新编语言学教程共97页文档
刘润清《新编语言学教程》Syntax教学PPT课件
tence
Subject
Predicate
a referring expression
comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject
Introduction
Lexical item 语项 --labels attached to “words”. “Lexical item”
ultimate constituents poor, John, ran, away
Advantages of IC analysis
1. It helps to account for the ambiguity of certain constructions.
e.g. The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.
is a term associated with dictionaries or lexicons. It takes an abstract view of words. --a word has more or less consistent meaning, but can differ because of grammatical function. e.g. do/did/done/doing/does are particular
新编语言学教程课件
不同语言之间的接触会导 致语言借用、语言替代等 现象，如汉语中的外来词 。
STEP 03
语言消亡与保护
一些弱势语言可能会逐渐 消亡，因此语言的保护和 传承变得尤为重要。
不同语言的混合使用可能 导致新的语言或方言的形 成，如普通话的形成。
Part
04
语言与社会文化
语言与文化的关系
语言是文化的重要组成部分， 是文化传承和发展的载体。
语法的演变
语法的发展变化与语言的发展变 化密切相关，随着社会的变化和 语言的演变，语法也在不断地演 变。
语义
语义的分类
语义可以分为词汇意义、语法意义和语境意义等，词汇意义是词汇的基本意义，语法意 义是句子结构所表Байду номын сангаас的意义，语境意义则是特定语境中产生的附加意义。
语义的演变
语义的发展变化与语言的发展变化密切相关，随着社会的变化和语言的演变，语义也在 不断地演变。
机器翻译
探讨机器翻译的原理、算法和应用，以及如何提高翻 译的准确性和效率。
人机交互
分析人机交互中语言的作用，如语音助手、智能客服 等，以及如何设计更自然的人机对话界面。
THANKS
感谢您的观看
Part
05
语言学应用
语言教学
语言教学方法
探讨不同语言教学方法的优缺点，如语法翻译法 、直接法、听说法等。
语言教材编写
介绍如何根据教学目标和学生的需求，编写有针 对性的语言教材。
语言技能培养
讨论如何培养学生的听、说、读、写、译等语言 技能，以及如何评估学生的学习成果。
语言规划与政策
语言政策制定
词汇的意义
词汇的意义包括概念意义和语境意义，概念意义是 词汇的基本意义，而语境意义则是在特定语境中产 生的附加意义。
Language Change新编语言学教程
As a branch of linguistics, historical linguistics is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.
Lexical and semantic change
Addition of new words Loss of words Semantic changes
1)semantic broadening 2)semantic narrowing 3)semantic shift
Addition of new words
Loss of words
Words can be lost from a language as time goes by. The
following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language. Beseem to be suitable Wot to know Gyve a fetter Wherefore why
Metathesis
Epenthesis Great Vowel Shift
Morphological and syntactic change
Addition of affixes Loss of affixes Change of word order Change in negation rule
Space travel Computer and internet language Ecology
(NEW)刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
语言来源于人本能表达情感的声音。 4. Yo-He-Ho Theory (呦嘿吼理论) Language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work. 语言来源于共同劳动时发出的呦嘿声。 5. Ta-Ta Theory (哒哒说) Language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongue movements. 语言来源于移动舌头发出的声音与某个手势的结合。 6. Bow-Wow Theory (汪汪理论) Language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature. 语言起源于人们模仿动物的叫声和其他自然界中的声音。
本章内容索引： I. Definition of linguistics II. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar III. Scope of linguistics 1. Microlinguistics 2. Macrolinguistics IV. Definition of language V. Origins of language
VI. Design features of language (语言的定义特征) 【重点、考点：论述语言的识别特征】 1. Arbitrariness (任意性) This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /dɔg/ to refer to the animal dog,
《新编简明英语语言学教程》PPT课件
Chomsky’s definition (1957)
“From now on I will consider language to be a
set of (finite or infinite) sentenБайду номын сангаасes, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”
• • • • •
Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission
Arbitrariness
----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
Language is arbitrary
Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.
(完整word版)新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONDefinition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.LinguisticsLinguistics versus traditional grammar:Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics StylisticsDiscourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguisticsDefinition:Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered. Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker ’s emotions.Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements.Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.DesignfeaturesFunctionsLinguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammaremphasizes the priority of written language.Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its own merits. language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. Language is arbitrary --- there is no intrinsic connection between the word (e.g. pen) and the thing(e.g.what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for human communication ---it is human-specific, very different form systems of animal communication. Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d ɔg/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou ” to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a “pig ”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack ” and “bang ” are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words in language. Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Productivity : productivity or creativity refers to man ’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before. Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease. Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time. Specialization : specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’t acquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn ’t speak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English kid brought up in a Chinese community will speak Chinese.Phatic function/communion Directive function Informative functionInterrogative function Expressive function Evocative function Performative functionSome major concepts in linguisticsDescriptive and prescriptive grammarDescriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on he difference in two or more than two tates of language over decades or centuries.Langue and paroleF.de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is , the actual use of this knowledge.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.课后练习If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language? Why or why not? No,we can’t call the noises that dogs make as language even though language is partially defined as communication. There are two reasons for that: first, language is human-specific,it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. Second, language has design features which are totally lack in animal communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Noises made by dogs represent certain meaning but can not be further analyzed into smaller units.What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to language?Descriptive approach to language attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive approach to language tells people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described. Certain forms are sued more regularly than others and by different people. Though some forms occur less frequently they should not be ignored. They can all be recorded and explained as aspects of the languages since hey are actually used.A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man’s ? If not, why not?No, we can not say a wolf has a language similar to that of men even though there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express with his positions of body parts. There are two reasons for that:First, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is human-specific. Second, language has design features which are lack in animals’communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. But in wolf’s communication system, one position stands for one certain meaning, and can not be further analyzed into smaller units. And no the other hand, human linguistic units can be grouped and regrouped, arranged and rearranged according to certain rules but those positions owned by wolf have no such features. Therefore, wolf’s this system is not so productive as human languages.Chapter 2 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE INTRODUCTIONPhonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phoneme:Minimal pairsandminimal sets\Free variationDistinctive featuressyllablesConsonant clusterSuprasegmentalsWith some phonetic knowledge we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds. And with somephonological knowledge we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages. Moreimportantly, phonetics and phonology have made the greatest contribution to “teaching”machines to “talk”.Phoneme is the phonological units of language, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which anddistinguish meaning.For example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of thesecond word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes.Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.For example, chunk andjunk ,ban and bin, be and bat, fan and van, fine and vine, sink and zinc, site and side are minimal pairs in English.When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in thesame position), then we have a minimal set. For example, a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of Englishwould include feat, fit ,fate fat fought and foot, and one based on consonants could have big, pig, rig, fig, dig and wig.when two or more sounds occur in the same positon without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be infree variation.For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i:δər/ and /’aıδər/.When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature).For example, seal and zeal distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so /s/ and /z/ is a voicingdifference.The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer thanone sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables.Syllable structure syllableonset Rime(rhyme)Nucleus(peak) codaConsonant(s) vowel consonant(s)In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in/’splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.Initial cluster: /spl/ in /’splӕʃ/ splash Final cluster: /st/ in /test/ test Medial cluster: /str/ in /’peıstrı/ pastryA word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:The first consonant must be /s/The second phoneme must be /p /or /t/ or /k/The third consonant must be /l / or /r / or /w / or /j /Sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes),and such contrasts are called suprasegmentals.Suprasegmental featuresStress IntonationWhen a word has more than one syllable, one ofthem will be pronounced with more prominencethan others. This brings us to another speechsound phenomenon, that of stress.When sounds which are identical as to their place ormanner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness.When speaking, people generally raise and lower thepitch of their voice. This phenomenon is calledintonation.Definition: The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.Articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or “articulated ”. Three research fields Acoustic phonetics, which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics, which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.ArticulatorsandfunctionsVoicedandvoiceless soundsNasalandoral soundsVariations of soundsV owelsClassification of English Speech Sounds Consonants Pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx. Velum or soft palate i s seen in the position that allows air to pass through the nose and the mouth. Hard palate is often called the “roof of the mouth ”, you can feel its smooth curved surface with your tongue. Alveolar ridge or alveolum is between the top front teeth and hard palate. Tongue can be moved into many different places and different shapes. Larynx is also an articulator. Notices Jaws are sometimes called articulators,but the jaws are not articulators in the same way as others. The nose and the nasal cavity not articulators as others. Teeth Lips When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds. The sounds represented by /p/,/t/,/k/,and /s/ in the English words seep/si:p/,seat/si:t/,and seek/si:k/ are voiceless sounds. When the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds. The sounds represented by /b/, /d/, /g/ and /z/ in the English words cob/k ɒb/,cod/k ɒd/,cog/k ɒg/,and daze/de ız / are voiced sounds. When the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this way are called nasal sounds. There are three nasal consonants /m/, /n/,and /ŋ/ in English. When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off. When the nasal passage is blocked in this way, the air can escape only through the mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds. /p/ and /b/ are oral sounds. Definition: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so o turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. Front vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/ The height of the tongue Central vowels: /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/ Back vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/ The shape of the lip Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/Unrounded vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/ /ɑ:/Open vowels: /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/ The width of the mouth Close vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /u:/ /u/ Semi-open vowels: /ɔ://e/ /ɛ/ /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. Bilabials / p, b, m, w/ Labiodentals / f, v/Dentals /ө, δ /in terns of place of articulation Alveolars / t, d, n, s, z, r, l / Palatals / ʤ, ʧ / Velars /k, g, ŋ /glottal /h /Stops / p, b, t, d, k, g / Fricatives /f, v, ө, δ, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h / Affricates / ʤ, ʧ /In terms of manners of articulation Liquids /l, r /Nasals /m, n, ŋ /Glides /j, w /Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg ” is often pronounced /ə’neg/.Elision : the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word “suppose ” is often pronounced as /sp əʊz/, “factory ” as /’f ӕktr ı/.Assimilation : the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as “im-” before words such as “possible ”---”impossible ”.CAPTER 2 课后练习2.What is the test most often used for determining phonemes in a language?Minimal pair test or substitution test is the first rule of thumb to determine the phonemes of any language, that is , to see whether substituting one sound for another result in a different word. If it does , the two sound represent different phonemes. For example, we see from the contrast between fine and vine and between chunk and junk that /f /, /v /,/ʧ /and /ʤ/ must be phonemes in English because substituting /v/ for /f /,or /ʤ/ for /ʧ / produce a different word.3. What’s the difference between an open and a closed syllable?The units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllables can be divided into two sorts: the open syllables and the closed syllables. Syllables like me, by or no that have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda are called open syllables; while the coda is present in the syllables like up, cup or hat, which is called closed syllables.4.For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they share/p/ /b/ /m/ feature: bilabial,stop,consonant/g/ /p/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /b/ feature: stop, consonant/ʊ/ /u:/ /ɒ/ feature: back, rounded, vowel the single feature that distinguishes the following pairs of sounds./ δ / : /ө,/ voi cing ( voiceless vs. voiced )/p /: /f / place of articulation ( bilabial vs. labio-dental ) /ı /: /e / the height of the tone rising. ( high vs. mid )/b /: /m / manner of articulation. (stop vs. nasal) /s /: /ʃ / place of articulation (alveolar vs. palatal) /s /: /δ / place of articulation (alveolar vs. dental)6.The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial and final positions. Initial Medial finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar seets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:Initial Medial final/k/-/g/ Kook/gook raking/raging lak/leg/m/-/n/ Moon/noon dime/dine beam/bean/b/-/v/ Berry/very dribble/drivel dub/dove/b/-/m/ Be/me ribbed/rimmed rib/rim/p/-/f/ Pat/fat depend/defend rap/raff7.The english data below provide examples of stress placement on certain verbs.A ap’pear col’lide e’rase ca’rouse cor’rode Ba’daptcol’lapsee’lectob’servetor’mentCas’tonishcon’sideri’maginede’termine‘promise1)Describe in words the stress placement on these verbs. Make sure you refer to syllable structure in your statement.2)Provide syllable representations of the words col’lide, e’lect, and con’sider in order to illustrate your conclusion about stress placement in these forms.1)Stress in languages may be predictable by rules: lexical category, morphological structure and number of syllables all seem to berelevant factors for the placement of stress in English words.For two-syllable verbs, the final(ultimate) syllable will receive main stress if tie has a long vowel or ends in at least two consonants. In this case, the first(penultimate) syllable may have secondary stress, contain an unstressed full vowel, or contain a reduced vowel. For example, a’dapt, e’lect.If the ultimate syllable does not have a long vowel or end in two or more consonants, the penultimate syllable is stressed, as in’promise. Otherwise, the main stress will be put on the second syllable. For example, ca’rouse, ob’serve, astonish, de’termine.If there is a double-letter in the word, the main stress should be put between them, or in other words, on the second one of the two. Such as ap’pear, cor’rode, col’lide, col’lase2)They are two-syllable words; therefore the final (ultimate ) syllable will receive main stress,, as col’lide, e’lect and con’side.。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》Pragmatics教学课件
Examples of Austin’s Performatives (2)
1. Verdictives: Delivering a verdict • acquit, convict, find, hold, interpret as, understand, read it as, rule, 2. Executives: Giving a decision in favor or against a certain course of action from a position of power. • appoint, name, order, command, fine, grant, nominate, bequeath, pardon, resign, warn, plead, pray, declare open 3. Commissives: Committing the speaker to a course of action; implies obligation • promise, undertake, give my word 4. Behabitives: Adopting an attitude in reaction to the behavior of others apologize, thank, sympathy, attitudes, greetings, wishes, challenges 5. Expositives: Expounding one's views, clarifying • affirm, deny, state, describe, class, identify, remark, mention,
Some basic notions in Pragmatics
1-4单元《新编语言学教程》课后答案
Chapter 1Introduction1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics语言学: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal 任意的声音symbols used for human communication.用于人类交流的任意声音符号系统(3) arbitrariness任意性: the absence of similarity betweenthe form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality,语言符号的形式与现实的关系缺乏相似性e.g. the worddog does not look like a dog.(4) duality双重性: the way meaningless elements of languageat one level (sounds and letters) combine to formmeaningful units (words) at another level.在一个层面上（语言和字母）的无意义的语言元素结合在另一个层次上形成有意义的单位（词）(5) competence语言能力: knowledge of the grammar of alanguage as a formal abstraction and distinct from thebehavior of actual language use作为一种形式抽象的语言的语法知识，区别于实际语言使用的行为, i.e.performance.(6) performance语言运用: Chomsky’s term for actuallanguage behavior as distinct from the knowledge thatunderlies it, or competence.乔姆斯基对实际语言行为的术语不同于它的知识，或能力。
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版(word文档良心出品)
新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。
语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》Syntax教学课件
Types of NP NP N NP Pron. NP Det N NP Det Adj N
--Morphological criteria Some words have a similar pattern of inflection as others: word words computer computers people peoples Words that have a similar morphological behavior are grouped. There will be exceptions, but this does not invalidate the general method.
of words to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
句法学简介
In generative linguistics, syntax, phonology and semantics are the major constituents of grammar. Syntax consists of various generative syntactical rules: s-rule，phrase rule and transformational rule. Syntactical construction is composed of syntactic classes and syntactic categories. Syntactical analysis is based on lexical items and syntactic relationships.
The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son
语言学教程文档
语言学教程文档目录1. 语言学概述 (2)1.1 语言学定义与研究对象 (2)1.2 语言学分支及分类 (4)1.3 语言学在社会科学中的地位 (5)2. 语言学的理论基础 (6)2.1 语音学理论 (8)2.2 语法学理论 (9)2.3 语义学理论 (10)2.4 语用学理论 (12)3. 语言的结构与功能 (13)3.1 语言的结构分析 (15)3.1.1 音系与音节结构 (16)3.1.2 语法结构与句型分析 (17)3.1.3 语义场与语义关系 (18)3.2 语言的功能与运用 (20)3.2.1 语言的交际功能 (22)3.2.2 语言的表达功能 (23)3.2.3 语言的指示功能 (24)4. 语言的发展与社会变迁 (26)4.1 语言发展的规律与特点 (27)4.2 语言与社会的相互关系 (28)4.3 语言的地域差异与方言现象 (30)4.4 语言的接触与融合现象 (31)5. 语言学的应用与实践 (33)5.1 语言与文学的关系 (34)5.2 语言与翻译的实践 (35)5.3 语言与人工智能的发展 (37)5.4 语言学在其他领域的应用 (39)6. 语言学的研究方法与路径 (40)6.1 语言学的研究方法概述 (42)6.2 田野调查与实证研究 (43)6.3 文献资料的搜集与分析 (45)6.4 实验方法与语言学研究实践 (46)7. 结论与展望 (47)7.1 对语言学研究的总结与反思 (48)7.2 未来语言学发展的趋势与展望 (49)1. 语言学概述语言学作为一门研究人类语言的科学，具有悠久的历史和丰富的研究领域。
它主要探讨语言的本质、结构、功能以及语言与社会、文化、心理等方面的关系。
语言学可以分为几个子领域，包括语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等。
语音学关注声音的产生、传播和感知，研究语音的物理属性和生理机制。
音系学则研究音素和音系的分布规律，揭示语音在各种语言中的变化和差异。
(完整word版)新编语言学教程刘润清版1,2章复习大纲.docx
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTIONDefinition : linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is always guided by the three cannons of science:exhaustiveness, consistency and economy.LinguisticsLinguistics versustraditional grammar:Linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness whiletraditional grammar emphasizes correctness.Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of written language.Traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages. Linguistics describes each language on its own merits.Scope Microlinguistics Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Macrolinguistics Sociolinguistics Psycholinguistics Neurolinguistics StylisticsDiscourse analysis Computational linguistics Cognitive linguisticslanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system---elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and Definition:principles. Language is arbitrary--- there is no intrinsic connection between the word (e.g. pen) and the thing(e.g.what we write with).Language is vocal---the primary medium for all languages is sound. Language is used for humancommunication ---it is human-specific, very different form systems of animal communication.Ding-Dong Theory: human speech developed from primitive man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered.Sing-Song Theory: language developed from primitive ritual songs of praise.Pooh-Pooh Theory: language came from interjections, which express he speaker’s emotions.Origins Yo-He-Ho Theory: language came from the cries uttered, during strain of work.Ta-Ta Theory : language came from the combination of certain gestures and tongues movements.Bow-Wow Theory: language came from imitation of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.Arbitrarines s: this refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, English should use the sounds/d ?g/ to refer to the animal dog, but Chinese should use “gou”to refer to te same animal. A dog may be called a pig if the first man happens to name it as a“pig”. So, the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack”and“bang”are exceptions, but words these are relatively few compared withe the total number of words inlanguage.Design Duality: language operates on two levels of structure. At one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but features which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning.Productivity: productivity or creativity refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.Interchangeability : interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.Displacement: displacement is a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.Specialization: specialization refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication.Cultural transmission : language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity. A human being brought up in isolations simply doesn ’tacquire language, as is demonstrated by the studies of children brought up by animals without human contact. Animals transmit their cries simply from parent to child, while human baby doesn’tspeak any language at birth. What language a baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and broughtup in London by an English family will speak English, while an English kid brought up in a Chinese community will speakChinese.Functions Phatic function/communion Directive function Informative functionInterrogative function Expressive function Evocative function Performative functionSome major concepts in linguisticsDescriptive and prescriptive grammarDescriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language; while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language.As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Most modern linguistics is descriptive.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsWhen we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on he difference in two or more than two tates of language over decades or centuries.Langue and paroleF.de Saussure made an important distinction between langue and parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is , the actual use of this knowledge.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSaussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. The former refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements, which form linear sequences. The later means the vertical relationship between forms, which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.Functionalism and formalismFunctionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.课后练习If language is partially defined as communication, can we call the noises that dogs make language? Why or why not?No,we can ’tcall the noises that dogs make as language even though language is partially defined as communication. There are two reasons for that: first, language is human-specific,it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used only for human communication. Second, language has design features which are totally lack in animal communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures:at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. Noises made by dogs represent certain meaning but can not be further analyzed into smaller units.What is the difference between a prescriptive and a descriptive approach to language?Descriptive approach to language attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive approach to language tells people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described. Certain forms are sued more regularly than others and by different people. Though some forms occur less frequently they should not be ignored. They can allbe recorded and explained as aspects of the languages since hey are actually used.A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleven postures of the tail that express such emotions as self-confidence, confident threat, lack of tension, uncertain threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a language similar to man ’s ? If not, why not?No, we can not say a wolf has a language similar to that of men even though there were a thousand different emotions that the wolf could express with his positions of body parts. There are two reasons for that:First, language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is human-specific. Second, language has design features which are lack in animals’communication systems. For example, language has two levels of structures: at one level are elements which have no meaning in themselves but which combine to form units at another level which do have meaning. But in wolf’s communication system, one position stands for one certain meaning, and can not be further analyzed into smaller units. And no the other hand, human linguistic units can be grouped and regrouped, arranged and rearranged according to certain rules but those positions ownedby wolf have no such features. Therefore, wolf ’s this system is not so productive as human languages.Chapter 2 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGEWith some phonetic knowledge we can give a much more precise description to speech sounds. And with some INTRODUCTIONphonological knowledge we can become more aware of the functions of sounds in different languages. Moreimportantly, phonetics and phonology have made the greatest contribution to “teaching”machines to “talk ”.Phonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Phoneme is the phonological units of language, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which anddistinguish meaning.Phoneme:Minimal pairsandminimal sets \Free variation For example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of the second word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes. Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound. For example, chunk andjunk ,ban and bin, be and bat, fan and van, fine and vine, sink and zinc, site and side are minimal pairs in English.When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set. For example, a minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English would include feat, fit ,fate fat fought and foot, and one based on consonants could have big, pig, rig, fig, dig and wig.when two or more sounds occur in the same positon without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i: δ?r/ and /’a?δ?r/.When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature). For example, seal and zeal distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so /s/ and /z/ is a voicingdifference.The English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful. These units, which are often longer thanone sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables.Syllable structure syllablesyllablesonset Rime(rhyme)Nucleus(peak)codaConsonant(s)vowel consonant(s)Consonant cluster In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /’splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.Initial cluster: /spl/ in / ’spl?? / splash Final cluster: /st/ in /test/ test Medial cluster: /str/ in / ’pe?str?/ pastryA word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules:The first consonant must be /s/The second phoneme must be /p /or /t/ or /k/The third consonant must be /l / or /r / or /w / or /j /Sound contrasts that extend over several segments (phonemes),and such contrasts are called suprasegmentals.Suprasegmental featuresStressSuprasegmentalsWhen a word has more than one syllable, one ofthem will be pronounced with more prominencethan others. This brings us to another speechsound phenomenon, that of stress.Distinctive featuresIntonationWhen sounds which are identical as to their place or manner features may differ in length, pitch or loudness. When speaking, people generally raise and lower the pitch of their voice. This phenomenon is called intonation.Definition: The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics.Articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are produced, or“articulated”. Three research fields Acoustic phonetics, which deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air.Auditory phonetics, which deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.Articulatorsand functionsVoiced and Pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx.Velum or soft palate i s seen in the position that allows air to pass through the nose and the mouth.Hard palate is often called the“roof of the mouth”, you can feel its smooth curved surface with your tongue. Alveolar ridge or alveolum is between the top front teeth and hard palate.Tongue can be moved into many different places and different shapes.TeethLarynx is also an articulator.LipsNotices Jaws are sometimes called articulators,but the jaws are not articulators in the same way as others.The nose and the nasal cavity not articulators as others.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds. The sounds represented by /p/,/t/,/k/,and /s/ in the English words seep/si:p/,seat/si:t/,and seek/si:k/ are voiceless sounds.voiceless soundsNasalandoral soundsVariationsofsoundsWhen the vocal cords are drawn together, the airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate.Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced sounds. The sounds represented by /b/, /d/, /g/ and /z/ in the English words cob/k ? b/,cod/k ? d/,cog/k ? g/,and daze/de ?z/ are voiced sounds.When the velum is lowered, air escapes through the nose as well as the mouth; sounds produced this wayare called nasal sounds. There are three nasal consonants /m/, /n/,and ?// in English.When the velum is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off.When the nasal passage is blocked in this way, the air can escape only through the mouth. Sounds produced this way are called oral sounds. /p/ and /b/ are oral sounds.Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins witha vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg”is often pronounced /?’neg/.Elision :the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word“suppose”is often pronounced as/sp?? z/, “factory ”as / ’f? ktr?/.Assimilation : the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as“im-”before words such as“possible”---”impossible”.Classification ofEnglish Speech SoundsDefinition: vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so o turbulence or a total stopping Vowels of the air can be perceived.Front vowels: /i:/ / ?/ /e/ / ?/ /? / /ɑ/The height of the tongue Central vowels: / з:/ /?/ /?/Back vowels: /u:/ /u/ / ?:/ / ?/ / ɑ:/The shape of the lip Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ / ?:/ / ?/Unrounded vowels: /i:/ / ?/ /e/ / ?/ /? / /ɑ/ /з:/ /?/ /?/ / ɑ:/Open vowels: /? / /ɑ/ / ?/ / ɑ:/The width of the mouth Close vowels:/i:/ / ?/ /u:/ /u/Semi-open vowels: /?:/ /e/ / ?/ /з:/ /?/ /?/Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.Bilabials / p, b, m, w/Labiodentals / f, v/Consonants Dentals / ?, δ/in terns of place of articulation Alveolars / t, d, n, s, z, r, l /Palatals / ? , ? /Velars /k, g, ? /glottal /h /Stops / p, b, t, d, k, g /Fricatives /f, v, ?, δ, s, z, ?, ?, h /Affricates / ? , ? /In terms of manners of articulation Liquids /l, r /Nasals /m, n, ? /Glides /j, w /CAPTER 2课后练习2. What is the test most often used for determining phonemes in a language?Minimal pair test or substitution test is the first rule of thumb to determine the phonemes of any language, that is , to see whether substituting one sound for another result in a different word. If it does , the two sound represent different phonemes. For example, we see from the contrast between fine and vine and between chunk and junk that /f /, /v /,/ ? /and / ? / must be phonemes in English because substituting /v/ for /f /,or / ? / for / ? / produce a different word.3. What ’s the difference between an open and a closed syllable?The units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. Syllables can be divided into two sorts: the open syllables and the closed syllables. Syllables like me, by or no that have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda are called open syllables; while the coda is present in the syllables like up, cup or hat, which is called closed syllables.4. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features which they share/p/ /b/ /m/feature: bilabial,stop,consonant/g/ /p/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /b/feature: stop, consonant/?/ /u:/ / ?/feature: back, rounded, vowel5. Name the single feature that distinguishes the following pairs of sounds./δ / : /?,/ voicing ( voiceless vs. voiced )/p /: /f /place of articulation ( bilabial vs. labio-dental ) /? /: /e /the height of the tone rising. ( high vs. mid )/b /: /m /manner of articulation. (stop vs. nasal) /s /: /? /place of articulation (alveolar vs.palatal)/s /: /δplace/ of articulation (alveolar vs. dental)6. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial and final positions.Initial Medial finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar seets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:Initial Medial final/k/-/g/Kook/gook raking/raging lak/leg/m/-/n/Moon/noon dime/dine beam/bean/b/-/v/Berry/very dribble/drivel dub/dove/b/-/m/Be/me ribbed/rimmed rib/rim/p/-/f/Pat/fat depend/defend rap/raff7. The english data below provide examples of stress placement on certain verbs.A B Cap’pear a’dapt as’tonishcol’lide col ’lapse con’sidere’rase e’lect i’magineca’rouse ob’serve de’terminecor ’rode tor ’ment‘promise1)Describe in words the stress placement on these verbs. Make sure you refer to syllable structure in your statement.2)Provide syllable representations of the words col ’lide, e’lect, and con’sider in order to illustrate your conclusion about stress placement in these forms.1)Stress in languages may be predictable by rules: lexical category, morphological structure and number of syllables all seem to berelevant factors for the placement of stress in English words.For two-syllable verbs, the final(ultimate) syllable will receive main stress if tie has a long vowel or ends in at least two consonants. In this case, the first(penultimate) syllable may have secondary stress, contain an unstressed full vowel, or contain a reduced vowel. For example, a’dapt, e’lect.If the ultimate syllable does not have a long vowel or end in two or more consonants, the penultimate syllable is stressed, as in ’promise. Otherwise, the main stress will be put on the second syllable. For example, ca ’rouse, ob’serve, astonish, de’termine.If there is a double-letter in the word, the main stress should be put between them, or in other words, on the second one of the two. Such as ap’pear, cor’rode, col ’lide, col ’lase2)They are two-syllable words; therefore the final (ultimate ) syllable will receive main stress,, as col’lide, e’lect and con’side.。
语言学教程电子书
武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组English LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (2)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (11)Chapter 3 Lexicon (24)Chapter 4 Syntax .........................................................................35 Chapter 5 Meaning ....................................................................50 Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind ..................................60 Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society .................................63 Chapter 8 Language in Use .. (68)武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions inlinguisticsTeaching procedures Language 1.1 Why study language? A tool for communication A tool for access to other fields An integral part of our life and humanity If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. 1.2 What is language?1.2.1 different senses of languagewhat a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system1.2.2 definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to agoal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot bearranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideasby convention.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users. Human ----language is human-specific. Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity. “Language Acquisition Device”(LAD) bird songs and bee dances(×) 1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征 Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. a. Arbitrariness ----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(Saussure) The link between them is a matter of convention. E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese) Mansion (French) 房子(Chinese) E.g 2. eat (in English) manger (in French) 吃 (in Chinese) conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structurallinguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language isiconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such asonomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connectionbetween the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, thesets of signals used in communication is finite.b. Duality ----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, thelevel of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningful武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped andregrouped into words.each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.e.g. /k/ /a: / and /p/ --carp & parkwoof (but not “w-oo-f ” )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, sincewith a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of soundcombinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economy c. Creativity ----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) a. We can create new words; b. We can create endless new sentences with limited number of words Duality and recursiveness lead to creativity. e.g. “A three-eyed white monkey is sleeping soundly on the bed of the King ofFrance.”He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a schoolwhich was known… (Go on endlessly)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source ,will fail to do so if the location is really ‘new’. In one experiment, a hive of beeswas placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees weretaken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hiveabout their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gangbuzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’tlocate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding locationhas a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The beecannot create a ‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement ----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Displacement gives human beings the power to handle generalization and abstraction. Bee communication : When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source. e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission. 1.4 Origin of language The Biblical account Language was God’s gift to human beings. The bow-wow theory Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo . The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy. The yo-he-ho theory Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc. The evolution theory Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need. 1.5 Functions of language 1.5.1 Informative function: 信息功能 Language is used to note down and to pass information. It is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud as when they are working on a math problem. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.5.2 Interpersonal function: 人际功能 Language is used for human communication/for communication among people. It is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. E.g. the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves. Dear Sir, Dear Professor… 1.5.3 Performative function: 行事功能 We can use language/words to do things. a. We can use it to make others do something; b.We do something ourselves at the time when we are saying something. The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons. E.g. marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children etc . The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. 岁岁平安（every year be safe and happy ） 1.5.4 Emotive function: 感情功能 Language can be used to express feelings or emotions. Egs. “My God.” “Alas!” “Ouch!” “Damn it!” “Wow.” 1.5.5 Phatic communication: 酬应功能 交感性谈话 Language can be used to maintain relationship. This function originated from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language. Egs. “Good morning.” “God bless you.” “I’m sorry to hear it.” “Good day.” “Hello!” “Good-bye.” 1.5.6 Recreational function: 娱乐功能 Language can be used for joy, fun, amusement, or recreation. Egs. Jokes, Chinese cross talk, lyrics, poetry in general 1.5.7 Metalingual function: 元语言功能 Language can be used to talk about itself.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Eg. “book” is a word that we use to refer to something that we read…What teachers do in class is mainly the use of language of this function-to uselanguage to explain language.Linguistics1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of allhuman society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by furtherobservation------theory1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguisticsphonetics 语音学phonology 音系学（音位学）morphology 词法学syntax 句法学semantics 语义学pragmatics 语用学1.7.1 Phoneticsa branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of sounds and providesmethods for their description, classification and transcription.Any speech sound whether it distinguishes meaning or not will be described.Eg. three “p”s are noted in “speak”(un-aspirated, as [p=]), “peak”(aspirated, asindicated by the diacritic h in [p h ]), “deep”.1.7.2 Phonologya branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. --of theminimal meaningful sounds.--of the minimal sounds that distinguish meaning.Eg. the three “p”s in 1) above don’t distinguish meaning. They are of onemeaningful phoneme.Yet, in “tip” and “sip”, or “tip” “dip” the change of “t” to “s” or “t” to “d” bringsabout another word, therefore, “t” and “s” are two independent phonemes.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.7.3 Morphology a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the internal organization of words. --of the formation of words. Prefix, suffix, root. Eg. friend | ly glob | al | iz | ation dialogue, monologue 1.7.4 Syntax a branch of linguistics which studies the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases into sentences. Words are organized into structures more than just word order. E.g. a. The children watched [the firework from the hill ]. b. The children watched [the firework ][from the hill ]. 1.7.5 Semantics a branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. --meaning of words and their relations; --meaning of sentences/ sentence meaning. 1.7.6 Pragmatics a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use. Eg .a. A: How do you think of my new dress? B: The one you had last week was really beautiful. b. A: Shall we go to the cinema? B: I have to complete the homework. 1.8 Macrolinguistics External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions 1.8.1 Psycholinguistics --study of language to psychology 1) How human mind works when we use language 2) How infant acquire mother tongue 3) How we process the information we receive in course of communication 1.8.2 Sociolinguistics -- study of social aspects of language 1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics --are interested in the history and structure of formerly unwritten language 1.8.4 Computational linguistics 1) machine translation: translating from one language to another 2) Information retrieval: finding relevant document in large Collection of text 3）corpus linguistics武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive “描写式”和 “规定式” They represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (how things are); if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive(how things ought to be). 1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic “共时”和 “历时” The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a. the features of English used in Shakespeare’s time －Synchronic b. the study of the changes English has undergone since then － Diachronic 1.9.3 langue & parole “语言” 和 “言语” The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic 音素的或非音位的/位学的a) Etic —Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential, differentiations.b) Emic —An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated asmeaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communityrather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.HomeworkQuestions and Exercises1,4,6,12 Self-study guide Read “A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of English” Chapter 1 Introduction.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Chapter 2 Speech SoundsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge aboutphonologyTeaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distributio.Teaching procedureLanguage is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long beforewriting was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are stilllanguages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is amajor part of linguistics.As we know, there are two branches in linguistics, which deal with speech sounds.They are phonetics (the study of sounds) and phonology (the study of sound patterns).In this chapter, we will discuss these two branches.Phonetics2.1 Speech production and perceptionThe speech sound can be studied in three different ways, thus in phonetics there are three mainbranches Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds. 发声语音学Acoustic phonetics ----the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech. 声学语音学 Auditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speech sounds, how sounds arereceived and understood 听觉语音学2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)Refers to the parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.The three cavities of the vocal tract : the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), the nose (nasal cavity).The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities,resulting in the production of various sounds. The pharyngeal cavityLarynx: a t the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam’s apple. This is the武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组first place where sound modification might occur.vocal folds (vocal cords): V ocal cords are two membranes, the positions of whichgives different sounds.●When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the soundproduced is said to be voiceless . e.g. [p, s, t ]●When they are close together, the airstreams causes them to vibrate and producesvoiced sounds. e.g. [b, z, d]●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then produce the glottal stop [?] The oral cavity The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. Tongue: the most flexible Uvula, the teeth and the lips Hard palate, soft palate (velum) Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of varioussounder [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g] The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth .The soft partof the roof of the mouth; the velum (soft palate) can be draw back to close the passageso that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and most consonants.The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and producenasal consonants [m] [n] [g] 2.2 Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergenceSegments-- the individual soundsDivergence between sound and spelling—there are more sounds in English than itsletters can represent, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptiona method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组2.3.2.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)IPA : the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by theInternational Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis of the phonetic alphabetproposed at the time. It is a standardized and internationally accepted system ofphonetic transcription.The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.The basic principle : using a separate letter selected from major European languagesfor each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound inany language in which it appears.2.3.2.2 Two ways to transcribe speech soundsBroad transcription : transcription with letter-symbols only. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. Narrow transcription : transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study ofspeech sounds.Diacritics: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a soundvalue different from that of the same letter without the mark.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels Consonants: sounds produced by constricting and obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.When the vocal cords vibrate, the sound produced is a voiced sound (浊音)。
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程中文版
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言.为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察,并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴：语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学.语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则.语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究.语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容.心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言.它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的,人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的,不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的,它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则,并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
戴炜栋 新编简明语言学教程文档版
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication..(语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学)如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s语言学中一些基本区分1. Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
(完整word版)戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication..(语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学)如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s语言学中一些基本区分1. Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
新编语言学教程PPT课件
语言学学习应注意的方面：
1) 术语问题 2）语言学理论问题 3）语言学研究方法问题 4）语言学研究名家 5）学习习惯问题
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Chapter 1 Introduction
• I Linguistics
• 1. Definition of linguistics • 2. Linguistics and traditional grammar • 3. Use of studying linguistics • 4. Scope of linguistics
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• Objectivity（客观性）：describe a language as it is.
• A linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data and cannot allow prejudice to influence his generalizations.
以双重否定为例。从逻辑学的角度 来看，否定之否定就是肯定。正因 如此，规定语法学家认为：
I didn’t do nothing.
正确的解释为:
It is not true that I did
nothing.
或
I did something.
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但是，英语使用的现实
却是这两种相互矛盾的
•
秋浦歌
• 白发三千丈， 缘愁似个长。
• 不知明镜里， 何处得秋霜。
• 单看“白发三千丈”一句，真叫人无法理解：白发怎么能有“三千丈”呢？愁生白发，人所共晓，而长达 三千丈，该有多少深重的愁思。十个字的千钧重量落在一个“愁”字上。以此写愁，匪夷所思。奇想出奇 句，不能不使人惊叹诗人的气魄和笔力。
新编英语教程演示文稿
3.Paraphrase: 1) One of Socrates’ main pedagogical acts was to be ugly —and teach those innocent, no doubt splendid-looking disciples of his how full of paradoxes life really was.(ll.7-9 ,para.1) ---The contrast between Socrates’ outward ugliness and his inner strengths served to draw the attention of his naive and handsome followers to the fact that there were many such strange contrasts in the world.
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IV. Appreciating of the text
1. How does the notion of beauty held by the ancient Greeks basically differ from the modern one?(paras.1-2)
For the ancient Greeks beauty embraces both inside and outside excellence, a combination of a person’s virtue and good looks. In present-day English beauty refers exclusively to the good looks of a female.