chapter 4 Syntax英语专业语言学PPT
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语言学 4 Syntax(课堂PPT)
• naughty
boys and girls
naughty boys and girls
•
boys and girls naughty boys
• Practice: Analyze the sentence “ They are flying planes.”
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IC Analysis
• Practice: Please analyze the following three sentences by means of IC Analysis:
• The hierarchical structure of sentences can be analyzed by means of IC Analysis.
10
• e.g.
IC Analysis
He is from France
•
He is from France
•
is from France
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•
very /Adv sweet /Adj
Labeled IC Analysis
•
3. His brother stayed at home /S
•
His brother /NP stayed at home / VP
•
His /Det brother /N stayed / V at home /PP
•
very fast
very sweet
•
3. His brother stayed at home
•
His brother stayed at home
•
His brother stayed at home
Chapter 4 语言学-Syntax
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2. The structural approach
The origin: the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, “father/founder of modern linguistics” The structural approach regards linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure or system.
9
The
relations between classes and functions: Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation.
A class item can perform several functions. A function can be fulfilled by several classes.
2
Teaching Focus
Four
representative approaches to syntax: 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
Please
show some examples.
10
1.3
Grammatical categories: a class or group of items which fulfills the same or similar functions in a language. e.g.: Number, gender, case: for nouns and pronouns. Tense, aspect, voice: for verbs
Chapter 4 Syntax
4.3.1 The linear(线性) word order of a sentence When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that structure of a sentence is linear as in the following examples:
Visiting professors can be interesting.
a. Professor who are visiting can be interesting.
b. To visit profess can be interesting. Such cases of ambiguity can be dealt with by use of tree diagrams:
Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接 成分分析法) (IC analysis for short)
Definition of IC Analysis
It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents (最终成分) are reached. The first divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents (ICs), and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents (UCs)
语言学第四章PPT课件
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21
cp
C
S
NP
VP NP
N Infl V P N
cp
S
Infl VP PN
xp
(spec)(Mod) X (Complement*)(Mod)
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6
The Expanded XP rule
6.What is deep structure and what is surface structure?
• Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure).
Chapter 4
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By: J.W.
1.What is syntax?
• Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
• Sentence: • A set of words expressing a statement, a question
• The phrase stucture rule for NP ,VP, AP, and pp.
NP
(Det) N (PP) the pretty girl
VP
(Qual) V (NP) often dream a dream
AP
(Deg) A (PP) very careful about you
• a) rich in minerals. • b) often read detective stories. • c) the argument against the proposals • d) already above the window.
语言学第四章课件
• Head: The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.
• Complement:The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
• Modifiers, which specifies optionally expressible properties of head.
• A phrase can contain specifiers, head, complements and Modifiers.
• Specifiers :The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.
transformations is called surface structure(or Sstructure).
学习交流PPT
7
7.Indicatte the category of each word in the following sentences.
a)The old lady got off the bus carefully.
Mod
Mod
学习交流PPT
17
S
NP
Infl
PP Pst
NP
NP
VP PP NP
Det Adj N P Det N V
P Det N
A wooden hut near the lake callapsed in the storm
Mod
学习交流PPT
18
10.The following sentences all contain conjined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.
• Complement:The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
• Modifiers, which specifies optionally expressible properties of head.
• A phrase can contain specifiers, head, complements and Modifiers.
• Specifiers :The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.
transformations is called surface structure(or Sstructure).
学习交流PPT
7
7.Indicatte the category of each word in the following sentences.
a)The old lady got off the bus carefully.
Mod
Mod
学习交流PPT
17
S
NP
Infl
PP Pst
NP
NP
VP PP NP
Det Adj N P Det N V
P Det N
A wooden hut near the lake callapsed in the storm
Mod
学习交流PPT
18
10.The following sentences all contain conjined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.
Chapter 4 语言学-Syntax
2
Teaching Focus
Four
representative approaches to syntax: 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
9
The
relations between classes and functions: Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation.
A class item can perform several functions. A function can be fulfilled by several classes.
8
Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis. It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that relate to the subject.
Names of functions are expressed in terms of
subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.
6
How
can we describe “subject”? What characteristics do subjects have? of subjw some examples.
语言学第四章 ppt课件
代关系 – relations of co-occurrence同
性关系
语言学第四章
• EX:
• The _______ smiles.
•
man
•
boy
•
girl
语言学第四章
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
• 替代关系 • The Relation of Substitutability
• , and Paradigmatic Relations （聚合关系） by Hjemslev(丹麦语言学家,哥本哈根学派的 创始人和主要理论家 ).To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations（垂直关系） or Choice Relations.
语言学第四章
On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and internal properties.
The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.
语言学第四章
Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.(词的单位）
性关系
语言学第四章
• EX:
• The _______ smiles.
•
man
•
boy
•
girl
语言学第四章
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
• 替代关系 • The Relation of Substitutability
• , and Paradigmatic Relations （聚合关系） by Hjemslev(丹麦语言学家,哥本哈根学派的 创始人和主要理论家 ).To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations（垂直关系） or Choice Relations.
语言学第四章
On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and internal properties.
The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.
语言学第四章
Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.(词的单位）
chapter 4 Syntax英语专业语言学PPT
Sentence types
Binary division in terms of structure:
Simple Non-simple
– Complex – Compound
Extension of sentence
Conjoining (Coordination) 并列句 Embedding (Subordination)嵌入句 Recursiveness (Layers of
Most constructions are exocentric.
Prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
IC analysis 直接成分分析法1
Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分 分析法—a descriptive approach
IC Analysis 4
The word groups in a sentence are called its constituents 成分.
Constituents as parts of a bigger word group are called its immediate constituents (ICs).直接成分
Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic Relations 2
The syntagmatic relation is the relation between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all present.
The father of American structuralism — Leonard Bloomfield.
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
Leave the book on the shelf.
❖ Indocentric construction (内心结构): An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serves as a head or a center of the whole, for example, NP, VP, AP and AdvP are typical endocentric constructions.
❖ Number: Number is inflectional category basically distinguishing reference to one individual from reference to more than one. It is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. In English there are two terms of number: singular and plural. But languages like classical Greek and Arabic have a third number: dual, something like the English “both”. And Fijian has a fourth: trial.
First, it must be an animate noun, nouns like book, desk are not possible choices.
Secondly, even within the type of animate nouns, only those which have a semantic component of human are most naturally used with the verb smile.
❖ Indocentric construction (内心结构): An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serves as a head or a center of the whole, for example, NP, VP, AP and AdvP are typical endocentric constructions.
❖ Number: Number is inflectional category basically distinguishing reference to one individual from reference to more than one. It is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. In English there are two terms of number: singular and plural. But languages like classical Greek and Arabic have a third number: dual, something like the English “both”. And Fijian has a fourth: trial.
First, it must be an animate noun, nouns like book, desk are not possible choices.
Secondly, even within the type of animate nouns, only those which have a semantic component of human are most naturally used with the verb smile.
英语语言学chapter4.ppt
Deep structure & surface structure
Consider one more sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous.
Modifiers（修饰语）
Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.（用于描述tences (the S rule)
S
NP VP
S
NP Det A N boy V found VP NP Det the N evidence
Infl realized by a tense label
InflP（=S） VP
NP
NP
N Infl boy Pst V found Det the N evidence
Det A
Infl realized by an auxiliary
InflP （ =S ） NP VP
NP
Det A N Infl boy will V find Det the N evidence
Word-level categories
Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep. Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.
The criteria on which categories are determined
Sentences (the S rule)
S NP infl VP InflP(=S) NP VP
Infl
英语语言学Syntax PPT
VP
V NP
Types of VP VP V PP V
VP
S
hit the ball speak about the book said VP VP
that he had told lies
V
run
Adv
VБайду номын сангаас
fast Look!
PP Prepositional Phrase -A phrase containing a preposition and a noun phrase. --on the table. --in the park --with the telescope It is possible to have a PP within a PP: --in the park with the telescope
PP P NP
AP Deg Adj
about
the book
very little
e.g.
S
NP
VP V-Bar
specifier head Complement
Susan rarely does
so
6.Transformational Generative Grammar TG • A description of the possible rules of human language that allow for infinite production of grammatical sentences. • tries to define a universal grammar (UG)
• Three levels of transformational rules: • The basic rule is Chomsky’s universal grammar ,the underlying principle • The second type is the obligatory rules that govern the transformations of auxiliaries and principles • The third type is the optional transformational rules that govern the transformatons of negotion ,passive voice ,interrogation
简明英语语言学教程Chapter4Syntax
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 3) Three criteria are used to determine a
word’s category.
➢ distribution: what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. n.: determiner v.: auxiliary adj.: degree word
➢ Is he really that kind? ➢ They can fish here.
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 1) Definition Category: a group of linguistic items (a sentence, a noun phrase, a verb) which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language.
Syntactic category: a word (called a word/lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrase category) that performs a particular function in a sentence.
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 2) Types
➢ Major lexical category: (heads) Noun, Verb, Adjective, Preposition
➢ Minor lexical category: Determiner, Degree words, Qualifier, Auxiliary, Conjunction
4 syntax 语言学导论课件
for example, in the sentence The girl ate the apple, S (A), the girl (B), ate the apple (C),
each part is a constituent.
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Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units.
10
1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence 同现
It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
CONSTITUENT is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:
Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
each part is a constituent.
17
Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units.
10
1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence 同现
It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
CONSTITUENT is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:
Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter-4-Syntax
Syntactic category: a word (called a word/lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrase category) that performs a particular function in a sentence.
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 2) Types
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 3) Three criteria are used to determine a
word’s category.
➢ distribution: what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. n.: determiner v.: auxiliary adj.: degree word
➢ Major lexical category: (heads) Noun, Verb, Adjective, Preposition
➢ Minor lexical category: Determiner, Degree words, Qualifier, Auxiliary, Conjunction
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories Exercise: Indicate the category of each
word in the following sentences. ➢ The old lady suddenly left.
Det A N Qual V
➢ The car stopped at the end of the road.
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 2) Types
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories 3) Three criteria are used to determine a
word’s category.
➢ distribution: what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. n.: determiner v.: auxiliary adj.: degree word
➢ Major lexical category: (heads) Noun, Verb, Adjective, Preposition
➢ Minor lexical category: Determiner, Degree words, Qualifier, Auxiliary, Conjunction
4.2 Categories 1. Word-level categories Exercise: Indicate the category of each
word in the following sentences. ➢ The old lady suddenly left.
Det A N Qual V
➢ The car stopped at the end of the road.
《语言学教程》--chapter-4-Syntax
– SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.
– English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
Constructions
Endocentric
Exocentric
Coordination
Subordination
Endocentric Constructions
Endocentric Constructions
• Definition:
• Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.
Representative: Saussure •Syntactic relations •Immediate constituent analysis •Endocentric and exocentric constructions
Generative Representative: Chomsky
but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.
– English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
Constructions
Endocentric
Exocentric
Coordination
Subordination
Endocentric Constructions
Endocentric Constructions
• Definition:
• Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.
Representative: Saussure •Syntactic relations •Immediate constituent analysis •Endocentric and exocentric constructions
Generative Representative: Chomsky
but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.
chapter 4_Syntax
Phrase-level: NP: a real friend VP: make up PP: at home AP: very beautiful Phrases usually contain three elements:
2.4 Categories at different levels
Word-level: N, V, adj, prep Determiner (Det): the, a , that, these Degree word(Deg): very, quite Qualifier(Qual): often, always, seldom. Almost Auxiliary(Aux): must, should, can Conjunction: and, but, or
1 The traditional approach A sentence is a sequence of words emphasis is on the study of individual words. 1.1 Number/gender/case(Ns, Vs) Number: sing. or pl Gender: actor/actress Case: Nominative (I, he, she) genitive(my, his, her) accusative (me, him, her) I gave a book to him.
Immediate Constituent Structure using Tree Diagram
S NP ADJ N V NP PRON N VP
Poor
John
lost
his
w- the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly. -help to avoid ambiguity e.g more expensive clothes
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
❖ IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets: ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)). It may also be more easily shown with a tree diagram: Poor John ran away.
❖ Concord: also known as agreement, may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
1. The traditional approach
The classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. 1) Number, gender and case 2) Tense and aspect 3) Concord and government
Chapter 4
Syntax
Syntax
Syntax: The study of the rules governing the
ways words and phrases are combined to form sentences. 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter-4-Syntax
Number
singular plural
Noun
man men
Pronoun
He They
Verb (agreement)
works work
性 (Gender)
❖ Many inflectional languages have three meaning-related gender distinction: masculine, feminine and neuter.
❖ 许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、 阴性、中性。
❖ In English gender contrast can be only observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns which shows the biological gender.
❖ The categories of the noun, include number, gender, case and countability;
❖ 名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性；
❖ The categories of the verb, for example, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc.
❖ 英语中有被动语态，用“分词”表示。主动 态句子中的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或 用“by短语”
❖ Active voice Jim caught the ball.
❖ Passive voice TБайду номын сангаасe ball was caught.
❖ Passive voice with “by-phrase”
❖ SYNTAX is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language , or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
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Within noun phrases, articles, and adjectives adopting the form required to reflect the gender and number of the noun that they accompany.
Concord: agreement of nominals and verbs
Endocentric construction向心结构 Subordinate （从属结构） Coordinate （并列结构）
Exocentric construction (外向结构、离心结构）
Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic Relations
In Saussure’s view, language is a system of signs (i.e. words), and the value of each individual sign must be explained from its relations to others, or its position in the system. The two principle types of relations which Saussure identified are syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.
The paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.
➢ There are different approaches to syntax in the linguistic field:
1. The traditional approach, 2. the structural approach 3. the generative grammar are
Government 管辖 （add)
Specific property of verbs, adjectives, prepositions, or nouns that determines the form (especially case) of dependent elements.
Pronouns in English
discussed here
The traditional approach
The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of the parts of speech and grammatical functions of words, and other categories such as number, gender, case, tense, aspect, voice, concord and government.
IC Analysis 4
The word groups in a sentence are called its constituents 成分.
Constituents as parts of a bigger word group are called its immediate constituents (ICs).直接成分
– Male – Female – Dual
Case 格
Nominative 主格 – Subject
Accusative 宾格 – Direct object
Dative 与格 – Indirect object
Agreement 一致 （add)
Correspondence between two or more sentence elements in respect to their grammatical categories
Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent, are subordinate constructions, for example, pretty girls.
The final cuts are known as the ultimate constituents (UCs) 最终成分.
IC Analysis 2 p.75
A sentence is viewed as made up by twopart constructions on a series of levels or layers.
The big word groups contain some smaller ones and the smaller ones may in turn contain some still smaller ones.
Most constructions are exocentric.
Prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
IC analysis 直接成分分析法1
Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分 分析法—a descriptive approach
Chapter Four Syntax 70
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language.
Simply speaking, it is the study of the formation of sentences.
The Structural Approach
Syntagmatic (Horizontal, Chain) relation (Structure) (组合关系)
Paradigmatic (Vertical, Choice) relation (System)
(聚合关系)
Hierarchical structure （Relations of inclusion and domination 分级结构）
➢.
The structural approach
All the linguistic theories after Saussure are structural in that they all regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.
Coordinate constructions are those in which there are more than one head, e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.
subordination)递归句 （cf. p.82)
The structural approach
➢ Started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, at the beginning of the 20th century.
Sentence types
Binary division in terms of structure:
Simple Non-simple
– Complex – Compound
Extension of sentence
Conjoining (Coordination) 并列句 Embedding (Subordination)嵌入句 Recursiveness (Layers of
Endocentric constructions may be further divided into two subtypes:
subordinate constructions（从属结构）. Coordinate constructions （并列结构）.
Endocentric constructions
IC Analysis 3
Immediate Constituents Analysis is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings 二分法until the level of single words is reached.
Number (add)
Singular Plural Dual
– Singular concord:either, neither – Plural concord: both
Gender (add)
Masculine Feminine Neuter ‘Covert’ gender in English
The word that can stand for the whole group is the head, and the other words are its optional modifiers.
Concord: agreement of nominals and verbs
Endocentric construction向心结构 Subordinate （从属结构） Coordinate （并列结构）
Exocentric construction (外向结构、离心结构）
Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic Relations
In Saussure’s view, language is a system of signs (i.e. words), and the value of each individual sign must be explained from its relations to others, or its position in the system. The two principle types of relations which Saussure identified are syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.
The paradigmatic relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.
➢ There are different approaches to syntax in the linguistic field:
1. The traditional approach, 2. the structural approach 3. the generative grammar are
Government 管辖 （add)
Specific property of verbs, adjectives, prepositions, or nouns that determines the form (especially case) of dependent elements.
Pronouns in English
discussed here
The traditional approach
The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of the parts of speech and grammatical functions of words, and other categories such as number, gender, case, tense, aspect, voice, concord and government.
IC Analysis 4
The word groups in a sentence are called its constituents 成分.
Constituents as parts of a bigger word group are called its immediate constituents (ICs).直接成分
– Male – Female – Dual
Case 格
Nominative 主格 – Subject
Accusative 宾格 – Direct object
Dative 与格 – Indirect object
Agreement 一致 （add)
Correspondence between two or more sentence elements in respect to their grammatical categories
Those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent, are subordinate constructions, for example, pretty girls.
The final cuts are known as the ultimate constituents (UCs) 最终成分.
IC Analysis 2 p.75
A sentence is viewed as made up by twopart constructions on a series of levels or layers.
The big word groups contain some smaller ones and the smaller ones may in turn contain some still smaller ones.
Most constructions are exocentric.
Prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses.
IC analysis 直接成分分析法1
Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分 分析法—a descriptive approach
Chapter Four Syntax 70
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language.
Simply speaking, it is the study of the formation of sentences.
The Structural Approach
Syntagmatic (Horizontal, Chain) relation (Structure) (组合关系)
Paradigmatic (Vertical, Choice) relation (System)
(聚合关系)
Hierarchical structure （Relations of inclusion and domination 分级结构）
➢.
The structural approach
All the linguistic theories after Saussure are structural in that they all regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.
Coordinate constructions are those in which there are more than one head, e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.
subordination)递归句 （cf. p.82)
The structural approach
➢ Started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, at the beginning of the 20th century.
Sentence types
Binary division in terms of structure:
Simple Non-simple
– Complex – Compound
Extension of sentence
Conjoining (Coordination) 并列句 Embedding (Subordination)嵌入句 Recursiveness (Layers of
Endocentric constructions may be further divided into two subtypes:
subordinate constructions（从属结构）. Coordinate constructions （并列结构）.
Endocentric constructions
IC Analysis 3
Immediate Constituents Analysis is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings 二分法until the level of single words is reached.
Number (add)
Singular Plural Dual
– Singular concord:either, neither – Plural concord: both
Gender (add)
Masculine Feminine Neuter ‘Covert’ gender in English
The word that can stand for the whole group is the head, and the other words are its optional modifiers.