最新药学英语第五版原文翻译
药学英语第五版原文翻译 (2)(2020年7月整理).pdf
Introduction to PhysiologyIntroductionPhysiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry.Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology.To study how an animal works it is first necessary to know how it is built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to establish how particular parts perform their functions. Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental conditions has meant that much of our present physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the effective treatment of many diseases.The building blocks of the body are the cells, which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with its own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In contrast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via specific cell junctions. Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the intestines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological systems. The heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal muscles form the musculoskeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on.Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain生理学简介介绍生理学是研究生物体功能的科学。
(完整版)药学英语第五版原文翻译
Introduction to PhysiologyIntroductionPhysiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry.Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology.To study how an animal works it is first necessary to know how it is built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to establish how particular parts perform their functions. Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental conditions has meant that much of our present physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the effective treatment of many diseases.The building blocks of the body are the cells, which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with its own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In contrast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via specific cell junctions. Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the intestines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological systems. The heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal muscles form the musculoskeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on.Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain common characteristics. Firstly, they are bounded by a limiting membrane, the plasma membrane. Secondly, they have the ability to break down large molecules to smaller ones to liberate energy for their activities.生理学简介介绍生理学是研究生物体功能的科学。
药学英语第五版第三单元
Biochemistry Seeks to Explain Life in Chemical TermsThe molecules of which living organisms are composed conform to all the familiar laws of chemistry, but they alsointeract with each other in accordance with another set of principles, which we shall refer to collectively as the molecularlogic of life. These principles do not involve new or yet undiscovered physical laws or forces. Instead, they are a set ofrelationships characterizing the nature, function, and interactions of biomolecules.If living organisms are composed of molecules that are intrinsically inanimate, how do these molecules confer theremarkable combination of characteristics we call life? How is it that a living organism appears to be more than the sum ofits inanimate parts? Philosophers once answered that living organisms are endowed with a mysterious and divine life force,but this doctrine (vitalism) has been firmly rejected by modern science. The basic goal of the science of biochemistry is todetermine how the collections of inanimate molecules that constitute living organisms interact with each other to maintainand perpetuate life. Although biochemistry yields important insights and practical applications in medicine, agriculture,nutrition, and industry, it is ultimately concerned with the wonder of life itself.All Macromolecules Are Constructed from a Few Simple CompoundsMost of the molecular constituents of living systems are composed of carbon atoms covalently joined with other carbonatoms and with hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen. The special bonding properties of carbon permit the formation of a greatvariety of molecules. Organic compounds of molecular weight less than about 500, such as amino acids, nucleotidase, andmonosaccharide, serve as monomeric subunits of proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides, respectively. A single proteinmolecule may have 1,000 or more amino acids, and deoxyribonucleic acid has millions of nucleotides.Each cell of the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains more than 6,000 different kinds of organic compounds,including about 3,000 different proteins and a similar number of different nucleic acid molecules. In humans there may betens of thousands of different kinds of proteins, as well as many types of polysaccharides (chains of simple sugars), avariety of lipids, and many other compounds of lower molecular weight.To purify and to characterize thoroughly all of these molecules would be an insuperable task, it were not for the factthat each class of macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides) is composed of a small, common set of monomericsubunits. These monomeric subunits can be covalently linked in a virtually limitless variety ofsequences, just as the 26letters of the English alphabet can be arranged into a limitless number of words, sentiments, or books.Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) are constructed from only four different kinds of simple monomeric subunits, thedeoxyribonucleotides, and ribonucleic acids (RNA) are composed of just four types of ribonucleotides. Proteins are composedof 20 different kinds of amino acids. The eight kinds of nucleotides from which all nucleic acids are built and the 20different kinds of amino acids from which all proteins are built are identical in all living organisms.Most of the monomeric subunits from which all macromolecules are constructed serve more than one function in livingcells. The nucleotides serve not only as subunits of nucleic acids, but also as energy-carrying molecules. The amino acidsare subunits of protein molecules, and also precursors of hormones, neurotransmitters, pigments, and many other kinds ofbiomolecules.From these considerations we can now set out some of the principles in the molecular logic of life: All living organismshave the same kinds of monomeric subunits. There are underlying patterns in the structure of biological macromolecules. Theidentity of each organism is preserved by its possession of distinctive sets of nucleic acids and of proteins.ATP Is the Universal Carrier of Metabolic Energy, Linking Catabolism and AnabolismCells capture, store, and transport free energy in a chemical form. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) functions as the majorcarrier of chemical energy in all cells. ATP carries energy among metabolic pathways by serving as the shared intermediatethat couples endergonic reactions to exergonic ones. The terminal phosphate group of ATP is transferred to a variety ofacceptor molecules, which are thereby activated for further chemical transformation. The adenosine diphosphate (ADP) thatremains after the phosphate transfer is recycled to become ATP, at the expense of either chemical energy (during oxidativephosphorylation) or solar energy in photosynthetic cells (by the process of photophosphorylation). ATP is the majorconnecting link (the shared intermediate) between the catabolic and anabolic networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in thecell. These linked networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are virtually identical in all living organisms.Genetic Continuity Is Vested in DNA MoleculesPerhaps the most remarkable of all the properties of living cells and organisms is their ability to reproduce themselveswith nearly perfect fidelity for countless generations. This continuity of inherited traits impliesconstancy, over thousandsor millions of years, in the structure of the molecules that contain the genetic information. Very few historical records ofcivilization, even those etched in copper or carved in stone, have survived for a thousand years. But there is good evidencethat the genetic instructions in living organisms have remained nearly unchanged over much longer periods; many bacteria havenearly the same size, shape, and internal structure and contain the same kinds of precursor molecules and enzymes as thosethat lived a billion years ago.Hereditary information is preserved in DNA, a long, thin organic polymer so fragile that it will fragment from the shearforces arising in a solution that is stirred or pipetted. A human sperm or egg, carrying the accumulated hereditaryinformation of millions of years of evolution, transmits these instructions in the form of DNA molecules, in which the linearsequence of covalently linked nucleotide subunits encodes the genetic message. Genetic information is encoded in the linearsequence of four kinds of subunits of DNA. The double-helical DNA molecule has an internal template for its own replicationand repair.The Structure of DNA Allows for Its Repair and Replication with Near-Perfect FidelityThe capacity of living cells to preserve their genetic material and to duplicate it for the next generation results fromthe structural complementarity between the two halves of the DNA molecule. The basic unit of DNA is a linear polymer of fourdifferent monomeric subunits, deoxyribonucleotides, arranged in a precise linear sequence. It is this linear sequence thatencodes the genetic information. Two of these polymeric strands are twisted about each other to form the DNA double helix,in which each monomeric subunit in one strand pairs specifically with the complementary subunit in the opposite strand. Inthe enzymatic replication or repair of DNA, one of the two strands serves as a template for the assembly of another,structurally complementary DNA strand. Before a cell divides, the two DNA strands separate and each serves as a template forthe synthesis of a complementary strand, generating two identical double-helical molecules, one for each daughter cell. Ifone strand is damaged, continuity of information is assured by the information present on the other strand.The Linear Sequence in DNA Encodes Proteins with Three-Dimensional StructuresThe information in DNA is encoded as a linear (one-dimensional) sequence of the nucleotide units of DNA, but theexpression of this information results in a three-dimensional cell. This change from one to threedimensions occurs in twophases. A linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides in DNA codes (through the intermediary, RNA) for the production of aprotein with a corresponding linear sequence of amino acids. The protein folds itself into a particular three-dimensionalshape, dictated by its amino acid sequence. The precise three-dimensional structure (native conformation) is crucial to theprotein’s function as either catalyst or structural element. This principle emerges: The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein leads to the acquisition of a unique three-dimensional structure by aself-assembly procession.Once a protein has folded into its native conformation, it may associate noncovalently with other proteins, or withnucleic acids or lipids, to form supramolecular complexes such as chromosomes, ribosomes, and membranes. These complexes arein many cases self-assembling. The individual molecules of these complexes have specific, high-affinity binding sites foreach other, and within the cell they spontaneously form functional complexes.Individual macromolecules with specific affinity for other macromolecules self-assemble into supramolecular complexes.Noncovalent Interactions Stabilize Three-Dimensional StructuresThe forces that provide stability and specificity to the three-dimensional structures of macromolecules andsupramolecular complexes are mostly noncovalent interactions. These interactions, individually weak but collectively strong,include hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions among charged groups, van der Waals interactions, and hydrophobic interactionsamong nonpolar groups. These weak interactions are transient; individually they form and break in small fractions of a second.The transient nature of noncovalent interactions confers a flexibility on macromolecules that is critical to their function.Furthermore, the large numbers of noncovalent interactions in a single macromolecule makes it unlikely that at any givenmoment all the interactions will be broken; thus macromolecular structures are stable over time.Three-dimensional biological structures combine the properties of flexibility and stability.The flexibility and stability of the double-helical structure of DNA are due to the complementarity of its two strandsand many weak interactions between them. The flexibility of these interactions allows strand separation during DNAreplication; the complementarity of the double helix is essential to genetic continuity.Noncovalent interactions are also central to the specificity and catalytic efficiency of enzymes. Enzymes bindtransition-state intermediates through numerous weak but precisely oriented interactions. Because the weak interactions areflexible, the complex survives the structural distortions as the reactant is converted into product.The formation of noncovalent interactions provides the energy for self-assembly of macromolecules by stabilizing nativeconformations relative to unfolded, random forms. The native conformation of a protein is that in which the energeticadvantages of forming weak interactions counterbalance the tendency of the protein chain to assume random forms. Given aspecific linear sequence of amino acids and a specific set of conditions (temperature, ionic conditions, pH), a protein willassume its native conformation spontaneously, without a template or scaffold to direct the folding.The Physical Roots of the Biochemical WorldWe can now summarize the various principles of the molecular logic of life:A living cell is a self-contained, self-assembling, self-adjusting, self-perpetuating isothermal system of molecules thatextracts free energy and raw materials from its environment.The cell carries out many consecutive reactions promoted by specific catalysts, called enzymes, which it produces itself.The cell maintains itself in a dynamic steady state, far from equilibrium with its surroundings. There is great economyof parts and processes, achieved by regulation of the catalytic activity of key enzymes.Self-replication through many generations is ensured by the self-repairing, linear information-coding system. Geneticinformation encoded as sequences of nucleotide subunits in DNA and RNA specifies the sequence of amine acids in each distinctprotein, which ultimately determines the three-dimensional structure and function of each protein.Many weak (noncovalent) interactions, acting cooperatively, stabilize the three-dimensional structures of biomoleculesand supramolecular complexes.。
药学英语,课后翻译
药学英语Unit 1Inflammatory reaction induced by local ischemic injury is one of the important pathophysiological characteristics after ischemic stroke, so anti-inflammatory therapy may be an effective strategy for acute ischemic stroke. Enlimomab, an anti-ICAM-1 murine monoclonal antibody, can inhibit the recruitment and activity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, reduce their adhesion and decrease cerebral infarct size in experimental stroke models. However, a much larger efficacy trial including 625 acute ischemic stroke patients has shown that enlimomab was ineffective on ischemic stroke patients even with a worsening outcome. The therapeutic time window of rt-PA is within 3 hours of ischemic onset. Administration of the drug after more than 3 hours of ischemic onset has no significant therapeutic implications and may even end up with an increased hemorrhagic risk. A study using the animal ischemic model indicated that combination of anti-inflammatory therapy and rt-PA could significantly and might as well extend the therapeutic time window of thrombolysis.局部脑缺血损伤引起的炎症反应是缺血性脑卒中发生后的重要病理生理特征，因此，抗炎治疗策略可能是治疗急性缺血性脑卒中的一种有效方法。
药学英语第五版参考答案
药学英语第五版参考答案Chapter 1: Introduction to Pharmaceutical English1.1 Vocabulary- Pharmaceutical: 药物的，制药的- Compound: 化合物- Dosage form: 剂型- Prescription: 处方- Generic: 通用名- Brand name: 商标名- Over-the-counter (OTC): 非处方药1.2 Grammar- The past simple tense is used to describe actions that were completed in the past.- The present perfect tense is used to describe actions that have an effect on the present.Example:- The drug was discovered in 1980. (Past simple)- The drug has been used worldwide since its discovery. (Present perfect)1.3 Reading ComprehensionAnswer: The history of pharmaceuticals dates back to ancient civilizations, where natural substances were used for medicinal purposes.1.4 Translation- 药物研发: Drug development- 药物副作用: Side effects of drugs- 药物相互作用: Drug interactionsChapter 2: Drug Classification and Nomenclature2.1 Vocabulary- Antimicrobial: 抗微生物的- Anti-inflammatory: 抗炎的- Analgesic: 镇痛的- Antibiotic: 抗生素- Antihistamine: 抗组胺的2.2 Grammar- The comparative form is used to compare two things.- The superlative form is used to compare three or more things.Example:- This drug is more effective than the other one. (Comparative)- This is the most effective drug among all. (Superlative)2.3 Reading ComprehensionAnswer: Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections, while antivirals are used for viral infections.2.4 Translation- 抗生素分类: Classification of antibiotics- 药物命名法: Drug nomenclature- 药物通用名: Generic names of drugsChapter 3: Drug Dosage and Administration3.1 Vocabulary- Dosage: 剂量- Administration: 给药- Intravenous: 静脉注射- Oral: 口服- Topical: 外用3.2 Grammar- Passive voice is used when the receiver of the action is more important than the doer.Example:- The drug is administered orally. (Passive voice)3.3 Reading ComprehensionAnswer: The dosage of a drug depends on various factors, including the patient's weight, age, and medical condition.3.4 Translation- 药物剂量计算: Calculation of drug dosage- 给药途径: Routes of drug administration- 药物剂量调整: Adjustment of drug dosageChapter 4: Drug Safety and Efficacy4.1 Vocabulary- Toxicity: 毒性- Side effect: 副作用- Efficacy: 疗效- Contraindication: 禁忌症- Adverse reaction: 不良反应4.2 Grammar- Modal verbs are used to express ability, permission, or obligation.Example:- The drug can be toxic in high doses. (Ability)- Patients must be informed about potential side effects. (Obligation)4.3 Reading ComprehensionAnswer: Drug safety is ensured through rigorous testing and monitoring of side effects and adverse reactions.4.4 Translation- 药物安全性评估: Drug safety assessment- 药物有效性研究: Research on drug efficacy- 不良药物反应报告: Reporting of adverse drug reactionsChapter 5: Drug Development and Regulatory Affairs5.1 Vocabulary- Clinical trial: 临床试验- Approval: 批准- Patent: 专利- Regulatory authority: 监管机构5.2 Grammar- Conditional sentences are used to talk about possible situations and their results.Example:- If the drug passes all clinical trials, it will be approved for use. (First conditional)5.3 Reading ComprehensionAnswer: The drug development process involves multiple stages, including preclinical research, clinical trials, andregulatory approval.5.4 Translation- 药物研发流程: Drug development process- 药品监管法规: Pharmaceutical regulatory laws- 临床试验设计: Design of clinical trialsChapter 6: Pharmaceutical Marketing and Ethics6.1 Vocabulary- Marketing: 市场营销- Ethics: 伦理- Promotion: 促销- Informed consent: 知情同意- Conflict of interest: 利益冲突6.2 Grammar- The present continuous tense is used to describe actions happening at the moment of speaking.Example:- The pharmaceutical company is promoting its new drug. (Present continuous)6.3 Reading ComprehensionAnswer: Ethical considerations in pharmaceutical marketing include transparency, informed consent, and avoiding conflicts of interest.6.4 Translation- 药品市场营销策略: Pharmaceutical marketing strategies- 医药伦理问题。
药学英语第五版第三单元
Biochemistry Seeks to Explain Life in Chemical TermsThe molecules of which living organisms are composed conform to all the familiar laws of chemistry, but they alsointeract with each other in accordance with another set of principles, which we shall refer to collectively as the molecularlogic of life. These principles do not involve new or yet undiscovered physical laws or forces. Instead, they are a set ofrelationships characterizing the nature, function, and interactions of biomolecules.If living organisms are composed of molecules that are intrinsically inanimate, how do these molecules confer theremarkable combination of characteristics we call life? How is it that a living organism appears to be more than the sum ofits inanimate parts? Philosophers once answered that living organisms are endowed with a mysterious and divine life force,but this doctrine (vitalism) has been firmly rejected by modern science. The basic goal of the science of biochemistry is todetermine how the collections of inanimate molecules that constitute living organisms interact with each other to maintainand perpetuate life. Although biochemistry yields important insights and practical applications in medicine, agriculture,nutrition, and industry, it is ultimately concerned with the wonder of life itself.All Macromolecules Are Constructed from a Few Simple CompoundsMost of the molecular constituents of living systems are composed of carbon atoms covalently joined with other carbonatoms and with hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen. The special bonding properties of carbon permit the formation of a greatvariety of molecules. Organic compounds of molecular weight less than about 500, such as amino acids, nucleotidase, andmonosaccharide, serve as monomeric subunits of proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides, respectively. A single proteinmolecule may have 1,000 or more amino acids, and deoxyribonucleic acid has millions of nucleotides.Each cell of the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains more than 6,000 different kinds of organic compounds,including about 3,000 different proteins and a similar number of different nucleic acid molecules. In humans there may betens of thousands of different kinds of proteins, as well as many types of polysaccharides (chains of simple sugars), avariety of lipids, and many other compounds of lower molecular weight.To purify and to characterize thoroughly all of these molecules would be an insuperable task, it were not for the factthat each class of macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides) is composed of a small, common set of monomericsubunits. These monomeric subunits can be covalently linked in a virtually limitless variety ofsequences, just as the 26letters of the English alphabet can be arranged into a limitless number of words, sentiments, or books.Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) are constructed from only four different kinds of simple monomeric subunits, thedeoxyribonucleotides, and ribonucleic acids (RNA) are composed of just four types of ribonucleotides. Proteins are composedof 20 different kinds of amino acids. The eight kinds of nucleotides from which all nucleic acids are built and the 20different kinds of amino acids from which all proteins are built are identical in all living organisms.Most of the monomeric subunits from which all macromolecules are constructed serve more than one function in livingcells. The nucleotides serve not only as subunits of nucleic acids, but also as energy-carrying molecules. The amino acidsare subunits of protein molecules, and also precursors of hormones, neurotransmitters, pigments, and many other kinds ofbiomolecules.From these considerations we can now set out some of the principles in the molecular logic of life: All living organismshave the same kinds of monomeric subunits. There are underlying patterns in the structure of biological macromolecules. Theidentity of each organism is preserved by its possession of distinctive sets of nucleic acids and of proteins.ATP Is the Universal Carrier of Metabolic Energy, Linking Catabolism and AnabolismCells capture, store, and transport free energy in a chemical form. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) functions as the majorcarrier of chemical energy in all cells. ATP carries energy among metabolic pathways by serving as the shared intermediatethat couples endergonic reactions to exergonic ones. The terminal phosphate group of ATP is transferred to a variety ofacceptor molecules, which are thereby activated for further chemical transformation. The adenosine diphosphate (ADP) thatremains after the phosphate transfer is recycled to become ATP, at the expense of either chemical energy (during oxidativephosphorylation) or solar energy in photosynthetic cells (by the process of photophosphorylation). ATP is the majorconnecting link (the shared intermediate) between the catabolic and anabolic networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in thecell. These linked networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are virtually identical in all living organisms.Genetic Continuity Is Vested in DNA MoleculesPerhaps the most remarkable of all the properties of living cells and organisms is their ability to reproduce themselveswith nearly perfect fidelity for countless generations. This continuity of inherited traits impliesconstancy, over thousandsor millions of years, in the structure of the molecules that contain the genetic information. Very few historical records ofcivilization, even those etched in copper or carved in stone, have survived for a thousand years. But there is good evidencethat the genetic instructions in living organisms have remained nearly unchanged over much longer periods; many bacteria havenearly the same size, shape, and internal structure and contain the same kinds of precursor molecules and enzymes as thosethat lived a billion years ago.Hereditary information is preserved in DNA, a long, thin organic polymer so fragile that it will fragment from the shearforces arising in a solution that is stirred or pipetted. A human sperm or egg, carrying the accumulated hereditaryinformation of millions of years of evolution, transmits these instructions in the form of DNA molecules, in which the linearsequence of covalently linked nucleotide subunits encodes the genetic message. Genetic information is encoded in the linearsequence of four kinds of subunits of DNA. The double-helical DNA molecule has an internal template for its own replicationand repair.The Structure of DNA Allows for Its Repair and Replication with Near-Perfect FidelityThe capacity of living cells to preserve their genetic material and to duplicate it for the next generation results fromthe structural complementarity between the two halves of the DNA molecule. The basic unit of DNA is a linear polymer of fourdifferent monomeric subunits, deoxyribonucleotides, arranged in a precise linear sequence. It is this linear sequence thatencodes the genetic information. Two of these polymeric strands are twisted about each other to form the DNA double helix,in which each monomeric subunit in one strand pairs specifically with the complementary subunit in the opposite strand. Inthe enzymatic replication or repair of DNA, one of the two strands serves as a template for the assembly of another,structurally complementary DNA strand. Before a cell divides, the two DNA strands separate and each serves as a template forthe synthesis of a complementary strand, generating two identical double-helical molecules, one for each daughter cell. Ifone strand is damaged, continuity of information is assured by the information present on the other strand.The Linear Sequence in DNA Encodes Proteins with Three-Dimensional StructuresThe information in DNA is encoded as a linear (one-dimensional) sequence of the nucleotide units of DNA, but theexpression of this information results in a three-dimensional cell. This change from one to threedimensions occurs in twophases. A linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides in DNA codes (through the intermediary, RNA) for the production of aprotein with a corresponding linear sequence of amino acids. The protein folds itself into a particular three-dimensionalshape, dictated by its amino acid sequence. The precise three-dimensional structure (native conformation) is crucial to theprotein’s function as either catalyst or structural element. This principle emerges: The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein leads to the acquisition of a unique three-dimensional structure by aself-assembly procession.Once a protein has folded into its native conformation, it may associate noncovalently with other proteins, or withnucleic acids or lipids, to form supramolecular complexes such as chromosomes, ribosomes, and membranes. These complexes arein many cases self-assembling. The individual molecules of these complexes have specific, high-affinity binding sites foreach other, and within the cell they spontaneously form functional complexes.Individual macromolecules with specific affinity for other macromolecules self-assemble into supramolecular complexes.Noncovalent Interactions Stabilize Three-Dimensional StructuresThe forces that provide stability and specificity to the three-dimensional structures of macromolecules andsupramolecular complexes are mostly noncovalent interactions. These interactions, individually weak but collectively strong,include hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions among charged groups, van der Waals interactions, and hydrophobic interactionsamong nonpolar groups. These weak interactions are transient; individually they form and break in small fractions of a second.The transient nature of noncovalent interactions confers a flexibility on macromolecules that is critical to their function.Furthermore, the large numbers of noncovalent interactions in a single macromolecule makes it unlikely that at any givenmoment all the interactions will be broken; thus macromolecular structures are stable over time.Three-dimensional biological structures combine the properties of flexibility and stability.The flexibility and stability of the double-helical structure of DNA are due to the complementarity of its two strandsand many weak interactions between them. The flexibility of these interactions allows strand separation during DNAreplication; the complementarity of the double helix is essential to genetic continuity.Noncovalent interactions are also central to the specificity and catalytic efficiency of enzymes. Enzymes bindtransition-state intermediates through numerous weak but precisely oriented interactions. Because the weak interactions areflexible, the complex survives the structural distortions as the reactant is converted into product.The formation of noncovalent interactions provides the energy for self-assembly of macromolecules by stabilizing nativeconformations relative to unfolded, random forms. The native conformation of a protein is that in which the energeticadvantages of forming weak interactions counterbalance the tendency of the protein chain to assume random forms. Given aspecific linear sequence of amino acids and a specific set of conditions (temperature, ionic conditions, pH), a protein willassume its native conformation spontaneously, without a template or scaffold to direct the folding.The Physical Roots of the Biochemical WorldWe can now summarize the various principles of the molecular logic of life:A living cell is a self-contained, self-assembling, self-adjusting, self-perpetuating isothermal system of molecules thatextracts free energy and raw materials from its environment.The cell carries out many consecutive reactions promoted by specific catalysts, called enzymes, which it produces itself.The cell maintains itself in a dynamic steady state, far from equilibrium with its surroundings. There is great economyof parts and processes, achieved by regulation of the catalytic activity of key enzymes.Self-replication through many generations is ensured by the self-repairing, linear information-coding system. Geneticinformation encoded as sequences of nucleotide subunits in DNA and RNA specifies the sequence of amine acids in each distinctprotein, which ultimately determines the three-dimensional structure and function of each protein.Many weak (noncovalent) interactions, acting cooperatively, stabilize the three-dimensional structures of biomoleculesand supramolecular complexes.。
药学英语第五版原文翻译
药学英语第五版原文翻译Introduction to PhysiologyIntroductionPhysiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry.Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into生理学简介介绍生理学是研究生物体功能的科学。
它研究生物体如何进行各种活动，如何饮食，如何运动，如何适应不断改变的环境，如何繁殖后代。
【免费下载】 药学英语,课后翻译
药学英语Unit 1Inflammatory reaction induced by local ischemic injury is one of the important pathophysiological characteristics after ischemic stroke, so anti-inflammatory therapy may be an effective strategy for acute ischemic stroke. Enlimomab, an anti-ICAM-1 murine monoclonal antibody, can inhibit the recruitment and activity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, reduce their adhesion and decrease cerebral infarct size in experimental stroke models. However, a much larger efficacy trial including 625 acute ischemic stroke patients has shown that enlimomab was ineffective on ischemic stroke patients even with a worsening outcome. The therapeutic time window of rt-PA is within 3 hours of ischemic onset. Administration of the drug after more than 3 hours of ischemic onset has no significant therapeutic implications and may even end up with an increased hemorrhagic risk. A study using the animal ischemic model indicated that combination of anti-inflammatory therapy and rt-PA could significantly and might as well extend the therapeutic time window of thrombolysis.局部脑缺血损伤引起的炎症反应是缺血性脑卒中发生后的重要病理生理特征，因此，抗炎治疗策略可能是治疗急性缺血性脑卒中的一种有效方法。
药学英语第五版第三单元
Biochemistry Seeks to Explain Life in Chemical TermsThe molecules of which living organisms are composed conform to all the familiar laws of chemistry, but they alsointeract with each other in accordance with another set of principles, which we shall refer to collectively as the molecularlogic of life. These principles do not involve new or yet undiscovered physical laws or forces. Instead, they are a set ofrelationships characterizing the nature, function, and interactions of biomolecules.If living organisms are composed of molecules that are intrinsically inanimate, how do these molecules confer theremarkable combination of characteristics we call life? How is it that a living organism appears to be more than the sum ofits inanimate parts? Philosophers once answered that living organisms are endowed with a mysterious and divine life force,but this doctrine (vitalism) has been firmly rejected by modern science. The basic goal of the science of biochemistry is todetermine how the collections of inanimate molecules that constitute living organisms interact with each other to maintainand perpetuate life. Although biochemistry yields important insights and practical applications in medicine, agriculture,nutrition, and industry, it is ultimately concerned with the wonder of life itself.All Macromolecules Are Constructed from a Few Simple CompoundsMost of the molecular constituents of living systems are composed of carbon atoms covalently joined with other carbonatoms and with hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen. The special bonding properties of carbon permit the formation of a greatvariety of molecules. Organic compounds of molecular weight less than about 500, such as amino acids, nucleotidase, andmonosaccharide, serve as monomeric subunits of proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides,respectively. A single proteinmolecule may have 1,000 or more amino acids, and deoxyribonucleic acid has millions of nucleotides.Each cell of the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains more than 6,000 different kinds of organic compounds,including about 3,000 different proteins and a similar number of different nucleic acid molecules. In humans there may betens of thousands of different kinds of proteins, as well as many types of polysaccharides (chains of simple sugars), avariety of lipids, and many other compounds of lower molecular weight.To purify and to characterize thoroughly all of these molecules would be an insuperable task, it were not for the factthat each class of macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides) is composed of a small, common set of monomericsubunits. These monomeric subunits can be covalently linked in a virtually limitless variety of sequences, just as the 26letters of the English alphabet can be arranged into a limitless number of words, sentiments, or books.Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) are constructed from only four different kinds of simple monomeric subunits, thedeoxyribonucleotides, and ribonucleic acids (RNA) are composed of just four types of ribonucleotides. Proteins are composedof 20 different kinds of amino acids. The eight kinds of nucleotides from which all nucleic acids are built and the 20different kinds of amino acids from which all proteins are built are identical in all living organisms.Most of the monomeric subunits from which all macromolecules are constructed serve more than one function in livingcells. The nucleotides serve not only as subunits of nucleic acids, but also as energy-carrying molecules. The amino acidsare subunits of protein molecules, and also precursors of hormones, neurotransmitters, pigments, and many other kinds ofbiomolecules.From these considerations we can now set out some of the principles in the molecular logic of life: All living organismshave the same kinds of monomeric subunits. There are underlying patterns in the structure of biological macromolecules. Theidentity of each organism is preserved by its possession of distinctive sets of nucleic acids and of proteins.ATP Is the Universal Carrier of Metabolic Energy, Linking Catabolism and AnabolismCells capture, store, and transport free energy in a chemical form. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) functions as the majorcarrier of chemical energy in all cells. ATP carries energy among metabolic pathways by serving as the shared intermediatethat couples endergonic reactions to exergonic ones. The terminal phosphate group of ATP is transferred to a variety ofacceptor molecules, which are thereby activated for further chemical transformation. The adenosine diphosphate (ADP) thatremains after the phosphate transfer is recycled to become ATP, at the expense of either chemical energy (during oxidativephosphorylation) or solar energy in photosynthetic cells (by the process of photophosphorylation). ATP is the majorconnecting link (the shared intermediate) between the catabolic and anabolic networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in thecell. These linked networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are virtually identical in all living organisms.Genetic Continuity Is Vested in DNA MoleculesPerhaps the most remarkable of all the properties of living cells and organisms is their ability to reproduce themselveswith nearly perfect fidelity for countless generations. This continuity of inherited traits implies constancy, over thousandsor millions of years, in the structure of the molecules that contain the genetic information. Very few historical records ofcivilization, even those etched in copper or carved in stone, have survived for a thousand years. But there is good evidencethat the genetic instructions in living organisms have remained nearly unchanged over much longer periods; many bacteria havenearly the same size, shape, and internal structure and contain the same kinds of precursor molecules and enzymes as thosethat lived a billion years ago.Hereditary information is preserved in DNA, a long, thin organic polymer so fragile that it will fragment from the shearforces arising in a solution that is stirred or pipetted. A human sperm or egg, carrying the accumulated hereditaryinformation of millions of years of evolution, transmits these instructions in the form of DNA molecules, in which the linearsequence of covalently linked nucleotide subunits encodes the genetic message. Genetic information is encoded in the linearsequence of four kinds of subunits of DNA. The double-helical DNA molecule has an internal template for its own replicationand repair.The Structure of DNA Allows for Its Repair and Replication with Near-Perfect FidelityThe capacity of living cells to preserve their genetic material and to duplicate it for the next generation results fromthe structural complementarity between the two halves of the DNA molecule. The basic unit of DNA is a linear polymer of fourdifferent monomeric subunits, deoxyribonucleotides, arranged in a precise linear sequence. It is this linear sequence thatencodes the genetic information. Two of these polymeric strands are twisted about each other to form the DNA double helix,in which each monomeric subunit in one strand pairs specifically with the complementary subunit in the opposite strand. Inthe enzymatic replication or repair of DNA, one of the two strands serves as a template for the assembly of another,structurally complementary DNA strand. Before a cell divides, the two DNA strands separate and each serves as a template forthe synthesis of a complementary strand, generating two identical double-helical molecules, one for each daughter cell. Ifone strand is damaged, continuity of information is assured by the information present on the other strand.The Linear Sequence in DNA Encodes Proteins with Three-Dimensional StructuresThe information in DNA is encoded as a linear (one-dimensional) sequence of the nucleotide units of DNA, but theexpression of this information results in a three-dimensional cell. This change from one to three dimensions occurs in twophases. A linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides in DNA codes (through the intermediary, RNA) for the production of aprotein with a corresponding linear sequence of amino acids. The protein folds itself into a particular three-dimensionalshape, dictated by its amino acid sequence. The precise three-dimensional structure (native conformation) is crucial to theprotein’s function as either catalyst or structural element. This principle emerges:The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein leads to the acquisition of a unique three-dimensional structure by aself-assembly procession.Once a protein has folded into its native conformation, it may associate noncovalently with other proteins, or withnucleic acids or lipids, to form supramolecular complexes such as chromosomes, ribosomes, and membranes. These complexes arein many cases self-assembling. The individual molecules of these complexes have specific, high-affinity binding sites foreach other, and within the cell they spontaneously form functional complexes.Individual macromolecules with specific affinity for other macromolecules self-assemble into supramolecular complexes.Noncovalent Interactions Stabilize Three-Dimensional StructuresThe forces that provide stability and specificity to the three-dimensional structures of macromolecules andsupramolecular complexes are mostly noncovalent interactions. These interactions, individually weak but collectively strong,include hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions among charged groups, van der Waals interactions, and hydrophobic interactionsamong nonpolar groups. These weak interactions are transient; individually they form and break in small fractions of a second.The transient nature of noncovalent interactions confers a flexibility on macromolecules that is critical to their function.Furthermore, the large numbers of noncovalent interactions in a single macromolecule makes it unlikely that at any givenmoment all the interactions will be broken; thus macromolecular structures are stable over time.Three-dimensional biological structures combine the properties of flexibility and stability.The flexibility and stability of the double-helical structure of DNA are due to the complementarity of its two strandsand many weak interactions between them. The flexibility of these interactions allows strand separation during DNAreplication; the complementarity of the double helix is essential to genetic continuity.Noncovalent interactions are also central to the specificity and catalytic efficiency of enzymes. Enzymes bindtransition-state intermediates through numerous weak but precisely oriented interactions. Because the weak interactions areflexible, the complex survives the structural distortions as the reactant is converted into product.The formation of noncovalent interactions provides the energy for self-assembly of macromolecules by stabilizing nativeconformations relative to unfolded, random forms. The native conformation of a protein is that in which the energeticadvantages of forming weak interactions counterbalance the tendency of the protein chain to assume random forms. Given aspecific linear sequence of amino acids and a specific set of conditions (temperature, ionic conditions, pH), a protein willassume its native conformation spontaneously, without a template or scaffold to direct the folding.The Physical Roots of the Biochemical WorldWe can now summarize the various principles of the molecular logic of life:A living cell is a self-contained, self-assembling, self-adjusting, self-perpetuating isothermal system of molecules thatextracts free energy and raw materials from its environment.The cell carries out many consecutive reactions promoted by specific catalysts, called enzymes, which it produces itself.The cell maintains itself in a dynamic steady state, far from equilibrium with its surroundings. There is great economyof parts and processes, achieved by regulation of the catalytic activity of key enzymes.Self-replication through many generations is ensured by the self-repairing, linear information-coding system. Geneticinformation encoded as sequences of nucleotide subunits in DNA and RNA specifies the sequence of amine acids in each distinctprotein, which ultimately determines the three-dimensional structure and function of each protein.Many weak (noncovalent) interactions, acting cooperatively, stabilize the three-dimensional structures of biomoleculesand supramolecular complexes.。
药学英语课文翻译
药学英语课文翻译Unit1药品依照他们的产品或来源药物能够被分为三种：Ⅰ、全合成Ⅱ、天然产物和Ⅲ、由部分合成产物（半合成产物）本书的重点是关于最重要化合物Ⅰ和Ⅲ——这类药物合成。
然而，这并不意味天然产物和其他的药物就不重要。
它们能够被用作有价值的先导化合物，同时它们通常被用作起始原料或作为重要合成产物的中间体。
合成而更加经济的。
在过去的几年里发酵，即微生物工程，差不多变得极其重要。
通过现代技术和基因的选择结果，导致了微生物高突变体演变的产生，发酵差不多变成了对物质广泛围的选择方式。
真核细胞（酵母和霉菌）和原核细胞（单细菌细胞和放线菌）都被用作微生物。
以下为可获得的生产形式:1.细胞原料（单细胞蛋白质）2.酶3.初级的降解产物（初级酶代谢物）4.次级的降解产物（次级的代谢物）在次级代谢物中，必先提起的是抗生素，以下五种药代表了每年世界范畴内价值170亿美元的药物：青霉素，头孢菌素，四环素，红霉素，氨基糖苷类。
大约有5000种抗生素差不多从微生物中分离出来了，但在这些中仅有那些少于100种用于治疗使用。
然而，一定明白，那些衍生物通过部分合成被改进用于治疗。
在过去十年中，单单从β-内酰胺半合成的就有五万种药物。
发酵在容积大于400m3的不锈钠发酵罐中进行，幸免了微生物噬菌体的污染等等，整个过程必须在无菌条件下进行。
（倒数第五段开始）大量使用的试剂不仅仅是酸（盐酸、硫酸、硝酸、醋酸），还有无机和有机碱（氢氧化钠、氢氧化钾、碳酸钾、重碳酸钾、铵碱、三乙胺、吡啶）。
还有辅助化学物质包括活性炭和催化剂。
所有这些补充的化学物质（比如中间体）在最终产物中可能是杂志的来源。
在1969年，世界卫生组织出版了关于“药品安全质量爱护”的论述。
名目2是有关“药品赔偿和安全爱护质量的规定”（世界卫生组织，1969年第418号技术报告，名目2；1975年第567号名目1A）这同时变为众所周知的“药品质量治理规范”或GMP规范，同时这些规定在现在药品生产中也应遵守。
执业药师 2025 药学英语
执业药师 2025 药学英语English:As a practicing pharmacist in 2025, it is essential to possess a strong foundation in pharmaceutical sciences and clinical pharmacy. The constantly evolving nature of the field requires pharmacists to stay updated with the latest developments in drug therapy, pharmacology, and pharmaceutical care. Pharmacists will be expected to play a more integral role in patient care, collaborating closely with other healthcare professionals to optimize medication use and ensure patient safety. Additionally, with the advancement of digital health technologies, pharmacists will need to be proficient in utilizing electronic health records, telemedicine platforms, and other digital tools to enhance pharmaceutical care delivery. Cultural competency and communication skills will also be crucial, as pharmacists serve diverse patient populations with varying health beliefs and language preferences. In 2025, pharmacists will not only be responsible for dispensing medications but also for providing comprehensive medication management, medication therapy management, and preventive care services to promote optimal patient outcomes and population health.中文翻译:作为2025年执业的药师，拥有扎实的药学科学和临床药学基础至关重要。
药学英语第五版原文翻译
药学英语第五版原文翻译本大纲旨在概述《药学英语第五版原文翻译》的主要内容和结构安排。
本部分介绍了药学英语的重要性和翻译的目的，并概述了本书的翻译方法和策略。
本部分将介绍药学领域的基础概念，包括药物分类、药理学和药品研发流程等。
本部分探讨药学科研领域的相关主题，包括实验设计、数据分析和科学论文写作等。
本节将介绍药学在临床实践中的应用，包括药物治疗原理、临床试验和药物管理等内容。
本部分将讨论医药法律的相关内容，包括药品注册、知识产权和合规要求等方面。
本部分将介绍如何查阅和理解药学研究文献，包括文献检索、评估和引用等技巧。
本部分列举了药学英语中常用的专业词汇和表达方式，旨在帮助读者扩展自己的词汇量。
本书致力于为读者提供药学英语领域的重要内容和帮助。
通过对药学英语的深入研究和研究，读者可以更好地理解和运用相关知识。
本书的重点内容包括药物名称、药理学、药物治疗、药剂学和临床药学等方面。
通过掌握这些关键知识，读者可以在药学领域获得成功，并成为有影响力的专业人士。
鼓励读者在研究本书的基础上进一步探索药学英语的领域。
不断的研究和研究可以增加读者对医药领域的认识和理解。
药学英语的知识和技能是在实践中不断提高和发展的，因此，读者应该保持研究的热情，并积极参与相关的研究和研究活动。
通过提升自己在药学英语领域的专业能力，读者可以为医药研究和临床实践做出更大的贡献。
总的来说，本书为读者提供了一个全面且系统的药学英语研究资源。
它不仅涵盖了药学的各个领域，还提供了实用的案例和示例，帮助读者更好地理解和应用药学英语知识。
希望读者通过研究本书，能够在药学英语领域取得进步，并在自己的工作和研究中取得成功。
注意：本文格为开放式结论，鼓励读者在阅读本书之后，继续研究、研究和探索药学英语领域的知识和技能。
注意：本文格为开放式结论，鼓励读者在阅读本书之后，继续学习、研究和探索药学英语领域的知识和技能。
药学英语课后翻译
药学英语课后翻译Unit 11. A full appreciation of the physiology of a living organism must be based on asound knowledge of its anatomy. Anatomy does not merely study the separationof parts, but the accurate description of the morphologies and functions ofdifferent organs.对⽣物⽣理学的全⾯了解必须基于解剖学的系统知识。
解剖学不仅仅是研究⼈体各部分的分离；还要准确的描述各个器官的形态和⽣理功能。
2. Our daily food intake must match requirements and any excess must be excretedfor balance to be maintained.我们每天摄⼊的事物必须满⾜需要；任何多余的东西必须排出体外才能维持平衡。
3. The process of stabilization of the internal environment is called homeostasis andis essential if the cells of the body are to function normally. 内环境稳定的过程称之为体内平衡；体内平衡也是机体的细胞正常发挥作⽤所必不可少的。
4. Human cells have the ability to break down large molecules to smaller ones toliberate sufficient energy for their activities.⼈类细胞有将⼤分⼦分解成⼩分⼦的能⼒；从⽽为⾃⾝活动释放⾜够的能量。
药学英语Unit 5 Text B注释及译文
Lead CompoundsBefore any medicinal chemistry project can get underway, a lead compound is required. A lead compound will have some property considered therapeutically useful. The property sought will depend on the tests used to detect the lead compound, which in turn depends on the drug's target. The level of biological activity may not be particularly high, but that does not matter. The lead compound is not intended to be used as a clinical agent. It is the starting point from which a clinically useful compound can be developed. Similarly, it does not matter whether the lead compound is toxic or has undesirable side effects. Again, drug design aims to improve the desirable effects of the lead compound and to remove the undesirable effects.1.seek [si:k] vt. & vi.寻找; 探寻vi.企图; 试图vt.请求, 征求;2.in turn ①依次, 轮流地；②相应地；转而3.target ['tɑ:ɡit]n. (射击的)靶子；(欲达到的)目[指]标；(服务的)对象; (攻击的)对象vt.瞄准某物4.intend [in'tend] vt.意欲, 打算；打算使, 想让…做5.undesirable [,ʌndɪ'zaɪərəbəl] n.不受欢迎的人;不良分子adj.可能招致麻烦或不便的;不想要的；不受大家欢迎的;讨厌的找到先导化合物是开展任何一项药物化学课题研究的前提。
药学英语第五版原文翻译.doc
Although there have been many important physiological invest
human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental 通过实验观察得知。尽管我们对志愿者进
To study how an animal works it is first necessary to know how it is 物生理学。
built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore
要研究一种动物如何活动，首先需要
to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant 有的。鉴于此有必要将这门学科分成不同
physiology, and animal physiology.
部分研究， 如细菌生理学、 植物生理学和动
and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a 识还是源于对其它动物如青蛙， 兔子，猫和
common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to 狗等的研究。当我们明确大多数动物物种
physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the effective 种方法， 我们获得了大量的知识， 从而让我
treatment of many diseases.
(完整版)药学英语第五版原文翻译
Introduction to PhysiologyIntroductionPhysiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry.Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology.To study how an animal works it is first necessary to know how it is built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to establish how particular parts perform their functions. Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental conditions has meant that much of our present physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the effective treatment of many diseases.The building blocks of the body are the cells, which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with its own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In contrast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via specific cell junctions. Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the intestines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological systems. The heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal muscles form the musculoskeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on.Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain common characteristics. Firstly, they are bounded by a limiting membrane, the plasma membrane. Secondly, they have the ability to break down large molecules to smaller ones to liberate energy for their activities.生理学简介介绍生理学是研究生物体功能的科学。
药学英语第五版第三单元
Biochemistry Seeks to Explain Life in Chemical TermsThe molecules of which living organisms are composed conform to all the familiar laws of chemistry, but they alsointeract with each other in accordance with another set of principles, which we shall refer to collectively as the molecularlogic of life. These principles do not involve new or yet undiscovered physical laws or forces. Instead, they are a set ofrelationships characterizing the nature, function, and interactions of biomolecules.If living organisms are composed of molecules that are intrinsically inanimate, how do these molecules confer theremarkable combination of characteristics we call life? How is it that a living organism appears to be more than the sum ofits inanimate parts? Philosophers once answered that living organisms are endowed with a mysterious and divine life force,but this doctrine (vitalism) has been firmly rejected by modern science. The basic goal of the science of biochemistry is todetermine how the collections of inanimate molecules that constitute living organisms interact with each other to maintainand perpetuate life. Although biochemistry yields important insights and practical applications in medicine, agriculture,nutrition, and industry, it is ultimately concerned with the wonder of life itself.All Macromolecules Are Constructed from a Few Simple CompoundsMost of the molecular constituents of living systems are composed of carbon atoms covalently joined with other carbonatoms and with hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen. The special bonding properties of carbon permit the formation of a greatvariety of molecules. Organic compounds of molecular weight less than about 500, such as amino acids, nucleotidase, andmonosaccharide, serve as monomeric subunits of proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides, respectively. A single proteinmolecule may have 1,000 or more amino acids, and deoxyribonucleic acid has millions of nucleotides.Each cell of the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains more than 6,000 different kinds of organic compounds,including about 3,000 different proteins and a similar number of different nucleic acid molecules. In humans there may betens of thousands of different kinds of proteins, as well as many types of polysaccharides (chains of simple sugars), avariety of lipids, and many other compounds of lower molecular weight.To purify and to characterize thoroughly all of these molecules would be an insuperable task, it were not for the factthat each class of macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides) is composed of a small, common set of monomericsubunits. These monomeric subunits can be covalently linked in a virtually limitless variety ofsequences, just as the 26letters of the English alphabet can be arranged into a limitless number of words, sentiments, or books.Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) are constructed from only four different kinds of simple monomeric subunits, thedeoxyribonucleotides, and ribonucleic acids (RNA) are composed of just four types of ribonucleotides. Proteins are composedof 20 different kinds of amino acids. The eight kinds of nucleotides from which all nucleic acids are built and the 20different kinds of amino acids from which all proteins are built are identical in all living organisms.Most of the monomeric subunits from which all macromolecules are constructed serve more than one function in livingcells. The nucleotides serve not only as subunits of nucleic acids, but also as energy-carrying molecules. The amino acidsare subunits of protein molecules, and also precursors of hormones, neurotransmitters, pigments, and many other kinds ofbiomolecules.From these considerations we can now set out some of the principles in the molecular logic of life: All living organismshave the same kinds of monomeric subunits. There are underlying patterns in the structure of biological macromolecules. Theidentity of each organism is preserved by its possession of distinctive sets of nucleic acids and of proteins.ATP Is the Universal Carrier of Metabolic Energy, Linking Catabolism and AnabolismCells capture, store, and transport free energy in a chemical form. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) functions as the majorcarrier of chemical energy in all cells. ATP carries energy among metabolic pathways by serving as the shared intermediatethat couples endergonic reactions to exergonic ones. The terminal phosphate group of ATP is transferred to a variety ofacceptor molecules, which are thereby activated for further chemical transformation. The adenosine diphosphate (ADP) thatremains after the phosphate transfer is recycled to become ATP, at the expense of either chemical energy (during oxidativephosphorylation) or solar energy in photosynthetic cells (by the process of photophosphorylation). ATP is the majorconnecting link (the shared intermediate) between the catabolic and anabolic networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in thecell. These linked networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are virtually identical in all living organisms.Genetic Continuity Is Vested in DNA MoleculesPerhaps the most remarkable of all the properties of living cells and organisms is their ability to reproduce themselveswith nearly perfect fidelity for countless generations. This continuity of inherited traits impliesconstancy, over thousandsor millions of years, in the structure of the molecules that contain the genetic information. Very few historical records ofcivilization, even those etched in copper or carved in stone, have survived for a thousand years. But there is good evidencethat the genetic instructions in living organisms have remained nearly unchanged over much longer periods; many bacteria havenearly the same size, shape, and internal structure and contain the same kinds of precursor molecules and enzymes as thosethat lived a billion years ago.Hereditary information is preserved in DNA, a long, thin organic polymer so fragile that it will fragment from the shearforces arising in a solution that is stirred or pipetted. A human sperm or egg, carrying the accumulated hereditaryinformation of millions of years of evolution, transmits these instructions in the form of DNA molecules, in which the linearsequence of covalently linked nucleotide subunits encodes the genetic message. Genetic information is encoded in the linearsequence of four kinds of subunits of DNA. The double-helical DNA molecule has an internal template for its own replicationand repair.The Structure of DNA Allows for Its Repair and Replication with Near-Perfect FidelityThe capacity of living cells to preserve their genetic material and to duplicate it for the next generation results fromthe structural complementarity between the two halves of the DNA molecule. The basic unit of DNA is a linear polymer of fourdifferent monomeric subunits, deoxyribonucleotides, arranged in a precise linear sequence. It is this linear sequence thatencodes the genetic information. Two of these polymeric strands are twisted about each other to form the DNA double helix,in which each monomeric subunit in one strand pairs specifically with the complementary subunit in the opposite strand. Inthe enzymatic replication or repair of DNA, one of the two strands serves as a template for the assembly of another,structurally complementary DNA strand. Before a cell divides, the two DNA strands separate and each serves as a template forthe synthesis of a complementary strand, generating two identical double-helical molecules, one for each daughter cell. Ifone strand is damaged, continuity of information is assured by the information present on the other strand.The Linear Sequence in DNA Encodes Proteins with Three-Dimensional StructuresThe information in DNA is encoded as a linear (one-dimensional) sequence of the nucleotide units of DNA, but theexpression of this information results in a three-dimensional cell. This change from one to threedimensions occurs in twophases. A linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides in DNA codes (through the intermediary, RNA) for the production of aprotein with a corresponding linear sequence of amino acids. The protein folds itself into a particular three-dimensionalshape, dictated by its amino acid sequence. The precise three-dimensional structure (native conformation) is crucial to theprotein’s function as either catalyst or structural element. This principle emerges: The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein leads to the acquisition of a unique three-dimensional structure by aself-assembly procession.Once a protein has folded into its native conformation, it may associate noncovalently with other proteins, or withnucleic acids or lipids, to form supramolecular complexes such as chromosomes, ribosomes, and membranes. These complexes arein many cases self-assembling. The individual molecules of these complexes have specific, high-affinity binding sites foreach other, and within the cell they spontaneously form functional complexes.Individual macromolecules with specific affinity for other macromolecules self-assemble into supramolecular complexes.Noncovalent Interactions Stabilize Three-Dimensional StructuresThe forces that provide stability and specificity to the three-dimensional structures of macromolecules andsupramolecular complexes are mostly noncovalent interactions. These interactions, individually weak but collectively strong,include hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions among charged groups, van der Waals interactions, and hydrophobic interactionsamong nonpolar groups. These weak interactions are transient; individually they form and break in small fractions of a second.The transient nature of noncovalent interactions confers a flexibility on macromolecules that is critical to their function.Furthermore, the large numbers of noncovalent interactions in a single macromolecule makes it unlikely that at any givenmoment all the interactions will be broken; thus macromolecular structures are stable over time.Three-dimensional biological structures combine the properties of flexibility and stability.The flexibility and stability of the double-helical structure of DNA are due to the complementarity of its two strandsand many weak interactions between them. The flexibility of these interactions allows strand separation during DNAreplication; the complementarity of the double helix is essential to genetic continuity.Noncovalent interactions are also central to the specificity and catalytic efficiency of enzymes. Enzymes bindtransition-state intermediates through numerous weak but precisely oriented interactions. Because the weak interactions areflexible, the complex survives the structural distortions as the reactant is converted into product.The formation of noncovalent interactions provides the energy for self-assembly of macromolecules by stabilizing nativeconformations relative to unfolded, random forms. The native conformation of a protein is that in which the energeticadvantages of forming weak interactions counterbalance the tendency of the protein chain to assume random forms. Given aspecific linear sequence of amino acids and a specific set of conditions (temperature, ionic conditions, pH), a protein willassume its native conformation spontaneously, without a template or scaffold to direct the folding.The Physical Roots of the Biochemical WorldWe can now summarize the various principles of the molecular logic of life:A living cell is a self-contained, self-assembling, self-adjusting, self-perpetuating isothermal system of molecules thatextracts free energy and raw materials from its environment.The cell carries out many consecutive reactions promoted by specific catalysts, called enzymes, which it produces itself.The cell maintains itself in a dynamic steady state, far from equilibrium with its surroundings. There is great economyof parts and processes, achieved by regulation of the catalytic activity of key enzymes.Self-replication through many generations is ensured by the self-repairing, linear information-coding system. Geneticinformation encoded as sequences of nucleotide subunits in DNA and RNA specifies the sequence of amine acids in each distinctprotein, which ultimately determines the three-dimensional structure and function of each protein.Many weak (noncovalent) interactions, acting cooperatively, stabilize the three-dimensional structures of biomoleculesand supramolecular complexes.。
药学英语第五版第三单元
Biochemistry Seeks to Explain Life in Chemical TermsThe molecules of which living organisms are composed conform to all the familiar laws of chemistry, but they alsointeract with each other in accordance with another set of principles, which we shall refer to collectively as the molecularlogic of life. These principles do not involve new or yet undiscovered physical laws or forces. Instead, they are a set ofrelationships characterizing the nature, function, and interactions of biomolecules.If living organisms are composed of molecules that are intrinsically inanimate, how do these molecules confer theremarkable combination of characteristics we call life? How is it that a living organism appears to be more than the sum ofits inanimate parts? Philosophers once answered that living organisms are endowed with a mysterious and divine life force,but this doctrine (vitalism) has been firmly rejected by modern science. The basic goal of the science of biochemistry is todetermine how the collections of inanimate molecules that constitute living organisms interact with each other to maintainand perpetuate life. Although biochemistry yields important insights and practical applications in medicine, agriculture,nutrition, and industry, it is ultimately concerned with the wonder of life itself.All Macromolecules Are Constructed from a Few Simple CompoundsMost of the molecular constituents of living systems are composed of carbon atoms covalently joined with other carbonatoms and with hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen. The special bonding properties of carbon permit the formation of a greatvariety of molecules. Organic compounds of molecular weight less than about 500, such as amino acids, nucleotidase, andmonosaccharide, serve as monomeric subunits of proteins, nucleic acids, andpolysaccharides, respectively. A single proteinmolecule may have 1,000 or more amino acids, and deoxyribonucleic acid has millions of nucleotides.Each cell of the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains more than 6,000 different kinds of organic compounds,including about 3,000 different proteins and a similar number of different nucleic acid molecules. In humans there may betens of thousands of different kinds of proteins, as well as many types of polysaccharides (chains of simple sugars), avariety of lipids, and many other compounds of lower molecular weight.To purify and to characterize thoroughly all of these molecules would be an insuperable task, it were not for the factthat each class of macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides) is composed of a small, common set of monomericsubunits. These monomeric subunits can be covalently linked in a virtually limitless variety of sequences, just as the 26letters of the English alphabet can be arranged into a limitless number of words, sentiments, or books.Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) are constructed from only four different kinds of simple monomeric subunits, thedeoxyribonucleotides, and ribonucleic acids (RNA) are composed of just four types of ribonucleotides. Proteins are composedof 20 different kinds of amino acids. The eight kinds of nucleotides from which all nucleic acids are built and the 20different kinds of amino acids from which all proteins are built are identical in all living organisms.Most of the monomeric subunits from which all macromolecules are constructed serve more than one function in livingcells. The nucleotides serve not only as subunits of nucleic acids, but also as energy-carrying molecules. The amino acidsare subunits of protein molecules, and also precursors of hormones, neurotransmitters, pigments, and many other kinds ofbiomolecules.From these considerations we can now set out some of the principles in the molecular logic of life: All living organismshave the same kinds of monomeric subunits. There are underlying patterns in the structure of biological macromolecules. Theidentity of each organism is preserved by its possession of distinctive sets of nucleic acids and of proteins.ATP Is the Universal Carrier of Metabolic Energy, Linking Catabolism and AnabolismCells capture, store, and transport free energy in a chemical form. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) functions as the majorcarrier of chemical energy in all cells. ATP carries energy among metabolic pathways by serving as the shared intermediatethat couples endergonic reactions to exergonic ones. The terminal phosphate group of ATP is transferred to a variety ofacceptor molecules, which are thereby activated for further chemical transformation. The adenosine diphosphate (ADP) thatremains after the phosphate transfer is recycled to become ATP, at the expense of either chemical energy (during oxidativephosphorylation) or solar energy in photosynthetic cells (by the process of photophosphorylation). ATP is the majorconnecting link (the shared intermediate) between the catabolic and anabolic networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in thecell. These linked networks of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are virtually identical in all living organisms.Genetic Continuity Is Vested in DNA MoleculesPerhaps the most remarkable of all the properties of living cells and organisms is their ability to reproduce themselveswith nearly perfect fidelity for countless generations. This continuity of inherited traits implies constancy, over thousandsor millions of years, in the structure of the molecules that contain the genetic information. Very few historical records ofcivilization, even those etched in copper or carved in stone, have survived for a thousand years. But there is good evidencethat the genetic instructions in living organisms have remained nearly unchanged over much longer periods; many bacteria havenearly the same size, shape, and internal structure and contain the same kinds of precursor molecules and enzymes as thosethat lived a billion years ago.Hereditary information is preserved in DNA, a long, thin organic polymer so fragile that it will fragment from the shearforces arising in a solution that is stirred or pipetted. A human sperm or egg, carrying the accumulated hereditaryinformation of millions of years of evolution, transmits these instructions in the form of DNA molecules, in which the linearsequence of covalently linked nucleotide subunits encodes the genetic message. Genetic information is encoded in the linearsequence of four kinds of subunits of DNA. The double-helical DNA molecule has an internal template for its own replicationand repair.The Structure of DNA Allows for Its Repair and Replication with Near-Perfect FidelityThe capacity of living cells to preserve their genetic material and to duplicate it for the next generation results fromthe structural complementarity between the two halves of the DNA molecule. The basic unit of DNA is a linear polymer of fourdifferent monomeric subunits, deoxyribonucleotides, arranged in a precise linear sequence. It is this linear sequence thatencodes the genetic information. Two of these polymeric strands are twisted about each other to form the DNA double helix,in which each monomeric subunit in one strand pairs specifically with the complementary subunit in the opposite strand. Inthe enzymatic replication or repair of DNA, one of the two strands serves as a template for the assembly of another,structurally complementary DNA strand. Before a cell divides, the two DNA strands separate and each serves as a template forthe synthesis of a complementary strand, generating two identical double-helical molecules, one for each daughter cell. Ifone strand is damaged, continuity of information is assured by the information present on the other strand.The Linear Sequence in DNA Encodes Proteins with Three-Dimensional StructuresThe information in DNA is encoded as a linear (one-dimensional) sequence of the nucleotide units of DNA, but theexpression of this information results in a three-dimensional cell. This change from one to three dimensions occurs in twophases. A linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides in DNA codes (through the intermediary, RNA) for the production of aprotein with a corresponding linear sequence of amino acids. The protein folds itself into a particular three-dimensionalshape, dictated by its amino acid sequence. The precise three-dimensional structure (native conformation) is crucial to theprotein’s function as either catalyst or structural element. This principle emerges:The linear sequence of amino acids in a protein leads to the acquisition of a unique three-dimensional structure by aself-assembly procession.Once a protein has folded into its native conformation, it may associate noncovalently with other proteins, or withnucleic acids or lipids, to form supramolecular complexes such as chromosomes, ribosomes, and membranes. These complexes arein many cases self-assembling. The individual molecules of these complexes have specific, high-affinity binding sites foreach other, and within the cell they spontaneously form functional complexes.Individual macromolecules with specific affinity for other macromolecules self-assemble into supramolecular complexes.Noncovalent Interactions Stabilize Three-Dimensional StructuresThe forces that provide stability and specificity to the three-dimensional structures of macromolecules andsupramolecular complexes are mostly noncovalent interactions. These interactions, individually weak but collectively strong,include hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions among charged groups, van der Waals interactions, and hydrophobic interactionsamong nonpolar groups. These weak interactions are transient; individually they form and break in small fractions of a second.The transient nature of noncovalent interactions confers a flexibility on macromolecules that is critical to their function.Furthermore, the large numbers of noncovalent interactions in a single macromolecule makes it unlikely that at any givenmoment all the interactions will be broken; thus macromolecular structures are stable over time.Three-dimensional biological structures combine the properties of flexibility and stability.The flexibility and stability of the double-helical structure of DNA are due to the complementarity of its two strandsand many weak interactions between them. The flexibility of these interactions allows strand separation during DNAreplication; the complementarity of the double helix is essential to genetic continuity.Noncovalent interactions are also central to the specificity and catalytic efficiency of enzymes. Enzymes bindtransition-state intermediates through numerous weak but precisely oriented interactions. Because the weak interactions areflexible, the complex survives the structural distortions as the reactant is converted into product.The formation of noncovalent interactions provides the energy for self-assembly of macromolecules by stabilizing nativeconformations relative to unfolded, random forms. The native conformation of a protein is that in which the energeticadvantages of forming weak interactions counterbalance the tendency of the protein chain to assume random forms. Given aspecific linear sequence of amino acids and a specific set of conditions (temperature, ionic conditions, pH), a protein willassume its native conformation spontaneously, without a template or scaffold to direct the folding.The Physical Roots of the Biochemical WorldWe can now summarize the various principles of the molecular logic of life:A living cell is a self-contained, self-assembling, self-adjusting, self-perpetuating isothermal system of molecules thatextracts free energy and raw materials from its environment.The cell carries out many consecutive reactions promoted by specific catalysts, called enzymes, which it produces itself.The cell maintains itself in a dynamic steady state, far from equilibrium with its surroundings. There is great economyof parts and processes, achieved by regulation of the catalytic activity of key enzymes.Self-replication through many generations is ensured by the self-repairing, linear information-coding system. Geneticinformation encoded as sequences of nucleotide subunits in DNA and RNA specifiesthe sequence of amine acids in each distinctprotein, which ultimately determines the three-dimensional structure and function of each protein.Many weak (noncovalent) interactions, acting cooperatively, stabilize the three-dimensional structures of biomoleculesand supramolecular complexes.（注：可编辑下载，若有不当之处，请指正，谢谢!）。
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Introduction to PhysiologyIntroductionPhysiology is the study of the functions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry.Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for or example—many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology.To study how an animal works it is first necessary to know how it is built. A full appreciation of the physiology of an organism must therefore be based on a sound knowledge of its anatomy. Experiments can then be carried out to establish how particular parts perform their functions. Although there have been many important physiological investigations on human volunteers, the need for precise control over the experimental conditions has meant that much of our present physiological knowledge has been derived from studies on other animals such as frogs, rabbits, cats, and dogs. When it is clear that a specific physiological process has a common basis in a wide variety of animal species, it is reasonable to assume that the same principles will apply to humans. The knowledge gained from this approach has given us a great insight into human physiology and endowed us with a solid foundation for the effective treatment of many diseases.The building blocks of the body are the cells, which are grouped together to form tissues. The principal types of tissue are epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular, each with its own characteristics. Many connective tissues have relatively few cells but have an extensive extracellular matrix. In contrast, smooth muscle consists of densely packed layers of muscle cells linked together via specific cell junctions. Organs such as the brain, the heart, the lungs, the intestines, and the liver are formed by the aggregation of different kinds of tissues. The organs are themselves parts of distinct physiological systems. The heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system; the lungs, trachea, and bronchi together with the chest wall and diaphragm form the respiratory system; the skeleton and skeletal muscles form the musculoskeletal system; the brain, spinal cord, autonomic nerves and ganglia, and peripheral somatic nerves form the nervous system, and so on.Cells differ widely in form and function but they all have certain生理学简介介绍生理学是研究生物体功能的科学。
它研究生物体如何进行各种活动，如何饮食，如何运动，如何适应不断改变的环境，如何繁殖后代。
这门学科包罗万象，涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。
生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动，基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器，其操作受物理和化学规律控制。
尽管从生物学整个范畴看，生物体某些活动过程是相似的——如基因编码的复制——但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。
鉴于此有必要将这门学科分成不同部分研究，如细菌生理学、植物生理学和动物生理学。
要研究一种动物如何活动，首先需要了解它的构成。
要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。
一个生物体的各部分起着什么作用可通过实验观察得知。
尽管我们对志愿者进行了许多重要的生理调查，但是实验条件需要精确控制，所以我们当前大多生理知识还是源于对其它动物如青蛙，兔子，猫和狗等的研究。
当我们明确大多数动物物种的特定生理过程存在共同之处时，相同的生理原理适用于人类也是合理的。
通过这种方法，我们获得了大量的知识，从而让我们对人类生理学有了更深入的了解，为我们有效治疗许多疾病提供了一个坚实的基础。
机体的基本组成物质是细胞，细胞结合在一起形成组织。
组织的基本类型有上皮组织，结缔组织，神经组织和肌组织，每类组织都有各自的特征。
许多结缔组织中细胞量相对较少，但是有大量的细胞外基质。
相比而言，光滑的肌组织由大量密密麻麻的肌细胞通过特定的细胞连接组成。
各种器官如脑，心脏，肺，小肠和肝等由不同种类的组织聚集而成。
这些器官是不同生理系统的组成部分。
心脏和血管组成心血管系统；肺，器官，支气管，胸壁和膈肌组成呼吸系统；骨骼和骨骼肌组成骨骼肌系统；大脑，脊髓，自主神经和神经中枢以及common characteristics. Firstly, they are bounded by a limiting membrane, the plasma membrane. Secondly, they have the ability to break down large molecules to smaller ones to liberate energy for their activities. Thirdly, at some point in their life history, they possess a nucleus which contains genetic information in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).Living cells continually transform materials. They break down glucose and fats to provide energy for other activities such as motility and the synthesis of proteins for growth and repair. These chemical changes are collectively called metabolism. The breakdown of large molecules to smaller ones is called catabolism and the synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones anabolism.In the course of evolution, cells began to differentiate to serve different functions. Some developed the ability to contract (muscle cells), others to conduct electrical signals (nerve cells). A further group developed the ability to secrete different substances such as hormones or enzymes. During embryological development, this process of differentiation is re-enacted as many different types of cell are formed from the fertilized egg.Most tissues contain a mixture of cell types. For example, blood consists of red cells, white cells, and platelets. Red cells transport oxygen around the body. The white cells play an important role in defense against infection and the platelets are vital components in the process of blood clotting. There are a number of different types of connective tissue but all are characterized by having cells distributed within an extensive noncellular matrix. Nerve tissue contains nerve cells and glial cells.The Principal Organ SystemsThe cardiovascular systemThe cells of large multicellular animals cannot derive the oxygen and nutrients they need directly from the external environment. The oxygen and nutrients must be transported to the cells. This is one of the principal functions of the blood, which circulates within blood vessels by virtue of the pumping action of the heart. The heart, blood vessels, and associated tissues form the cardiovascular system.The heart consists of four chambers, two atria and two ventricles, which form a pair of pumps arranged side by side. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it absorbs oxygen from the air, while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood returning from the lungs to the rest of body to supply the tissues. Physiologists are concerned with establishing the factors responsible for the heartbeat, how the heart pumps the blood around the circulation, and how it is distributed to perfuse the tissues according to their needs. Fluid exchanged between the blood plasma and the tissues passes into the lymphatic system, which eventually drains back into the blood.The respiratory system 周围躯体神经组成神经系统等等。