Among the typical operations performed are multiplications, division, powers, roots, nonlinear functions such as for linearizing transducers, rimsmeasure-ments, computing vector sums, integration and differentiation, andcurrent-to-voltage or voltage- to-current conversion. Many of these operations can be purchased in available devices as multiplier/dividers, log/antilog amplifiers, and others.When data from a number of independent signal sources must be processed by the same microcomputer or communications channel, a multiplexer is used to channel the input signals into the A/D converter.Multiplexers are also used in reverse, as when a converter must distribute analog information to many different channels. The multiplexer is fed by a D／A converter which continually refreshes the output channels with new information.In many systems, the analog signal varies during the time that the converter takes to digitize an input signal. The changes in this signal level during the conversion process can result in errors since the conversion period can be completed some time after the conversion command. The final value never represents the data at the instant when the conversion command is transmitted. Sample-hold circuits are used to make an acquisition of the varying analog signal and to hold this signal for the duration of the conversion process. Sample-hold circuits are common in multichannel distribution systems where they allow each channel to receive and hold the signal level.In order to get the data in digital form as rapidly and as accurately as possible, we must use an analog/digital (A/D) converter, which might be a shaft encoder, a small module with digital outputs, or a high-resolution, high-speed panel instrument. These devices, which range form IC chips to rack-mounted instruments, convert ana-log input data, usually voltage, into an equivalent digital form. The characteristics of A/D converters include absolute and relative accuracy, linearity, monotonic, resolu-tion, conversion speed, and stability. A choice of input ranges, output codes, and other features are available. The successive-approximation technique is popular for a large number ofapplications, with the most popular alternatives being the counter-comparator types, and dual-ramp approaches. The dual-ramp has been widely-used in digital voltmeters.D/A converters convert a digital format into an equivalent analog representation. The basic converter consists of a circuit of weighted resistance values or ratios, each controlled by a particular level or weight of digital input data, which develops the output voltage or current in accordance with the digital input code. A special class of D/A converter exists which have the capability of handling variable reference sources. These devices are the multiplying DACs. Their output value is the product of the number represented by the digital input code and the analog reference voltage, which may vary form full scale to zero, and in some cases, to negative values.Component Selection CriteriaIn the past decade, data-acquisition hardware has changed radically due to ad-vances in semiconductors, and prices have come down too; what have not changed, however, are the fundamental system problems confronting the designer. Signals may be obscured by noise, rfi，ground loops, power-line pickup, and transients coupled into signal lines from machinery. Separating the signals from these effects becomes a matter for concern.Data-acquisition systems may be separated into two basic categories:（1）those suited to favorable environments like laboratories -and（2）those required for hostile environments such as factories, vehicles, and military installations. The latter group includes industrial process control systems where temperature information may be gathered by sensors on tanks, boilers, wats, or pipelines that may be spread over miles of facilities. That data may then be sent to a central processor to provide real-time process control. The digital control of steel mills, automated chemical production, and machine tools is carried out in this kind of hostile environment. The vulnerability of the data signals leads to the requirement for isolation and other techniques.At the other end of the spectrum-laboratory applications, such as test systems for gathering information on gas chromatographs, mass spectrometers, and other sophis-ticated instruments-the designer's problems are concerned with the performing of sen-sitive measurements under favorable conditions rather than with the problem ofpro-tecting the integrity of collected data under hostile conditions.Systems in hostile environments might require components for wide tempera-tures, shielding, common-mode noise reduction, conversion at an early stage, redun-dant circuits for critical measurements, and preprocessing of the digital data to test its reliability. Laboratory systems, on the other hand, will have narrower temperature ranges and less ambient noise. But the higher accuracies require sensitive devices, and a major effort may be necessary for the required signal /noise ratios.The choice of configuration and components in data-acquisition design depends on consideration of a number of factors:1. Resolution and accuracy required in final format.2. Number of analog sensors to be monitored.3. Sampling rate desired.4. Signal-conditioning requirement due to environment and accuracy.5. Cost trade-offs.Some of the choices for a basic data-acquisition configuration include：1 ．Single-channel techniques.A. Direct conversion.B. Preamplification and direct conversion.C. Sample-hold and conversion.D. Preamplification, sample-hold, and conversion.E. Preamplification, signal-conditioning, and direct conversion.F. Preamplification, signal-conditioning, sample-hold, and conversion.2. Multichannel techniques.A. Multiplexing the outputs of single-channel converters.B. Multiplexing the outputs of sample-holds.C. Multiplexing the inputs of sample-holds.D. Multiplexing low-level data.E. More than one tier of multiplexers.Signal-conditioning may include:1. Radiometric conversion techniques.B. Range biasing.D. Logarithmic compression.A. Analog filtering.B. Integrating converters.C. Digital data processing.We shall consider these techniques later, but first we will examine some of the components used in these data-acquisition system configurations.MultiplexersWhen more than one channel requires analog-to-digital conversion, it is neces-sary to use time-division multiplexing in order to connect the analog inputs to a single converter, or to provide a converter for each input and then combine the converter outputs by digital multiplexing.Analog MultiplexersAnalog multiplexer circuits allow the timesharing of analog-to-digital converters between a numbers of analog information channels. An analog multiplexer consists of a group of switches arranged with inputs connected to the individual analog channels and outputs connected in common（as shown in Fig. 1）．The switches may be ad-dressed by a digital input code.Many alternative analog switches are available in electromechanical and solid-state forms. Electromechanical switch types include relays, stepper switches,cross-bar switches, mercury-wetted switches, and dry-reed relay switches. The best switching speed is provided by reed relays（about 1 ms）．The mechanical switches provide high do isolation resistance, low contact resistance, and the capacity to handle voltages up to 1 KV, and they are usually inexpensive. Multiplexers using mechanical switches are suited to low-speed applications as well as those having high resolution requirements. They interface well with the slower A/D converters, like the integrating dual-slope types. Mechanical switches have a finite life, however, usually expressed innumber of operations. A reed relay might have a life of 109 operations, which wouldallow a 3-year life at 10 operations/second.Solid-state switch devices are capable of operation at 30 ns, and they have a life which exceeds most equipment requirements. Field-effect transistors（FETs）are used in most multiplexers. They have superseded bipolar transistors which can introduce large voltage offsets when used as switches.FET devices have a leakage from drain to source in the off state and a leakage from gate or substrate to drain and source in both the on and off states. Gate leakage in MOS devices is small compared to other sources of leakage. When the device has a Zener-diode-protected gate, an additional leakage path exists between the gate and source.Enhancement-mode MOS-FETs have the advantage that the switch turns off when power is removed from the MUX. Junction-FET multiplexers always turn on with the power off.A more recent development, the CMOS-complementary MOS-switch has the advantage of being able to multiplex voltages up to and including the supply voltages. A±10-V signal can be handled with a ±10-V supply.Trade-off Considerations for the DesignerAnalog multiplexing has been the favored technique for achieving lowest system cost. The decreasing cost of A/D converters and the availability of low-cost, digital integrated circuits specifically designed for multiplexing provide an alternative with advantages for some applications. A decision on the technique to use for a givensys-tem will hinge on trade-offs between the following factors:1. Resolution. The cost of A/D converters rises steeply as the resolution increases due to the cost of precision elements. At the 8-bit level, the per-channel cost of an analog multiplexer may be a considerable proportion of the cost of a converter. At resolutions above 12 bits, the reverse is true, and analog multiplexing tends to be more economical.2. Number of channels. This controls the size of the multiplexer required and the amount of wiring and interconnections. Digital multiplexing onto a common data bus reduces wiring to a minimum in many cases. Analog multiplexing is suited for 8 to 256 channels; beyond this number, the technique is unwieldy and analog errors be-come difficult to minimize. Analog and digital multiplexing is often combined in very large systems.3. Speed of measurement, or throughput. High-speed A/D converters can add a considerable cost to the system. If analog multiplexing demands a high-speedcon-verter to achieve the desired sample rate, a slower converter for each channel with digital multiplexing can be less costly．4. Signal level and conditioning. Wide dynamic ranges between channels can be difficult with analog multiplexing. Signals less than 1V generally require differential low-level analog multiplexing which is expensive, with programmable-gain amplifiers after the MUX operation. The alternative of fixed-gain converters on each channel, with signal-conditioning designed for the channel requirement, with digital multi-plexing may be more efficient.5. Physical location of measurement points. Analog multiplexing is suitedfor making measurements at distances up to a few hundred feet from the converter, since analog lines may suffer from losses, transmission-line reflections, and interference. Lines may range from twisted wire pairs to multiconductor shielded cable, depending on signal levels, distance, and noise environments. Digital multiplexing is operable to thousands of miles, with the proper transmission equipment, for digital transmission systems can offer the powerful noise-rejection characteristics that are required for29 Data Acquisition Systems long-distance transmission.Digital MultiplexingFor systems with small numbers of channels, medium-scale integrated digital multiplexers are available in TTL and MOS logic families. The 74151 is a typical example. Eight of these integrated circuits can be used to multiplex eight A/D con-verters of 8-bit resolution onto a common data bus.This digital multiplexing example offers little advantages in wiring economy, but it is lowest in cost, and the high switching speed allows operation at sampling rates much faster than analog multiplexers. The A/D converters are required only to keep up with the channel sample rate, and not with the commutating rate. When large numbers of A/D converters are multiplexed, the data-bus technique reduces system interconnections. This alone may in many cases justify multiple A/D converters. Data can be bussed onto the lines in bit-parallel or bit-serial format, as many converters have both serial and parallel outputs. A variety of devices can be used to drive the bus, from open collector and tristate TTL gates to line drivers and optoelectronic isolators. Channel-selection decoders can be built from 1-of-16 decoders to the required size. This technique also allows additional reliability in that a failure of one A/D does not affect the other channels. An important requirement is that the multiplexer operate without introducing unacceptable errors at the sample-rate speed. For a digital MUX system, one can determine the speed from propagation delays and the time required to charge the bus capacitance.Analog multiplexers can be more difficult to characterize. Their speed is a func-tion not only of internal parameters but also external parameters such as channel, source impedance, stray capacitance and the number of channels, and the circuit lay-out. The user must be aware of the limiting parameters in the system to judge their ef-fect on performance.The nonideal transmission and open-circuit characteristics of analog multiplexers can introduce static and dynamic errors into the signal path. These errors include leakage through switches, coupling of control signals into the analog path, and inter-actions with sources and following amplifiers. Moreover, the circuit layout can com-pound these effects.Since analog multiplexers may be connected directly to sources which may have little overload capacity or poor settling after overloads, the switches should have a break-before-make action to prevent the possibility of shorting channels together. It may be necessary to avoid shorted channels when power is removed and a chan-nels-off with power-down characteristic is desirable. In addition to the chan-nel-addressing lines, which are normally binary-coded, it is useful to have inhibited or enable lines to turn all switches off regardless of the channel being addressed. This simplifies the external logic necessary to cascade multiplexers and can also be useful in certain modes of channeladdressing. Another requirement for both analog and digital multiplexers is the tolerance of line transients and overload conditions, and the ability to absorb the transient energy and recover without damage.数据采集系统数据采集系统是用来获取数据处理和存储在二级存储设备，为后来的分析。

高速铁路弓网电弧电磁干扰论文中英文资料对照外文翻译文献

高速铁路弓网电弧电磁干扰论文中英文资料外文翻译附录A(原文)A Simulation of Arc Generation at AC-DC Neutral Section of Electric RailwayYoungsoo Han, Kyuhyoung ChoiAbstract--This paper provides an experimental and theoretical analysis of the arc discharges generated between contact wire and pantograph of high speed railway.A video-based arc detection device is installed on the KTX train, and arc discharges are measured for a 45.87km track section of high speed railway in Korea. It is measured that the rate of contact loss is 0.3% which is lower than the regulated value of 1.0% for high speed train, and arc discharges induced by 21 small size contact losses and 6 medium size contact losses occur continuously along the track. The power of arc discharge between contact wire and pantograph is calculated as 9.0~22.5[kW] which is approximately one-hundredth of that of the arc discharges generated at the neutral section of contact wire. The results of the measurement and the analysis suppose that a study be followed to suppress arc discharges and contact wire damages for the safe operation of high speed railway.Index Terms—Electric railway;arc discharge;contact loss;contact wire; pantograph;neutral section.I.NOMENCLATURES/S : Sub-Station of Electric RailwaySP : Sectioning PostSSP : Sub- Sectioning PostAT : Auto-TransformerTF : Trolley FeederAF : Auto- Transformer FeederFPW : Fault Protective WireNW : Neutral WireNS : Neutral SectionCCTV: Closed Circuit TelevisionEMI: Electromagnetic InterferenceLAN: Local Area NetworkMCB: Main Circuit BreakerKTX: Korea Train ExpressII.INTRODUCTIONCatenary systems play a important role in supplying electric power without interruption to trains moving fast. The pantographs installed on train collect currents for traction while keeping in contact with the catenary system. Arc discharges occur between the contact wire and the pantographs, when the pantographs happen to lose contact with the contact wire.Arc discharge also occurs when the train passes through the AC-DC neutral section of the catenary system where electricity is not supplied. These arc discharges give rise to many problems such as spoiling the contact wire and the pantographs,and inducing EMI phenomena,audible noises and other environmental pollutions.Arc discharges generally have large heating power which may spoil the slider of pantograph made of sintered alloy and even breaks the contact wires.V oltage surges induced by arc discharges may produce EMI problems to the small size environment or mal-operation of electronic devices on the train. The damages caused by arc discharge will be more critical for high speed railway.The faster train moves,the more difficult to keeping in contact with catenary for pantograph. Moreover, as train speeds up, the train traction currents should be increased,which inevitably give rise to larger arc discharges.This paper provides an experimental and theoretical analysis of the arc discharges generated between the contact wire and the pantograph of high speed railway. A designated arc detection device is installed on the KTX train, and arc discharges are measured for a 45.87[km] track section of high speed railway.Arc generation frequency, arc current and arc size is measured along the track.A data analysis and an arc power model is suggested too.III. ARC DISCHARGES BETWEEN CONTACT WIRE ANDPANTOGRAPHThe power supply system of electric railway consists of S/S and catenary system.S/S converts three phase 154[kV] electric power to single phase 25[kV] being suitable for supplying to train.High speed railway adopts AT feeding system which can supply large electric power for long distance as shown in Fig. 1. The S/S supplies AC 50[kV] to AT, and AT supply AC 25[kV] to train. The converted electric power is supplied to train by way of the catenary system which is composed of a contact wire,a messenger wire and hangers.The main purpose of the catenary system is to supply electric power without interruption to trains moving fast.The pantographs installed on train collect electric power while contacting the contactwire of the catenary system.Fig. 2. Shows the configuration of the catenary system. The pantograph is connected to the contact wire by its lift force against the contact wire. Contact wires supported by hangers and supporting structures has uneven stiffness points which give rise to contact losses.Moreover,as train speed up,contact loss happens more frequently.Arc discharges occur between the contact wire and the pantographs, when the pantographs happen to lose contact with the contact wire.The contact loss phenomena are classified into three groups according to their duration; small size, medium size and large size. Small size contact loss is induced by delicate vibration of pantograph,and continues for several tenths of a second. Medium size contact losses occur when trains pass through the uneven stiff point of the contact wire, and continues for a second and below. Large size contact losses, continuing for several seconds,are induced by jumping movements of pantograph after passing through bracket supporting points of contact wire.Contact wires have several neutral sections insulated from other parts of contact wires,in other words dead sections,which divide the sections having different phases and different supply voltages such as AC 25,000[V] or DC 1,500[V]. Trains should go into the neutral sections after making notch-off operation whichbreaks the train current by MCB, otherwise the train current is interrupted by the neutral section which result in a large arc discharge between the contact wire and the pantograph as shown in Fig. 2.This arc discharge also happens when train go into the voltage-supplied section from the neutral section.IV.MEASUREMENT OF CONTACT LOSS BETWEEN CONTACTWIRE AND PANTOGRAPHA.Measurement deviceFig. 4. Shows the system block diagram of arc measurement device.The device, installed on the KTX train moving at the speed of 300[km/h],measures contact force between contact wire and pantograph,vibration acceleration of pantograph, and the shape of arc discharge.Strain gauges are installed on the bow and arms of pantograph to measure the acceleration and contact force.Table 1 shows the specifications of the sensors.The image of arc discharge is captured by CCTV camera activated by arc detection sensor.Fig. 5 shows a captured image of arc discharge. All the data measured by on-board device are transmitted to wayside server via wireless LAN.B.Measurement data analysisThe measurement has been carried out at the 45.78[km] track section of high speed railway with 300[km/h] train operation. Table 2 shows the results of the measurement; time, location of arc discharge,arc strength,the length of contact loss, train speed,arc current,and pantograph voltage.Fig. 6 show a train speed profile with voltage and current distributions.While KTX train moves on the 45.78[km] track section, 21 small size contact losses and 6 medium size contact losses are observed and rge size contact loss was not detected at the experiment. The rate of contact loss is defined as;rate of contact loss = sum of contact loss time ×100[%] (1)total operation timeKorean railroad corporation suggests the rate of contact loss for high speed railway should be lower than 1.0[%]. Based on the measured data in Table 2,the rate of contact loss is calculated as 0.31[%], which means the catenary system and the pantograph of KTX fulfill the regulation in Korea. Nevertheless, it should be noted that some arc discharges are occurring continuously during the high speed operation of KTX.C. Modeling of arc dischargeThe instantaneous power of arc discharge is described by arc voltage va , and arc current i as follows,i v p a ⋅= （2） The average power of arc discharge can be calculated by integrating over the period T.⎰⎰⋅⋅=⋅⋅=T a T idt v T pdt T P 0011 （3） It is reported that the voltage and current of arc discharge at AC circuit have the waveforms shown in Fig.7[8].The arc voltage has constant value V during half the period, depicted by square wave. Thus, the equation(3) for average power of arc discharge can be simplified by setting va = Va .The current wave form of AC arc discharge in Fig. 7 is approximately sinusoidal having some harmonic.Neglecting the harmonics which is evaluated as several hundredths of fundamental wave, arc current can be approximated ast I i ωsin 2= （5） Consequently, the average power isI V tdt I T V P a Ta 9.0sin 210=⋅=⎰ω （6）Where I is effective value of AC current, and V is arc voltage that can be measured by voltmeter.The arc discharge between contact wire and pantograph has the followingcharacteristics. Arc currents are very large up to 500[A].Arc discharge between contact wire and pantograph can be simulated by arc discharge between bar and plate. Fig.8 shows a typical voltage-current characteristics of high current arc discharge between bar and plate. As the arc current is 500[A] in Table 2, arc voltage can be estimated as 20~50[V] according to displacement between contact wire and pantograph from Fig. 8. Thus, the power of arc discharge between contact wire and pantograph is calculated to be 9.0~22.5[kV A] by equation (6). The power of arc discharge between contact wire and pantograph is approximately one-hundredth of that of the arc discharges generated at the neutral section of contact wire.V. CONCLUSIONArc discharges between the contact wire and pantograph have been measured on the KTX train along 45.87km track using a video-based arc detection device. Although the rate of contact loss is measured as 0.3% which is lower than the regulated value of 1.0%,arc discharges occurs continuously along the track induced by 21 small size contact losses and 6 medium size contact losses.The power of arc discharge between contact wire and pantograph is calculated as 9.0~22.5[kW] which is approximately one-hundredth of that of the arc discharges generated at the neutral section of contact wire.The results reveal that the study be followed to suppress arc discharges and contact wire damages for the safe operation of high speed train.附录A(译文)电力机车交-直分相装置上产生电弧的仿真实验Youngsoo Han, Kyuhyoung Choi摘要---本文提供了一个实验和理论分析了高速铁路中接触网和受电弓之间产生的电弧放电现象。

ISO和IEC的TC_SC中英文名单

ISOIEC /TC/SC 号TCSC 中文名TCSC 英文名IEC CISPR 无线电干扰特别委员会INTERNATIONALSPECIAL COMMITTEE ON RADIOINTERFERENCEIEC CISPR/A 无线电干扰测量方法和统计方法RADIO-INTERFERENCEMEASUREMENTS ANDSTATISTICAL METHODSIEC CISPR/B 工业、科学和医疗射频设备的干扰INTERFERENCE RELATING TOINDUSTRIAL,SCIENTIFIC ANDMEDICAL RADIO-FREQUENCY APPARATUSIEC CISPR/D 车辆和内燃机动力部件上的电及电子设备的电磁干扰ELECTROMAGNETICDISTURBANCES RELATED TO ELECTRIC/ELECTRONICEQUIPMENT ON VEHICLES AND INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE POWERED DEVICESIEC CISPR/F 家用电器、电动工具、照明设备及类似电器的干扰INTERFERENCE RELATING TOHOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES,TOOLS,LIGHTING EQUIPMENTAND SIMILAR APPARATUSIEC CISPR/H 防护无线电业务的限值LIMITS FOR THE PROTECTION OFRADIO SERVICESIEC CISPR/I 信息技术设备、多媒体设备和接收机的电磁兼容性ELECTROMAGNETICCOMPATIBILITY OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGYEQUIPMENT,MULTIMEDIA EQUIPMENT AND RECEIVERSIEC CISPR/S CISPR 筹划委员会Steering Committee of CISPR IEC TC1术语TERMINOLOGY IEC TC10电工用液体FLUIDS FOR ELECTROTECHNICALAPPLICATIONSIEC TC100音频、视频和多媒体系统和设备AUDIO,VIDEO AND MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENTIEC TC101静电学ELECTROSTATICS IEC TC103无线电通信的传输设备TRANSMITTING EQUIPMENT FORRADIOCOMMUNICATIONIEC TC104环境条件、分类和测试方法ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS,CLASSIFICATION AND METHODSOF TESTIEC TC105燃料电池技术FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGIES IEC TC106照射人体有关的电的、磁的和电磁领域的评定方法METHODS FOR THE ASSESSMENTOF ELECTRIC,MAGNETIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDSASSOCIATED WITH HUMAN EXPOSUREIEC TC107航空电子过程管理PROCESS MANAGEMENT FOR AVIONICSIEC TC108音频/视频、信息技术和通讯技术电子设备的安全SAFETY OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT WITHIN THE FIELD OF AUDIO/VIDEO,INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGYIEC TC109低电压设备绝缘配合INSULATION CO-ORDINATIONFOR LOW-VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT IEC TC11架空线路OVERHEAD LINESIEC TC110平板显示技术Flat panel display devicesIEC TC111Environmental standardization forelectrical and electronic products andsystemsTC112Evaluation and qualification ofelectrical insulating materials andsystemsIEC TC13电能测量和负载控制设备EQUIPMENT FOR ELECTRICAL ENERGY MEASUREMENT AND LOAD CONTROLIEC TC14电力变压器Power transformers IEC TC15绝缘材料Insulating materialsIEC TC16人机界面、标志和识别的基本原理与安全原则BASIC AND SAFETY PRINCIPLES FOR MAN-MACHINE INTERFACE, MARKING AND IDENTIFICATIONIEC TC17开关设备和控制设备SWITCHGEAR ANDCONTROLGEARIEC TC17A高压开关设备和控制设备High-voltage switchgear and controlgearIEC TC17B低压开关设备和控制设备Low-voltage switchgear and controlgearIEC TC17C高压封闭型开关设备和控制设备High-voltage enclosed switchgear and controlgearIEC TC17D低压开关设备和控制设备的组件Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembliesIEC TC18船用及海上移动和固定设备用电气装置Electrical installations of ships and of mobile and fixed offshore unitsIEC TC18A电缆和电缆装置Cables and cable installations IEC TC2旋转电机Rotating machineryIEC TC20电缆Electric cablesIEC TC21蓄电池和蓄电池组Secondary cells and batteriesIEC TC21A碱性或非酸性电解的蓄电池和蓄电池组SECONDARY CELLS AND BATTERIES CONTAINING ALKALINE OR OTHER NON-ACID ELECTROLYTESIEC TC22电力电子系统和设备POWER ELECTRONIC SYSTEMSAND EQUIPMENTIEC TC22E稳定电源Stabilized power suppliesIEC TC22F输配电系统电力电子设备POWER ELECTRONICS FOR ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMSIEC TC22G可调速电气传动系统用半导体电力变流器SEMICONDUCTOR POWER CONVERTERS FOR ADJUSTABLE SPEED ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEMSIEC TC22H不间断电源UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWERSYSTEMS (UPS)IEC TC23电气附件Electrical accessoriesIEC TC23A电缆管理系统Cable management systemsIEC TC23B插头、插座和开关PLUGS,SOCKET-OUTLETS ANDSWITCHESIEC TC23C世界通用插头、插座系统World-wide plug and socket-outlet systemsIEC TC23E家用断路器和类似设备CIRCUIT-BREAKERS AND SIMILAR EQUIPMENT FOR HOUSEHOLD USEIEC TC23F连接器件Connecting devicesIEC TC23G器具藕合器Appliance couplersIEC TC23H工业插头插座Industrial plugs and socket-outlets IEC TC23J电器开关Switches for appliancesIEC TC25量值和单位及其字母符号QUANTITIES AND UNITS,AND THEIR LETTER SYMBOLSIEC TC26电焊Electric weldingIEC TC27工业电热设备Industrial electroheating equipment IEC TC28绝缘配合Insulation co-ordinationIEC TC29电声学ElectroacousticsIEC TC3信息结构，文件编制和图形符号INFORMATION STRUCTURES, DOCUMENTATION AND GRAPHICAL SYMBOLSIEC TC31防爆电气设备ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOREXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERESIEC TC31G本质安全型电气设备INTRINSICALLY-SAFEAPPARATUSIEC TC31H可燃粉尘环境用电气设备APPARATUS FOR USE IN THE PRESENCE OF COMBUSTIBLE DUSTIEC TC31J危险区域分类和装置要求CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS AREAS AND INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTSIEC TC32熔断器FusesIEC TC32A高压熔断器High-voltage fusesIEC TC32B低压熔断器Low-voltage fusesIEC TC32C微型熔断器Miniature fusesIEC TC33电力电容器Power capacitorsIEC TC34灯泡及有关设备Lamps and related equipment IEC TC34A灯泡LampsIEC TC34B灯头和灯座Lamp caps and holdersIEC TC34C灯的附件Auxiliaries for lampsIEC TC34D灯具LuminairesIEC TC35原电池和电池组Primary cells and batteriesIEC TC36绝缘子InsulatorsIEC TC36A绝缘套管Insulated bushingsIEC TC36B架空线路绝缘子Insulators for overhead linesIEC TC36C变电站绝缘子Insulators for SubstationsIEC TC37避雷器Surge arrestersIEC TC37A低压电涌保护装置Low-voltage surge protective devicesIEC TC37B避雷针和电涌保护设备的特殊元件Specific components for surge arresters and surge protective devicesIEC TC38仪用互感器Instrument transformersIEC TC39电子管Electronic tubesIEC TC3C设备用图形符号Graphical symbols for use on equipmentIEC TC3D数据库用数据系Data sets for librariesIEC TC4水轮机Hydraulic turbinesIEC TC40电子设备用电容和电阻Capacitors and resustirs for electronic equipmentIEC TC42高压试验技术High-voltage testing techniquesIEC TC44机械安全--电工方面Safety of machinery-electrotechnicalaspectsIEC TC45核用仪表Nuclear instrumentationIEC TC45A反应堆仪表Reactor instrumentationIEC TC45B辐射防护仪表Radiation protection instrumentationIEC TC46通信和信号传输用电缆、电线、波导、射频接头和和附件CABLES,WIRES,WAVEGUIDES, R.F.CONNECTORS,AND ACCESSORIES FOR COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALLINGIEC TC46A同轴电缆Coaxial cablesIEC TC46C电线和对称电缆Wires and symmetric cables IEC TC46F射频及微波无源元件IEC TC47半导体器件Semiconductor devices IEC TC47A集成电路Integrated circuitsIEC TC47D半导体器件机械标准化MECHANICAL STANDARDIZATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICESIEC TC47E分立半导体器件Discrete semiconductor devicesIEC TC48电子设备用机电元件和机械装置ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPONENTS AND MECHANICAL STRUCTURES FOR ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTIEC TC48B联接器ConnectorsIEC TC48D电子设备用机械装置MECHANICAL STRUCTURES FORELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTIEC TC49频率控制和选择用的压电器件Piezoelectric and dielectric devices for frequency control and selectionIEC TC5汽轮机Steam turbinesIEC TC51磁性元件和铁氧体材料Magnetic components and ferrite materialsIEC TC55绕组线Winding wires IEC TC56可靠性DependabilityIEC TC57电力系统的控制和相关通信POWER SYSTEM CONTROL AND ASSOCIATED COMMUNICATIONSIEC TC59家用电器的性能Performance of household electricalappliancesIEC TC59A电洗碟器Electric dishwashersIEC TC59C加热器Heating appliancesIEC TC59D家用洗衣机Home laundry appliancesIEC TC59F地板处理器IEC TC59K烤炉和微波炉，烹调范围和类似器具OVENS AND MICROWAVE OVENS,COOKING RANGES AND SIMILAR APPLIANCESIEC TC59L SMALL HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCESIEC TC61家用和类似电器的安全Safety of household and similar electrical appliancesIEC TC61B微波炉的安全Safety of microwave ovensIEC TC61C家用冷冻电器Household appliances for refrigerationIEC TC61D家用及类似用途的空调器Appliances for air-conditioning for household and similar purposesIEC TC61E餐馆电气设备的安全Safety of electrical commercial cateringequipmentIEC TC61F手持电动工具的安全Safety of hand-held motor-operatedelectric toolsIEC TC61H农场电动器械的安全SAFETY OF ELECTRICALLY-OPERATED FARM APPLIANCESIEC TC61J工业用电动机驱动的清洗器具ELECTRICAL MOTOR-OPERATED CLEANING APPLIANCES FOR INDUSTRIAL USEIEC TC62医疗电器Electrical equipment in medical practice IEC TC62A医疗电器的共同特性Common aspects of electrical equipmentused in medical practiceIEC TC62B诊断成像设备Diagnostic imaging equipmentIEC TC62C高能放射设备和核医疗设备EQUIPMENT FOR RADIOTHERAPY,NUCLEAR MEDICINE AND RADIATION DOSIMETRYIEC TC62D电疗设备Electromedical equipmentIEC TC64电气装置和电击防护ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONSAND PROTECTION AGAINSTELECTRIC SHOCKIEC TC65工业流程测量和控制Industrial-process measurement andcontrolIEC TC65A系统考虑System aspectsIEC TC65B元件DevicesIEC TC65C数字通信Digital communications IEC TC65D分析设备Analyzing equipmentIEC TC66测量、控制和试验室设备的安全SAFETY OF MEASURING, CONTROL AND LABORATORY EQUIPMENTIEC TC68磁合金和磁钢Magnetic alloys and steelsIEC TC69电动公路车辆和电动工业卡车ELECTRIC ROAD VEHICLES AND ELECTRIC INDUSTRIAL TRUCKSIEC TC7架空电导体Overhead electrical conductorsIEC TC70外壳保护等级DEGREES OF PROTECTIONPROVIDED BY ENCLOSURESIEC TC72家用自动控制器Automatic controls for household use IEC TC73短路电流Short-circuit currentsIEC TC76光辐射安全和激光设备Optical radiation safety and laser equipmentIEC TC77电磁兼容Electromagnetic compatibility IEC TC77A低频现象Low frequency phenomenaIEC TC77B高频现象High frequency phenomenaIEC TC77C瞬时高能现象High power transient phenomena IEC TC78带电作业Live workingIEC TC79报警系统Alarm systemsIEC TC8标准电压、电流等级和频率STANDARD VOLTAGES, CURRENT RATINGS AND FREQUENCIESIEC TC80海上导航与无线电通信设备及系统MARITIME NAVIGATION AND RADIOCOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMSIEC TC81雷电防护Lightning protectionIEC TC82太阳光伏能源系统Solar photovoltaic energy systemsIEC TC85电量和电磁量的测量设备MEASURING EQUIPMENT FOR ELECTRICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIESIEC TC86纤维光学Fibre opticsIEC TC86A光纤和光缆Fibres and cablesIEC TC86B光纤连接装置和无源元件Fibre optic interconnecting devices and passive componentsIEC TC86C纤维光学系统和有源器件Fibre optic systems and active devices IEC TC87超声波UltrasonicsIEC TC88风力涡轮机系统Wind turbine systemsIEC TC89着火危险试验Fire hazard testingIEC TC9电气铁路设备Electric railway equipmentIEC TC90超导SuperconductivityIEC TC91电子学组装技术Electronics assembly technologyIEC TC93设计自动化Design automationIEC TC94全或无电子继电器All-or-nothing electrical relaysIEC TC95继电器的测量和保护设备Measuring relays and protection equipmentIEC TC96小电力变压器、电抗器和发电机：安全要求SMALL POWER TRANSFORMERS, REACTORS AND POWER SUPPLY UNITS: SAFETY REQUIREMENTSIEC TC97用于机场照明和信号标志的电气装置Electrical installations for lighting and beaconing of aerodromesIEC TC99在额定交流电压1kV和直流电压1.5kV以上系统中电力设备的系统工程和施工，特别涉及安全方面SYSTEM ENGINEERING AND ERECTION OF ELECTRICAL POWER INSTALLATIONS IN SYSTEMS WITH NOMINAL VOLTAGES ABOVE1kV A.C.AND 1.5kV D.C.,PARTICULARLY CONCERNING SAFETY ASPECTS。

pid控制外文加中文文献(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)

PID controllerFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaA proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic .control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems.A PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired setpoint by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly.The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters; the Proportional, the Integral and Derivative values. The Proportional value determines the reaction to the current error, the Integral determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors and the Derivative determines the reaction to the rate at which the error has been changing. The weightedsum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element.By "tuning" the three constants in the PID controller algorithm the PID can provide control action designed for specific process requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the setpoint and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability.Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the gain of undesired control outputs to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are particularly common, since derivative action is very sensitive to measurement noise, and the absence of an integral value may prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control action.A block diagram of a PID controllerNote: Due to the diversity of the field of control theory and application, many naming conventions for the relevant variables are in common use.1.Control loop basicsA familiar example of a control loop is the action taken to keep one's shower water at the ideal temperature, which typically involves the mixing of two process streams, cold and hot water. The person feels the water to estimate its temperature. Based on this measurement they perform a control action: use the cold water tap to adjust the process. The person would repeat this input-output control loop, adjusting the hot water flow until the process temperature stabilized at the desired value.Feeling the water temperature is taking a measurement of the process value or process variable (PV). The desired temperature is called the setpoint (SP). The output from the controller and input to the process (the tap position) is called the manipulated variable (MV). The difference between the measurement and the setpoint is the error (e), too hot or too cold and by how much.As a controller, one decides roughly how much to change the tap position (MV) after one determines the temperature (PV), and therefore the error. This first estimate is the equivalent of the proportional action of a PID controller. The integral action of a PID controller can be thought of as gradually adjusting the temperature when it is almost right. Derivative action can be thought of as noticing the water temperature is getting hotter or colder, and how fast, and taking that into account when deciding how to adjust the tap.Making a change that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a high gain controller and will lead toovershoot. If the controller were to repeatedly make changes that were too large and repeatedly overshoot the target, this control loop would be termed unstable and the output would oscillate around the setpoint in either a constant, growing, or decaying sinusoid. A human would not do this because we are adaptive controllers, learning from the process history, but PID controllers do not have the ability to learn and must be set up correctly. Selecting the correct gains for effective control is known as tuning the controller.If a controller starts from a stable state at zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the controller will be in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the process that impact on the process, and hence on the PV. Variables that impact on the process other than the MV are known as disturbances and generally controllers are used to reject disturbances and/or implement setpoint changes. Changes in feed water temperature constitute a disturbance to the shower process.In theory, a controller can be used to control any process which has a measurable output (PV), a known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input to the process (MV) that will affect the relevant PV. Controllers are used in industry to regulate temperature, pressure, flow rate, chemical composition, speed and practically every other variable for which a measurement exists. Automobile cruise control is an example of a process which utilizes automated control.Due to their long history, simplicity, well grounded theory and simple setup and maintenance requirements, PID controllers are the controllers of choice for many of these applications.2.PID controller theoryNote: This section describes the ideal parallel or non-interacting form of the PID controller. For other forms please see the Section "Alternative notation and PID forms".The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). Hence:where Pout, Iout, and Dout are the contributions to the output from the PID controller from each of the three terms, as defined below.2.1. Proportional termThe proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called the proportional gain.The proportional term is given by:WherePout: Proportional outputKp: Proportional Gain, a tuning parametere: Error = SP − PVt: Time or instantaneous time (the present)Change of response for varying KpA high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (See the section on Loop Tuning). In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances.In the absence of disturbances, pure proportional control will not settle at its target value, but will retain a steady state error that is a function of the proportional gain and the process gain. Despite the steady-state offset, both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the proportional term that should contribute the bulk of the output change.2.2.Integral termThe contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time (integrating the error) gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to the controller output. The magnitude of the contribution of the integral term to the overall control action is determined by the integral gain, Ki.The integral term is given by:Change of response for varying KiWhereIout: Integral outputKi: Integral Gain, a tuning parametere: Error = SP − PVτ: Time in the past contributing to the integral responseThe integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates themovement of the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a proportional only controller. However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the setpoint value (cross over the setpoint and then create a deviation in the other direction). For further notes regarding integral gain tuning and controller stability, see the section on loop tuning.2.3 Derivative termThe rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time (i.e. its first derivative with respect to time) and multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd.The derivative term is given by:Change of response for varying KdWhereDout: Derivative outputKd: Derivative Gain, a tuning parametere: Error = SP − PVt: Time or instantaneous time (the present)The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this effect is most noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence, derivative control isused to reduce the magnitude of the overshoot produced by the integral component and improve the combined controller-process stability. However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise and thus this term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the derivative gain are sufficiently large.2.4 SummaryThe output from the three terms, the proportional, the integral and the derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID controller. Defining u(t) as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is:and the tuning parameters areKp: Proportional Gain - Larger Kp typically means faster response since thelarger the error, the larger the Proportional term compensation. An excessively large proportional gain will lead to process instability and oscillation.Ki: Integral Gain - Larger Ki implies steady state errors are eliminated quicker. The trade-off is larger overshoot: any negative error integrated during transient response must be integrated away by positive error before we reach steady state.Kd: Derivative Gain - Larger Kd decreases overshoot, but slows down transient response and may lead to instability due to signal noise amplification in the differentiation of the error.3. Loop tuningIf the PID controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral and derivative terms) are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable, i.e. its output diverges, with or without oscillation, and is limited only by saturation or mechanical breakage. Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters (gain/proportional band, integral gain/reset, derivative gain/rate) to the optimum values for the desired control response.The optimum behavior on a process change or setpoint change varies depending on the application. Some processes must not allow an overshoot of the processvariable beyond the setpoint if, for example, this would be unsafe. Other processes must minimize the energy expended in reaching a new setpoint. Generally, stability of response (the reverse of instability) is required and the process must not oscillate for any combination of process conditions and setpoints. Some processes have a degree of non-linearity and so parameters that work well at full-load conditions don't work when the process is starting up from no-load. This section describes some traditional manual methods for loop tuning.There are several methods for tuning a PID loop. The most effective methods generally involve the development of some form of process model, then choosing P, I, and D based on the dynamic model parameters. Manual tuning methods can be relatively inefficient.The choice of method will depend largely on whether or not the loop can be taken "offline" for tuning, and the response time of the system. If the system can be taken offline, the best tuning method often involves subjecting the system to a step change in input, measuring the output as a function of time, and using this response to determine the control parameters.Choosing a Tuning MethodMethodAdvantagesDisadvantagesManual TuningNo math required. Online method.Requires experiencedpersonnel.Ziegler–NicholsProven Method. Online method.Process upset, sometrial-and-error, very aggressive tuning.Software ToolsConsistent tuning. Online or offline method. May includevalve and sensor analysis. Allow simulation before downloading.Some costand training involved.Cohen-CoonGood process models.Some math. Offline method. Only good for first-order processes.3.1 Manual tuningIf the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set the I and D values to zero. Increase the P until the output of the loop oscillates, then the P shouldbe left set to be approximately half of that value for a "quarter amplitude decay" type response. Then increase D until any offset is correct in sufficient time for the process. However, too much D will cause instability. Finally, increase I, if required, until the loop is acceptably quick to reach its reference after a load disturbance. However, too much I will cause excessive response and overshoot. A fast PID loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the setpoint more quickly; however, some systems cannot accept overshoot, in which case an "over-damped" closed-loop system is required, which will require a P setting significantly less than half that of the P setting causing oscillation.3.2Ziegler –Nichols methodAnother tuning method is formally known as the Ziegler –Nichols method, introduced by John G . Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols. As in the method above, the I and D gains are first set to zero. The "P" gain is increased until it reaches the "critical gain" Kc at which the output of theloop starts to oscillate. Kc and the oscillation period Pc are used to set the gains as shown:3.3 PID tuning softwareMost modern industrial facilities no longer tune loops using the manualcalculation methods shown above. Instead, PID tuning and loop optimization software are used to ensure consistent results. These software packages will gather the data, develop process models, and suggest optimal tuning. Some software packages can even develop tuning by gathering data from reference changes.Mathematical PID loop tuning induces an impulse in the system, and then uses the controlled system's frequency response to design the PID loop values. In loops with response times of several minutes, mathematical loop tuning is recommended, because trial and error can literally take days just to find a stable set of loop values. Optimal values are harder to find. Some digital loop controllers offer a self-tuning feature in which very small setpoint changes are sent to the process, allowing the controller itself to calculate optimal tuning values.Other formulas are available to tune the loop according to different performance criteria.4 Modifications to the PID algorithmThe basic PID algorithm presents some challenges in control applications that have been addressed by minor modifications to the PID form.One common problem resulting from the ideal PID implementations is integralwindup. This can be addressed by:Initializing the controller integral to a desired valueDisabling the integral function until the PV has entered the controllable region Limiting the time period over which the integral error is calculatedPreventing the integral term from accumulating above or below pre-determined boundsMany PID loops control a mechanical device (for example, a valve). Mechanical maintenance can be a major cost and wear leads to control degradation in the form of either stiction or a deadband in the mechanical response to an input signal. The rate of mechanical wear is mainly a function of how often a device is activated to make a change. Where wear is a significant concern, the PID loop may have an output deadband to reduce the frequency of activation of the output (valve). This is accomplished by modifying the controller to hold its output steady if the changewould be small (within the defined deadband range). The calculated output must leave the deadband before the actual output will change.The proportional and derivative terms can produce excessive movement in the output when a system is subjected to an instantaneous "step" increase in the error, such as a large setpoint change. In the case of the derivative term, this is due to taking the derivative of the error, which is very large in the case of an instantaneous step change.5. Limitations of PID controlWhile PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, they can perform poorly in some applications.PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID loop gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate or "hunt" about the control setpoint value. The control system performance can be improved by combining the feedback (or closed-loop) control of a PID controller with feed-forward (or open-loop) control. Knowledge about the system (such as the desired acceleration and inertia) can be "fed forward" and combined with the PID output to improve the overall system performance. The feed-forward value alone can often provide the major portion of the controller output. The PID controller can then be used primarily to respond to whatever difference or "error" remains between the setpoint (SP) and the actual value of the process variable (PV). Since the feed-forward output is not affected by the process feedback, it can never cause the control system to oscillate, thus improving the system response and stability.For example, in most motion control systems, in order to accelerate a mechanical load under control, more force or torque is required from the prime mover, motor, or actuator. If a velocity loop PID controller is being used to control the speed of the load and command the force or torque being applied by the prime mover, then it is beneficial to take the instantaneous acceleration desired for the load, scale that value appropriately and add it to the output of the PID velocity loop controller. This means that whenever the load is being accelerated or decelerated, a proportional amount of force is commanded from the prime mover regardless of the feedback value. The PID loop in this situation uses the feedback information to effect any increase or decrease of the combined output in order to reduce the remaining difference between theprocess setpoint and thefeedback value. Working together, the combined open-loop feed-forward controller and closed-loop PID controller can provide a more responsive, stable and reliable control system.Another problem faced with PID controllers is that they are linear. Thus, performance of PID controllers in non-linear systems (such as HV AC systems) is variable. Often PID controllers are enhanced through methods such as PID gain scheduling or fuzzy logic. Further practical application issues can arise from instrumentation connected to the controller. A high enough sampling rate, measurement precision, and measurement accuracy are required to achieve adequate control performance.A problem with the Derivative term is that small amounts of measurement or process noise can cause large amounts of change in the output. It is often helpful to filter the measurements with a low-pass filter in order to remove higher-frequency noise components. However, low-pass filtering and derivative control can cancel each other out, so reducing noise by instrumentation means is a much better choice. Alternatively, the differential band can be turned off in many systems with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PID controller as a PI controller.6. Cascade controlOne distinctive advantage of PID controllers is that two PID controllers can be used together to yield better dynamic performance. This is called cascaded PID control. In cascade control there are two PIDs arranged with one PID controlling the set point of another. A PID controller acts as outer loop controller, which controls the primary physical parameter, such as fluid level or velocity. The other controller acts as inner loop controller, which reads the output of outer loop controller as set point, usually controlling a more rapid changing parameter, flowrate or accelleration. It can be mathematically proved that the working frequency of the controller is increased and the time constant of the object is reduced by using cascaded PID controller.[vague]7. Physical implementation of PID controlIn the early history of automatic process control the PID controller was implemented as a mechanical device. These mechanical controllers used a lever, spring and a mass and were often energized by compressed air. These pneumatic controllers were once the industry standard.Electronic analog controllers can be made from a solid-state or tube amplifier, a capacitor and a resistance. Electronic analog PID control loops were often found within more complex electronic systems, for example, the head positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of a power supply, or even the movement-detection circuit of a modern seismometer. Nowadays, electronic controllers have largely been replaced by digital controllers implemented with microcontrollers or FPGAs.Most modern PID controllers in industry are implemented in software in programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or as a panel-mounted digital controller. Software implementations have the advantages that they are relatively cheap and are flexible with respect to the implementation of the PID algorithm.8.Alternative nomenclature and PID forms8.1 PseudocodeHere is a simple software loop that implements the PID algorithm:8.2 Ideal versus standard PID formThe form of the PID controller most often encountered in industry, and the one most relevant to tuning algorithms is the "standard form". In this form the Kp gain is applied to the Iout, and Dout terms, yielding:WhereTi is the Integral TimeTd is the Derivative TimeIn the ideal parallel form, shown in the Controller Theory sectionthe gain parameters are related to the parameters of the standard formthroughand Kd = KpTd. This parallel form, where the parameters are treated as simple gains, is the most general and flexible form. However, it is also the form where the parameters have the least physical interpretation and is generally reserved for theoretical treatment of the PID controller. The "standard" form, despite being slightly more complex mathematically, is more common in industry.8.3Laplace form of the PID controllerSometimes it is useful to write the PID regulator in Laplace transform form:Having the PID controller written in Laplace form and having the transfer function of the controlled system, makes it easy to determine the closed-loop transfer function of the system.8.4Series / interacting formAnother representation of the PID controller is the series, or "interacting" form. This form essentially consists of a PD and PI controller in series, and it made early (analog) controllers easier to build. When the controllers later became digital, many kept using the interacting form.[edit] ReferencesLiptak, Bela (1995). Instrument Engineers' Handbook: Process Control. Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Company, 20-29. ISBN 0-8019-8242-1.Van, Doren, Vance J. (July 1, 2003). "Loop Tuning Fundamentals". Control Engineering. Red Business Information.Sellers, David. An Overview of Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative Control and Suggestions for Its Successful Application and Implementation (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-05-05.Articles, Whitepapers, and tutorials on PID controlGraham, Ron (10/03/2005). FAQ on PID controller tuning. Retrieved on2007-05-05.PID控制器比例积分微分控制器（PID调节器）是一个控制环，广泛地应用于工业控制系统里的反馈机制。

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(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文对照外文翻译利用粗糙集分类的干扰检测简介干扰检测是用于分类正常与异常的活动，在机器学习方面可以发挥重要的作用。

最近，基于机器学习的干扰检测方法（Allen等，2000）受到了广泛的研究，因为他们可以检测出的误用和异常。

学习的干扰检测方法包括两个关键步骤：功能前牵引和检测模型生成。

Wenke（1999）利用改进的Apriori算法在干扰检测特征提取的研究，获得网络连接级别的功能。

此方法是非常有效的。

后来，SRINIVAS和Sung（2002）提出了利用支持向量机（SVM）排列这些提取出的特征，但这种方法需要多次迭代，是非常耗时的。

在检测模型生成的研究，这是可取的，检测模型可以被解释的，并具有高的检出率，但现有方法无法实现这两个目标。

例如，神经网络（James，1998年）可以达到较高的检测率，但生成的检测规则是不能解释的；决策树（Wenke，1999年）可能会产生解释的规则，但检出率较低。

在本文中，我们目前使用干扰检测系统（IDS）功能的排名和干扰检测规则生成的粗糙集分类（RSC）（帕夫拉克，1982）。

干扰检测RSC可以得到解释的检测规则和高检出率的一些攻击和IDS是简单而快速的使用RSC功能的排名。

RSC是粗糙集理论（王陶，2003）的重要内容之一。

粗糙集学习理论的主要贡献是约简的概念。

具有相同属性的对象分类能力的一整套属性约简是一个很小的子集。

在本文中，我们提出了一个快速混合遗传算法的粗糙集的约简计算。

事实上，简粗糙集计算的对应功能的IDS在RSC 排名。

与经典的基于支持向量机的功能排名的方法（SRINIVAS，SUNG，2002年）相比，此功能的排序方法是简单和快速。

RSC约简为模板创建的干扰规则（决定）。

简代后，随后的检测规则自动计算。

生成的规则有直观的“IF-THEN”的形式，提高探测器的设计是可以解释的，非常有价值的。

实验的目的是测试的规则检测性能。

我们使用的实验数据源于麻省理工学院的林肯实验室。

它是为KDD（1999年）由DARPA竞争，被认为是干扰检测评估标准的基准。

由于SVM进行经典的干扰检测的算法（SRINIVAS，SUNG，2002年）中，我们还可以使用支持向量机的干扰检测对同一数据进行比较。

试验结果表明，RSC算法与SVM算法检测探头和DARPA数据集上的DoS攻击（99％以上）的兼容电平的检测性能。

不过，RSC规则的解释具有明显的优势。

进一步比较的RSC基于IDS和基于支持向量机的干扰检测系统中提供了详细论述。

本文的组织如下。

在第二部分中，系统模型一般基于机器学习的干扰检测方法。

在第三部分中，初步解释粗糙集和粗糙集分类算法本文提出的混合遗传算法进行了详细解释。

在第四节实验设计比较RSC的IDS 和基于支持向量机IDS表示RSC算法的优点。

最后，我们总结了本文的最后一节。

系统模型Wenke（1999）的研究工作是设计基于学习算法的干扰检测系统，我们可以在后续步骤中了解到：（1）使用的工具如tcpdump，dsniff等捕获网络数据;（2）将这些数据转换成合适的输入格式;（3）从原始数据提取功能标准化净工作流程和攻击行为或正常的使用模式。

（4）设计和使用学习的算法来得到检测规则;（5）整合为实时IDS检测干扰检测规则。

上一节所说的这五个步骤中，特征提取和检测规则生成是两个关键步骤。

进行特征提取，它取决于数据源，并以被检测到的攻击类别。

为了专注于我们的学习算法的研究，我们选择了1999年的KDD干扰检测的比赛数据集设计我们的系统。

1999 KDD干扰检测测试使用了1998年DARPA 干扰检测数据集，构建连接记录和提取对象功能（Wenke，1999）。

1998年DARPA干扰检测数据集是从9个星期的原始TCP转储数据的局域网（LAN）仿真相关的典型美国空军局域网收购，并夹杂着探头，U2R，R2L的攻击：拒绝服务攻击，四大类。

连接记录是TCP包序列的起点和终点在某些清楚界定的时候，它们之间的数据流从一个源IP地址和目标IP地址下一些定义良好的协议。

每个连接都被标记为或正常，作为一种攻击，恰好与一个特定的攻击类型。

对于每个TCP / IP连接，41各种定量和定性的特征提取。

可以使用以下三个主要的功能集，分类每一个连接。

（1）固有的特点，即与连接相关的信息。

它们包括工期类型，协议，标志等的连接;（2）流量的功能，即过去的连接，类似于当前的一个，例如，具有相同的目标主机的连接或连接在一个给定的时间窗口内或预定数量的过去连接到相同的服务有关的数量有关的统计信息;（3）内容的功能，即提供的信息数据内容的数据包（“有效载荷”），这可能是有关发现的干扰，例如，报告的错误操作系统，根的访问尝试等。

粗糙集分类算法。

检测规则自动生成，完成这个任务，我们目前使用的粗糙集分类。

它包括三个阶段：1）预处理：原始数据首先被划分为三组：DoS攻击检测数据集，探针攻击检测数据集，U2R和R2L攻击检测数据。

对于每个数据集，构造决策系统。

每一个决策系统，后来分裂成两部分：训练数据集和测试数据集。

2）培训：粗糙集分类的训练，每次训练数据集的三种不同类型的攻击（DOS，探头，U2R和R2L）。

每一个训练数据集使用相应的输入功能，可分为两大类：（+1）和攻击（-1 ）。

3）测试：测量测试数据上的表现。

在下面的章节中，我们将详细描述我们的粗糙集分类算法。

A部分：粗糙集理论初步粗糙集理论是由Zdzislaw Pawlak在20世纪80年代初（Pawlak，1982年）。

它是一种数学近似推理决策支持工具，是特别适合于对象分类。

粗糙集也可用于特征选择，特征提取等（Wang，2001）。

定义1一种信息系统中被定义为一个四元组如下，S= < U , Q , V , f > ,其中U ={X1，X2，...，Xn}是一个有限的对象集（n是对象的数目）; Q是有限的属性集，Q= {Q1，Q2，...，QN}; V = UQ∈qVq的∈∪和Vq 是一个域的属性q ）;F：U×V→V是一个总的功能，例如，函数f（x ∈V q为每个q∈Q，X∈U，Q）。

如果属性可分为条件属性集C和决策属性集D，即在S。

Q = C∪D和C∩D =Φ，S称为决策系统或决策表信息系统。

定义2设IND（P），IND（Q）是不可分辨，由属性确定的关系设置P，Q的P正区域的Q，表示为（IND）（PPOS（IND Q））被定义为如下：定义3设P，Q，R是一个属性集，我们说R是约简到Q的P当且仅当满足下列条件：（1）（2）B部分：粗糙集分类算法我们的总体方案中提出的粗糙集分类算法图1。

（1）原始输入数据集被转换成一个决策系统，它随后被分成两部分：训练数据集和测试数据集。

一个分类器从训练数据集将被诱导，并施加到测试数据集以获得一个性能估计。

对于训练数据集，我们做了以下的步骤（2），（3）;（2）如果决策系统具有真正的价值属性，离散化战略，应建立分类规则，以获得更高的质量。

有很多discretizaion方法，如嘘声推理算法，半幼稚的算法等。

如何选择合适的discretizaion方法仍然是一个难以回答的问题，一些测试是必要的。

在我们下面的实验中，使用平等间隔宽度discretizaion 的方法。

等间隔宽度离散化方法划分成k个大小相等的时间间隔，其中k> 0为用户提供的参数范围内的观测值属性。

如果一个属性被观察到有此方法计算的时间间隔宽度宽度（K）=（AMAX-AMIN）/ k和结构的阈值AMIN+ I *宽度（K）的一个分钟和一个maxthen的范围内的值，其中i= 1，...，的k - 1。

独立的方法被施加到每个连续属性。

由于这无监督的方法不使用在设置分区边界的判定值，则很可能由像素合并的结果相结合的值强烈关联到相同的时间间隔的不同的类的分类信息将丢失。

但在我们的例子中，这样可以使有效的分类。

（3）干扰（决定）创建的规则约简的属性约简算法计算模板。

有很多的属性约简算法，如动态约简（巴桑等人，1994年）和RA-订单算法（王陶，2003）等，但到现在为止最有效的算法，大的决策系统重新duction 计算实践是遗传算法（Wroblewski，1995），它是由最粗糙集工具如粗糙足够的（安德斯，1997年）和Rosetta（亚历山大，1999年）。

在本文中，我们找到最小约简属性重要性的启发式规则的基础上，提出了一种混合遗传算法。

这种混合遗传算法降低了训练时间，使生成的分类更有效的调整，以适应干扰检测环境。

这种混合遗传算法的关键是在我们的RSC 算法的子算法。

为了讲清楚，我们首先介绍了一般遗传算法（气）及其扩展在C部分，我们将介绍详细的键子算法测试数据集D部分，下面的步骤就完成了。

（4）第一次使用相同削减计算从训练数据discretizaion的方法离散化的新对象的数据集。

然后生成的规则是用来匹配测试对象，计算的力量所选择的规则设置的任何决策类。

新的对象将被分配到与选定的规则集的最大强度的决定类。

C部分：寻找最小约简基于混合遗传算法的基础上SGF（1）框架的混合遗传算法作为上述的“第一个”，发现粗糙集最小约简被视为最小碰集问题。

对于离散化的决策支持系统L =（U，A∪{D}，V，F），multiset的根据上述定义5，A部分。

随后，这multiset的碰集的计算基于混合遗传算法。

在我们的算法中，命名位适应构建一个新的运营商。

这种新的运营商对整个人口，并能保证每个染色体收敛到一个碰集。

（2）代表（生成的初始群）人口一个简单的选择，对于极小碰集问题，是一组P的元素从2A，编码为bitvectors，其中每个比特表示的集合中的特定元素的存在。

例如，假设我们有10个条件属性{A1，A2，...，A10}{A1，A4，A6，A9}，我们有一个简候选人。

简候选人应表示为：1001010010。

（3）选择和重组的方法选择和重组运营商都配有两个步骤：第1步：计算每个染色体在当前t代健身。

然后，根据每个染色体的适应度，我们采用随机抽样的方法选择。

第2步：设minsingle（后代）是新的种群中的最差个体（后代），minfit 相应的健身：让我们maxsingle（母公司）是最好的老年人口，个人maxfit （母公司）相应的健身。

，如果minfit（后代）<maxfit（母公司），我们将minsingel（后代）maxsingle（母公司）。

实验为了比较RSC算法与传统的学习算法的干扰检测，我们构建干扰检测系统，利用粗糙集分类（RSC）和支持向量机（SVM）和1999年的KDD 干扰检测比赛数据集上测试其性能。

两个实验（RSC的IDS和基于支持向量机的干扰检测系统）在同一个人电脑（戴尔OptiPlex GX400系统），1.70 GHz奔腾IV CPU，运行Windows 2000系统和128 M RAM。