建筑类外文翻译范例

合集下载

建筑外文翻译--建筑类型和设计

building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people fordwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings,parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well.Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to theirwork .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy commun ication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include adining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise thekitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towardslight ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。

建筑英文介绍带翻译

建筑英文介绍带翻译Introduction to Architecture 建筑英文介绍。

Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures. It involves the use of materials, technology, and design principles to create functional and aesthetically pleasing spaces that meet the needs of people.建筑是设计和建造建筑物和其他物理结构的艺术和科学。

它涉及使用材料、技术和设计原则来创建功能和美观的空间，满足人们的需求。

The history of architecture can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome, where impressive structures such as the Pyramids, the Parthenon, and the Colosseum were built. These structures were not only functional but also served as symbols of power and wealth.建筑的历史可以追溯到古代文明，如埃及、希腊和罗马，那里建造了令人印象深刻的建筑物，如金字塔、巴特农神庙和斗兽场。

这些建筑不仅具有功能性，还作为权力和财富的象征。

As time passed, architecture evolved and new styles emerged. In the Middle Ages, Gothic architecture emerged with its pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses. During the Renaissance, architects such as Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Bramante created masterpieces that combined classical elements with new techniques and materials.随着时间的推移，建筑发展并出现了新的风格。

建筑类作文模板英语

建筑类作文模板英语英文回答：Introduction。

Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings and other physical structures. It is a complex field that encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including engineering, mathematics, physics, and art. Architectural design is often driven by a combination of functional, aesthetic, and economic considerations.Body。

Architectural design can be divided into two main categories:Functional design focuses on creating buildings that meet the specific needs of the occupants. This includesconsiderations such as space planning, lighting, ventilation, and accessibility.Aesthetic design focuses on creating buildings that are visually appealing. This includes considerations such as form, color, texture, and ornamentation.In addition to functional and aesthetic design, architects must also consider the economic aspects of building design. This includes factors such as construction costs, maintenance costs, and energy efficiency.Architects use a variety of tools and techniques to design buildings. These include:Computer-aided design (CAD) software is used to create detailed drawings of buildings.Physical models are used to study the form andfunction of buildings.Wind tunnels are used to test the aerodynamicperformance of buildings.Materials testing is used to evaluate the strength and durability of building materials.The architectural design process typically involves the following steps:1. Programming The architect meets with the client to determine the specific needs of the building.2. Schematic design The architect develops a preliminary design for the building.3. Design development The architect refines the design and develops detailed drawings.4. Construction documents The architect produces the final construction drawings and specifications.5. Construction The building is constructed according to the architect's plans.Architecture is a dynamic field that is constantly evolving. New technologies and materials are constantly being developed, and the needs of building occupants are changing. As a result, architects must continually adapt their design approach to meet the challenges of the future.Conclusion。

建筑外文翻译（可编辑）

建筑外文翻译Building a culture rooted in the natural environment of Habitat Different geographical They certainly have different natural environment: topography, sunshine point of view, sun and tides, currents and winds, temperature, pressure, food, land, water, vegetation and so on. As an intermediary between man and nature of the construction, the external should be conducive to the formation of district external environment should be conducive to the protection of the domestic indoor environment Habitat. These buildings, like plants, the roots, making a day, or geographical areas of the natural environment suitable for the requirements of integration with nature In Southeast Asia and South Asia, in China's Hainan Island and Taiwan Island, Coconut Grove dense, hot weather, people with palm leaves, palm-leaf built to adapt to the tropical rainforest of thatched rooms, small, ventilation, cool, lightweight, simple , built a tropical rain forest building In Central Asia, West Asia, in China's western alpine region, people with stones, the mountain has been built on the powerful stone building, take shelter from the wind, blocking snow, heat, warm, building construction has become plateaus. Such as China, Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan and other ethnic minorities in China's western mountains and on the potential tobuild a wide variety of mountain building Loess Plateau in China, the Gobi Mobei, low rainfall, dry climate, people use the hillside slopes built tunneling room, built with distinct characteristics of immature soil construction. Gansu Dunhuang Art Exhibition Hall of the building buried in the hillside, the semi-open entrance connected hillside retaining wall, construction features of immature soil is very obvious In the eastern part of the United States, in Australia, in China's south, rainfall, mild climate, people use wood, brick and mountains on the potential, in line with local conditions, build a shade shelter from the rain, ventilation, styling and unique architectural humid areas These architectural forms, of various styles, suitable for different regions of the natural environment, with the landscape, vegetation, terrain together, forming a natural environment is rooted in a variety of architectural culture. Building both rooted in the natural environment, but also subject to the natural environment, this is the architects must follow a basic principle Second, the social space-time caused by environmental differences in the diversification of architectural culture Different regions, different countries, different nations have different social and historical patterns. European countries, the Americas, Asia and Africa and other developing countries, land of different religious beliefs, economic development of the different regions have different cultural practices. Habitat in different parts ofthe social differences in time and space environment, resulting in the architectural culture and the diversity of time and space, resulting in ancient or modern Chinese architectural culture, the Russian architectural culture, architectural culture in Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States Architectural Culture, the African Architectural Culture and so on. Ancient Greek architecture in Europe, North Africa, the ancient Egyptian architecture, the South Asian Association for the ancient Indian architecture, ancient Chinese architecture is the world's architectural and cultural history of ethnic origins. Catholic, Jesus taught, Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, such as the formation and development of religion, a profound impact on the religious beliefs of countries and regions, but also a profound impact on those areas of construction, forming a rich and colorful culture of religious architecture China several thousand years long history, has followed so far, both ancient and extensive, since ancient times by Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Zen, such as the impact of ethical thinking. Especially Confucianism ruled China for 2 000 years, deep-rooted. To this culture of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Zen eclectic variety of ideas, together brilliant, independent nations of the world Architectural Culture under certain conditions, can be transformed. Geographical, ethnic and cultural construction under certain conditions, can be transformed into international architectural culture, and international architecturalculture can also be absorbed, the integration of the region and the national character of the new architectural culture. In today's world, building a culture of development and progress, both the transformation of the former to the latter, which also includes the absorption and integration of the former. The two also both opposing reunification, complement each other, affect each other and common development, only the protection and development of a variety of architectural culture of all ethnic groups, the promotion of world architectural culture of pluralism, and ultimately to create a "different and" the human societyThree Chinese and foreign construction and cultural development and blend Architectural Culture in the global "big culture" systems, all nationalities, all geographical construction symbiotic culture in this form the world's architectural culture Symphony. Social process of globalization has brought to the cultural collision with the rendezvous, conflict and blend For thousands of years, the Chinese culture to external sources of long. Buddhist culture have originated in India, Zhang Qian as envoy to the Western Regions of the Western Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty Master Xuan Zang went to India to learn from their experience Chuan-by, the impact of China's 2,000 years of Buddhism. However, the contents of Buddhism, Buddha, like Maung, the shapes with the Chinese Buddhist temple in cultures, the formation and development of a unique Chinese Buddhist architectural culture As early as the 20th century, 20 years, China's modern architectsreturned from studying abroad, most of whom are scholars in the United States, they are building at the time of Western academic and cultural concepts and China Architectural Culture nationalistic concept of the double impact, emphasizing cultural exchange between Chinese and Western architecture focused on the architectural style for the first time a creative way to design a number of products, creating a cultural exchange between Chinese and foreign construction of a new era. For example, the first batch of U.S. architect Mr. Lv Yanzhi Canton 20's design Zhongshan Memorial Hall, Dr. Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing and so on, in the Chinese construction industry has played a really ground-breaking effect in stimulating the Chinese and foreign architectural culture of the integration process The early founding of New China, the Chinese government, mechanisms copied the Soviet model, the Chinese all over the building of a group of Russian cultural identity building construction, the formation and development of China's 50's "socialism" of architectural culture. Since reform and opening up, China's open-door once again, the introduction of Western economic management model to imitate, "European style", RTHK construction, post-modernism almost swept the country, the formation and development of China's 80's "reform and opening-up" construction culture. It goes without saying that all countries in the world of architectural culture at that time are subject to local political systems, economic conditions, technical level ofrestraint, in conflict with each other, mutual exchanges, mutual influence, mutual integration. However, what kind of fusion and exchange with vitality, stand the test of time and space? Only those who learned the essence of eastern and western cultures, integration-oriented areas of national culture and national character of the construction only has great vitality Fourth, cultural exchange between old and modern architectural exploration and the pursuit of Ancient and modern cultures, the past serve the present, what? Need to analyze the "ancient" and "today" in the construction of content changes that have taken place. These qualitative change is the social system, production technology, living habits, work, cultural values, building materials in the construction sector caused by the inevitable result. As Mr. Wu Yurong in the evaluation of the French engineer Gustave. Eiffel designed the Eiffel Tower noted: "People are trying to adapt to every human life an art form the new direction of development and to make all the human activities and the rapidly changing era of emotion caused by the new suit." To explore ancient and modern blend of traditional architecture and modern architecture combining problem. China's traditional architectural culture has many features, such as the overall layout of buildings, in line with local conditions, and be full of change; architectural style, rich and colorful; space separated, flexible and diverse; interior decoration, pay attention to the connotation; color to use, colorful; garden green, it is implicitlylively, changeable, unique in the world. In the creation of modern architecture, the contemporary architects should learn from ancient architecture and cultural wealth of nutrition, according to the modernization of a wide range of requirements, from the analysis of the various contradictions in the exploration and pursuit of people's lives to adapt to the new direction of development and people's construction activities and the rapid caused by the changing times adapt to new emotions Since the founding of New China, focusing on the succession of Chinese tradition, carry forward the, creative architectural art of the problems the United States experienced a number of exploration and discussion. Experienced the liberation of the early to imitate the "big roof" retro nostalgia period; experienced a critical retro, and copy the Soviet "model" dogmatism stage; experienced the Cultural Revolution, servility to foreigners critical philosophy, the implementation of "dry-base hit," the poor during the transition; experienced early advocate of reform and opening up the West, the popular "Hong Kong style" period. After exploring the difficulties and setbacks, China began to follow the traditional architect, to adapt to function, the use of high-tech, to explore ancient and modern cultures, the realization of the modernization of architectural creation of the correct way In this paper, talking about building a culture of environment and blend only preliminary study, many deep theoretical issues need further study. Our generation of architectsshould be firmly established the "scientific concept of architectural culture" to the Chinese culture as the main body, to accelerate the construction of culture and environment, and the nation, and society, and the blending process with the times.一建筑文化根植于人居自然环境之中不同的地域自然有不同的自然环境:地形地貌、日照角度、日月潮汐、水流风势、气温、气压、食物、土地、水质、植被等等。

建筑外文文献及翻译(参考模板)

外文原文Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of ProjectsLin Jingjing , Zhou GuohuaSchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm.Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority .1.INTRODUCTIONMore and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have discussed the resource allocation problem in multi-project environment with resources constrained. Reference [1] designed an iterative algorithm and proposeda mathematical model of the resource-constrained multi-project scheduling .Basedon work breakdown structure (WBS) and Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition method ,a feasible multi-project planning method was illustrated , as in [2] . References [3,4]discussed the resource-constrained project scheduling based on Branch Delimitation method .Reference [5] put forward the framework of human resource allocation in multi-project in Long-term ,medium-term and short-term as well as research and development(R&D) environment .Basedon GPSS language, simulation model of resources allocation was built to get the project’s duration time and resources distribution, as in [6]. Reference [7] solved the engineering project’s resources optimization problem using Genetic Algorithms. These literatures reasonably optimized resources allocation in multi-project, but all had the same prerequisite that the project’s importance is the same to each other .This paper will analyze the effects of project’s priority on human resource allocation ,which is to be introduced into a mathematical model ;finally ,a Genetic Algorithm is used to solve the model.2.EFFECTS OF PROJECTS PRIORITY ON HUMAN RESOUCE ALLOCATIONAND THE AFFECTING FACTORS OF PROJECT’S PRIORITYResource sharing is one of the main characteristics of multi-project management .The allocation of shared resources relates to the efficiency and rationality of the use of resources .When resource conflict occurs ,the resource demand of the project with highest priority should be satisfied first. Only after that, can the projects with lower priority be considered.Based on the idea of project classification management ,this paper classifies the affecting factors of project’s priority into three categories ,as the project’s benefits ,the complexity of project management and technology , and the strategic influence on the enterprise’s future development . The priority weight of the project is the function of the above three categories, as shown in (1).W=f(I,c,s…) (1)Where w refers to project’s priority weight; I refers to the benefits of th e project; c refers to the complexity of the project, including the technology and management; s refers to the influence of the project on enterprise .The bigger the values of the three categories, the higher the priority is.3.HUMAN RESOURCE ALLOCATION MODEL IN MULTI-PROJECTENVIRONMENT3.1Problem DescriptionAccording to the constraint theory, the enterprise should strictly differentiate the bottleneck resources and the non-bottleneck resources to solve the constraint problem of bottleneck resources .This paper will stress on the limited critical human resources being allocated to multi-project with definite duration times and priority.To simplify the problem, we suppose that that three exist several parallel projects and a shared resources storehouse, and the enterprise’s operation only involves one kind of critical human resources. The supply of the critical human resource is limited, which cannot be obtained by hiring or any other ways during a certain period .when resource conflict among parallel projects occurs, we may allocate the human resource to multi-project according to project’s priorities .The allocation of non-critical independent human resources is not considered in this paper, which supposes that the independent resources that each project needs can be satisfied.Engineering projects usually need massive critical skilled human resources in some critical chain ,which cannot be substituted by the other kind of human resources .When the critical chains of projects at the same time during some period, there occur resource conflict and competition .The paper also supposes that the corresponding network planning of various projects have already been established ,and the peaks of each project’s resources demand have been optimized .The delay of the critical chain will affect the whole project’s duration time .3.2 Model HypothesesThe following hypotheses help us to establish a mathematical model:(1)The number of mutually independent projects involved in resourceallocation problem in multi-project is N. Each project is indicated withQ i,while i=1,2, … N.(2)The priority weights of multi-project have been determined ,which arerespectively w1,w 2…w n .(3) The total number of the critical human resources is R ,with r k standingfor each person ,while k=1,2, …,R(4) Δk i = ⎩⎨⎧others toprojectQ rcer humanresou i k 01(5) Resources capturing by several projects begins on time. t E i is theexpected duration time of project I that needs the critical resources tofinish some task after time t ,on the premise that the human resourcesdemand can be satisfied .tAi is the real duration time of project I thatneeds the critical resource to finish some task after time t .(6) According to the contract ,if the delay of the project happens the dailycost loss due to the delay is △c i for pro ject I .According to the project’simportance ,the delay of a project will not only cause the cost loss ,butwill also damage the prestige and status of the enterprise .(while thelatent cost is difficult to quantify ,it isn’t considered in this articletemporarily.)(7) From the hypothesis (5) ,we can know that after time t ,the time-gapbetween the real and expected duration time of project I that needs thecritical resources to finish some task is △t i ,( △t i =t A i -t E i ). For thereexists resources competition, the time –gap is necessarily a positivenumber.(8) According to hypotheses (6) and (7), the total cost loss of project I is C i(C i = △t i * △C i ).(9) The duration time of activities can be expressed by the workload ofactivities divided by the quantity of resources ,which can be indicatedwith following expression of t A i =ηi / R i * ,.In the expression , ηi refersto the workload of projects I during some period ,which is supposed tobe fixed and pre-determined by the project managers on project planningphase ; R i * refers to the number of the critical human resources beingallocated to projects I actually, with the equation Ri * =∑=Rk ki 1δ existing. Due to the resource competition the resourcedemands of projects with higherPriorities may be guarantee, while those projects with lower prioritiesmay not be fully guaranteed. In this situation, the decrease of theresource supply will lead to the increase of the duration time of activitiesand the project, while the workload is fixed.3.3 Optimization ModelBased on the above hypotheses, the resource allocation model inmulti-project environment can be established .Here, the optimizationmodel is :F i =min Z i = min∑∑==Ni i N i Ci 11ω =min i i Ni i N i c t ∆∆∑∑==11ω (2) =min ∑∑==N i i N i 11ω )E i R i ki i t - ⎝⎛∑=1δη i c ∆ 2F =min Z 2=min ()i t ∆=min )E i R i ki i t -⎝⎛∑=1δη (3) Where wj=max(wi) ,(N j i 3,2,1,=∀) (4)Subject to : 0∑∑==≤R k ki N i 11δ=R (5)The model is a multi-objective one .The two objective functions arerespectively to minimize the total cost loss ,which is to conform to theeconomic target ,and to shorten the time delay of the project with highestpriority .The first objective function can only optimize the apparenteconomic cost ;therefore the second objective function will help to makeup this limitation .For the project with highest priority ,time delay will damage not only the economic benefits ,but also the strategy and the prestige of the enterprise .Therefore we should guarantee that the most important project be finished on time or ahead of schedule .4.SOLUTION TO THE MULTI-OBJECTIVE MODEL USING GENETICALGORITHM4.1The multi-objective optimization problem is quite common .Generally ,eachobjective should be optimized in order to get the comprehensive objective optimized .Therefore the weight of each sub-objective should be considered .Reference [8] proposed an improved ant colony algorithm to solve this problem .Supposed that the weights of the two optimizing objectives are αand β ,where α+β=1 .Then the comprehensive goal is F* ,where F*=αF1+βF2.4.2The Principle of Genetic AlgorithmGenetic Algorithm roots from the concepts of natural selection and genetics .It’s a random search technique for global optimization in a complex search space .Because of the parallel nature and less restrictions ,it has the key features of great currency ,fast convergence and easy calculation .Meanwhile ,its search scope is not limited ,so it’s an effective method to solve the resource balancing problem ,as in [9].The main steps of GA in this paper are as follow:(1)EncodingAn integer string is short, direct and efficient .According to thecharacteristics of the model, the human resource can be assigned to be acode object .The string length equals to the total number of humanresources allocated.(2)Choosing the fitness functionThis paper choose the objective function as the foundation of fitnessfunction .To rate the values of the objective function ,the fitness of then-th individual is 1/n。

建筑专业外文翻译

英语原文A Unified Approach to Project ManagementThomas Froese* and Sheryl Staub-French**Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4. e-mail: 1tfroese@civil.ubc.ca, 2sherylsf@civil.ubc.caAbstractIn current project management practice, the overall task of designing, managing, and constructing a building is carried out by organizing the work into many distinct tasks assigned to many different groups. Most project effort is then directed towards carrying out these tasks in the most effective manner possible, while relatively little effort (concentrated within a few critical positions) is focused on managing the interdependencies between tasks and effectively combining these results to yield the overall result. We propose a unified approach to project management that brings an integrative view to the forefront, centered on the notion of defining multiple views of the project and the interrelationships that exist between the views. This integrated representation acts as a model or prototype of the physical facility, allowing more experimentation and optimization and providing a unifying focus for the ongoing work. The representational framework, proposed methodology, and accompanying IT issues for this approach to project management are discussed.MotivationMuch of our previous research has been in the area of information technologies (IT) applied to the task of project management (PM) in the field of architecture, engineering, construction, and facilities management (AEC/FM). Within this field of research and development (R&D), a major theme has been the integration of information resources and tools throughout the AEC/FM project lifecycle. Great progress has been made in the concepts, technologies, and tools to support this integration. As of yet, however, the results have had minimal impact on practice in the industry. This situation begs the question of why this active area of R&D has not had greater impact. One significant problem seems to be that the resulting technologies and tools do not fit particularly well with current project management practices. More specifically, the new tools assume and require a level of integration and coordination among project participants that is seldom found in practice. Clearly, the technologies require further development towards tools that better suit current practice. Yet it may be useful to also consider current project management practices to see if changes could be introduced that would allow projects to better exploit the advances that have been made in IT.From this initial perspective of IT, we have begun to explore potential weakness and opportunities for improvement in current project management practices. In the process, the perspective has broadened to identify several issues that are not specifically IT related. These are not new concepts, but a collection of several current trends in AEC/FM and relevant ideas from other industries. In this paper, we consider several of these views on weakness in current project management practices and opportunities for improvements. We then synthesize these into a proposed framework for a unified approach to project management in AEC/FM.Perspectives on Weaknesses and Opportunities for Project ManagementComplexity and Interdependencies in AEC/FM projects. AEC/FM projects are often described as large and increasingly complex. A greater understanding of the nature of this complexity can point to the areas where the need for improved management is greatest.Studies have identified the following characteristics as generally common to anytype of complex system11:plex systems are comprised of a multiplicity of things; they have a large number of entitiesor parts. Generally, the more parts a system contains, the more complex it is.plex systems contain a dense web of causal connections among their components. The partsaffect each other in many ways.plex systems exhibit interdependence of their components. The behavior of parts isdependant upon other parts. If the system is broken apart, the components no longer function 1Paraphrased from Homer-Dixon 2001, pp.110-114.(like the parts of the human body).plex systems are open to their outside environments. They are not selfcontained, but areaffected by outside events.plex systems normally show a high degree of synergy among their components: the wholeis more than the sum of its parts.plex systems exhibit non-linear behavior. A change in the system can produce an effect thatis not proportional to its size: small changes can produce large effects, and large changes can produce small effects.To some extent, all of these features can be observed in AEC/FM projects. AEC/FM projects are made up of components such as the physical elements in a building, thedesign or construction activities, the people and resources utilized, etc. In many cases, the individual components are not complex. Yet the number of components that make up the project is vast, and the causal connections between these components are numerous. For example, a change in the intended use of some space in a building could affect the heating and cooling requirements for that space, which could affect the design of parts of the mechanical system, which could alter the elements of the electrical system, which could change a purchase order for material supplies, which could delay a material delivery, which could influence the construction schedule, which could reduce the productivity of a work crew, which could increase a work package cost, which could affect a sub-contractor’s financing, and so on.AEC/FM projects, then, are justifiably described as complex, largely because of the quantity and interdependence of the components that make up the project.Explicit recognition of interdependency in project management approaches.One of the fundamental mechanisms that the AEC/FM industry has developed for dealing with complexity is the approach of dividing project work into well-defined work tasks and assigning each work task to a specialist group. These tasks are then carried out, to a large extent, as if they are fairly independent from each other. To be sure, each participant has some notion that their work must follow certain work and must precede other work, and that certain actions or outcomes of their work will influence others. By and large, however, participants focus primarily on their individual tasks, with any concerns about these interdependencies addressed in a very ad hoc and reactive way. Most participants try to optimize their own work while the few people responsible for managing the project as a whole have little opportunity to optimize the entire system.Clearly, it is beneficial to organize work in such a way as to minimize interdependency among work tasks. However, we contend that a weakness of current project management practice is that it tends to treat typical AEC/FM work tasks as being far more independent than they actually are. Instead, project management approaches should strive to make the interdependencies between work tasks more explicit. This does not increase interdependence and complexity, but it does make the existing interdependency and complexity more visible, and therefore more manageable. In summary, AEC/FM projects are complex because of the quantity and interdependency of their components, and project management techniques should strive to make these interdependencies explicit.Information, Information Management, and Information Technology. All design and management tasks on AEC/FM projects are fundamentally information processing tasks: they take existing project information as input and produce new project information as output. Even construction tasks, which deal with the processing of physical resources, require information as a significant resource. Yet the information resources and information flows are rarely considered and managed explicitly, and are instead treated as implicit in assigned work tasks and physical project components. This makes the management of this important resource haphazard, and makes the application of appropriate information technology more difficult.Information Management. We suggest the following general approach to information management (IM) on AEC/FM projects. The IM should adopt a processbased approach, organizing the project into its work tasks. The IM approach should then consider three main issues: 1) the information requirements for each task, 2) the communication requirements between tasks, and 3) the integration across tasks and communications. For each task, the IM should evaluate what the information input requirements are, what IT tools should be used for supporting the task, and what the information outputs are. For communications, the IM should evaluate what information flows must exist between tasks (including their required characteristics such as sender, receiver, mode, content, etc.), and what information and communication technologies are used for these communications. For the integrative analysis, the IM should examine the integration across all tasks and communication flows (i.e., adopt a holistic view and common IT platforms, rather than addressing each task or communication flow in isolation). This includes integration across organizational boundaries and integration with existing (and future)technologies.Disparate views of a project.As stated previously, all design and management tasks work with information rather than physical resources. This information all describes or models the physical construction project, and thus it can be said that all designers and managers work with information models of the project. However, each task often works with its own unique view, perspective, or type of information model. This wide range of disparate views adds to the fragmentation of these tasks. There is very little of a common, shared vision of the project across all participants—at least until the physical structure begins to emerge, which provides a unifying common perspective for all participants.A unified IT view. One of the opportunities of emerging IT is the ability to create building information models: semantically rich information models of construction projects that include both 3D geometric information (3D CAD) along with nongeometric information (everything from material properties to construction costs and schedules). These models support a wide range of advanced analytical and predictive software tools, including virtual project representations such as photo-realistic 3D renderings and walk-throughs, and they support extensive information sharing and software interoperability throughout the lifecycle of the project (as exemplified by the Industry Foundation Classes, IFCs, see International Alliance, 2002 and BLIS, 2002). This technology does not require that all project information be combined into a single model, but it allows linkages and interoperability between the various bodies of project information.This technology offers opportunities to create a more unified approach to project management in two ways. First, by linking together disparate views of project information and supporting software interoperability, it provides a technical platform for achieving a more integrated approach to project management. Second, the “virtual building” created by these technologies has the potential of acting as a common focal point, or unifying view, for all project participants, particularly during pre-construction design and management phases, much in the way that the physical structure does during the construction phase.Lean Construction and Workflows. There is currently a great deal of attention being paid to the area of lean construction, which spans a wide range of issues that relate to the management of AEC/FM projects (Lean Construction Institute, 2002). Among these issues is the concept that when a project is made up of many interdependent tasks, a focus on optimizing each task independently leads to sub-optimization of the overall project. Therefore, project management practices should ensure that tasks are managed with careful consideration of their role within the overall project workflows; they should not be treated as isolated, independent activities.Software Engineering and the Unified Modeling Language. Although project management has a much longer (and perhaps more successful) history within the field of AEC/FM than in the field of software engineering, there are some valuable lessons that AEC/FM can learn from developments in the software industry, particularly related to integrated information structures for managing projects.Much of the software engineering community has consolidated around the Unified Modeling Language (UML) (Object Management Group, 2002), a standard language for representing the components involved in the design and implementation of software projects. The UML provides a much more uniform and integrated (if less comprehensive) view of project requirements, processes, and elements, than comparable representations within AEC/FM (i.e., project plans and specifications, construction schedules, etc.).Furthermore, UML-based software development methodologies have emerged (e.g., the Unified Process, Kendall, 2002) that tightly integrate the various project workflows with the various project artifacts (deliverables) throughout each phase of the project lifecycle. These methodologies also accentuate the cyclical and repetitive nature of the related work tasks that are carried out within workflows as they move through the phases of the project lifecycle. Unlike approaches that treat each activity as an independent, one-time task, this reinforces attempts to continually improve performance in this work. While these techniques are not directly applicable to the AEC/FM industry, some of the approaches and best practices are quite relevant.A Unified Approach to Project ManagementWe have argued that existing project management practices underemphasize the interrelationships between individual work tasks and other project components. This leaves the interdependencies under-recognized and under-managed, and promotes a “one-time event” thinking that hinders the quest for ongoing performance improvements. We have begun to conceptualize a unified approach to project management that addresses some of the weaknesses and opportunities identified above.The basic approach is to adopt a framework that: 1) explicitly represents the various views that are critical for managing projects, and 2) explicitly represents the interconnections between these views.Examples of project views include the physical view (“what”), the process view (“how, who, when”), the cost view (“how much”), etc. (Russell and Froese, 1997). If the total collection of project information is thought of as a multi-dimensional information space, then the views define the dimensions. For each view, the overall project can be broken down into smallerelements. The simplest representation of a view would be a list or hierarchical breakdown structure of the elements that make up the view (e.g., a work breakdown structure, WBS). More complex representations would capture additional relationships between the elements, such as a CPM network or an IFC model.Primary Views. There are many views that can be useful for managing projects. To act as a unifying management tool, however, these views should be shared with all participants, and this places a practical limit on the maximum number of views, since it would become too complex to require all participants to work with numerous, interconnected views. We propose that the following three views to be used as the primary project coordination mechanism for all participants:•The project lifecycle dimension: The first primary view is time-based, organizing the project into well-defined project phases, which are further refined into iterations. These phases are arranged in sequential chronological order, constituting a logical time-view. This dimension can also provide an absolute time-view by defining the calendar dates for activities that take place within the phases. Unlike current project management practices where project phases are treated “loosely”, the phases and iterations have formal management roles. All work requirements, assignments, outputs, etc. are defined relative to a specific project phase, and phases have formal progress review procedures. This approach to phases can be seen, for example, in the Process Protocol approach (Process Protocol, 2003) and in the previouslymentioned Unified Process (Kendall, 2002).•The workflow dimension: The second primary view is process-based. It organizes the work into the various work disciplines required to complete the project. This is somewhat like the normal division of work into work packages, but rather than describing the tasks as discrete work packages, the work is organized as ongoing workflows, which can be further broken down into sequences or networks of sub tasks. Thus tasks are more explicitly placed in the context of the overall workflows than is common practice today.•The product/deliverable dimension: The third primary view organizes the outputs or deliverables of work. This view combines two important main elements, the information that describes the construction product (facility) being created, and the physical product itself.During the early phases of the project, the deliverables of design and management tasks are information about the physical facility. The collective sum of all of this information can be thought of as the building information model or virtual building (whether or not an integrated IT environment is used). During later phases, this information drives the physical deliverables of the construction work: the creation of the physical components themselves. This view emphasizes a continuum that flows from the virtual facility to the physical one.As a highly simplified example, an AEC project might be organized into the following primary views:Project Lifecycle Dimension:⏹Inception Phase⏹Design Phase⏹Construction Phase⏹Operation PhaseWorkflow Dimension:⏹Architectural workflow⏹Structural workflow⏹Building Services workflow⏹Cost workflowProduct/Deliverable Dimension:⏹IFC Product Model⏹Project Documents⏹Building Superstructure⏹Building Systems and FinishesIntegrating and Representing the Primary Views. Given these three primary dimensions, the work can be further organized by expressing the interrelationships between the dimensions:●Workflows vs. project lifecycle: Placing workflows and their constituent tasks within projectlifecycle phases creates a schedule view of the project, showing what should happen when.This can include both the logical schedule (sequencing) and absolute schedule (calendar dates). It can also show that most workflows span multiple phases/iterations, and can indicate the amount of effort expended on each workflow over time, which emphasizes the “ongoing processes” nature of the work.●Product/deliverables vs. project lifecycle: Similarly, the various project deliverables can bemapped to the project phases/iterations. The deliverables are generally cumulative, thus this shows how the total project output (the collective body of project information and the physical structure) develops over time.●Product/deliverables vs. workflows: The assignment of project deliverables to workflows andtasks shows how work processes collaborate to produce the required deliverables.The definition of the three primary views and the interrelationships between them defines a three-dimensional space, as illustrated in Figure 1. Key to the applicability of this approach is the ability to represent the primary views and their interrelationships in a simple, intuitive manner that all project participants can work with. It would be ideal if this could be achieved in a single, three-dimensions format, but it seems unlikely that such a representation is possible (even the simplified representation in figure 1 shows the relationships of each pair of dimensions rather than the relationships between all three dimensions simultaneously). Therefore, it may be necessary to represent the primary dimensions as a set of two-dimensional matrices. Each of these matrices may be quite simple and intuitive. For example, the matrix of workflows vs. project lifecycle forms a Gantt chart (bar chart schedule). What is essential (and what would differentiate this approach from current practice) is that the collection of two-dimensional matrices is interrelated and kept synchronized, which would require an effective underlying project management tool.Figure 1: Schematic of the dimensions in a unified approach to project management. Additional Views. We have suggested that the three primary views seem to be appropriate for the overall project organization and the coordination of all participants. However, those responsible for managing the project can add several more interrelated views. This would provide a very powerful representation of the project from all of the perspectives that are important for achieving project objectives, along with explicit representations of the interrelationships that exist between these views. Examples of the additional views include the following:●Organization View: An organizational view identifies the project participants; can link participantsto workflows/tasks, deliverables, etc.●Cost View: This view identifies the various cost schedules (estimates, costcontrol accounts, etc.)that are important to the project. Costs can be related to workflows/tasks, deliverables, organizational units, etc.●Risk View: As part of a risk management approach, significant risks can be identified andassociated with specific workflows/tasks, deliverables, organizational units, cost items, etc.●Quality View: Quality management programs may identify quality metrics, inspection tasks andresults, etc., associated with the workflow/tasks and deliverables.●Requirements View: Software engineering methods formally capture system requirements usingconstructs such as use cases. On AEC/FM projects, requirements would typically be less structured, but it may be possible to define a view that explicitly represents the project requirements in a way that helps●As-Built View: As construction work proceeds, the actual results of the work, in terms of finalconstruction results, actual cost and productivity data, etc., can be captured in an as-built view.●Other Views: A view can be created for any other area of interest on a project where a set of itemscan meaningfully be identified that relate to other defined view, such as a contractual view, safety view, environmental impact/sustainability view, punch list/defect view, maintenance view, etc.The possibility of defining a large number of views does not imply that a significant amount of additional management work is required. Rather, it suggests that when issues are already being addressed with some form of explicit management effort, that a representation structure can be used that can capture the relationships with other management issues.In many cases, the relationships between any two views may form a narrowly banded matrix: each item in one view would be associated with a small number of items in the other view. This may lead to interesting possibilities, such as the ability to partially automate the creation of one view from another (e.g., automatic generation of approximate lists of construction activities and estimate items from a building product mo del), or the ability to recognize “exceptions”, cases where relationships deserve extra management attention because they lie outside of the typical band of inter-relationships. Changing the Project Mindset.The unified approach to project management involves not only a change to the representational structures as outlined above, but this also a change in the way participants think of the underlying project mechanism and their role in it. Currently, projects are regarded as custom, unique endeavors and project tasks as a collection of one-off activities. The thought process is to find a satisfactory solution to the project requirements rather than to find “the best” solution. In part, this is because there is no room for trial-and-error exploration. Full-scale models are impossible and small-scale physical models are of limited use.In the unified approach to project management, the integrated project representations acts as project prototypes or models that can play the same centralrole in construction as prototypes do in manufacturing. They provide integrated, computer-based collections of all known project information. They may contain geometric information to allow tools like 3D visualization, but they also contain nongeometric design and management information, such as material properties, supplier information, cost and schedule data, organizational information, etc. Thus, the perspective is changed to be more like that of manufacturing: a prototyping process followed by an ongoing production process. Design and planning tasks first work towards the creation of prototypes or models. In these models, alternatives are developed and explored, new issues are identified and resolved, and interactions and interfaces are hammered out. Once all concerns are satisfied, the prototype is used to organize the production process. Every participant views their role as carrying out their tasks by drawing information from the project model, placing their results back into the project model, and using the model to explore the interaction of their work with others and to support communications. In this way, the overall concerns of the project are more prominent to all and are easier to identify and explore—we believe this will produce better solutions.Working with the Unified Approach to Project Management.As shown, the unified approach to project management is based on defining formalized views of project information along with the interrelationships between the views. This section will discuss how this approach might be carried out by comparing it with best practices in how project scheduling is carried out. If good scheduling and schedule control practices are used on an AEC/FM project, the project will benefit from good work coordination; there will be more certainty about the timing of events; it will be easier to measure progress; and productivity, cost, and project duration will be improved. Similarly, good practices using the unified approach will improve the project outcomes through more effective planning, particularly with respect to the interdependencies between project views. The process would be approximately as follows:●The project management team would define the project views to be used on the project.●Project planning would be carried out much as on a typical project, except that the results would berepresented using the defined project views. This would result in lists or breakdown structures for the project phases, workflows/tasks,deliverables, etc. This would be analogous to a typical project scheduling process, where the results are represented in a CPM network.●The key inter-relationships between the views would be defined. This would be analogous to theway that precedence relationships are captured in a schedule, or the way that a schedule can bemapped to cost accounts, resource plans, or to a building information model (as in the case of 4D CAD). Other than the precedence relationships, this type of mapping is not typically done in current project management practices, so it represents some additional work for project planners.However, it need not be done at a very detailed level, and the use of hierarchical relationships and effective planning tools may minimize the effort required for this task.●The execution of the resulting plan (e.g., initiating work tasks), project controland feedback(collecting progress information and monitoring results), and replanning activities all take place using the representational framework. Work tasks themselves remain essentially unchanged, but because the planning and management system explicitly captures the interrelationships, the causal links between actions will be better recognized and understood, and the potential negative impacts of any action will be identified earlier and mitigated or avoided more easily. For example, in the case of the change in the intended use of some space in a building mentioned previously, the threads of the causal impacts of this change may be more easily traced through the design,construction, procurement, time, and financial aspects of the project—appropriate adjustments can be made in advance, rather than allowing the impact to propagate as a series of unanticipated, reactionary actions.●As with scheduling, detail is important, but not all detail is required in advance. Planning for eachview might be carried out at a summary level initially, with greater detail added over time, culminating in something like detailed, rolling two-week look-ahead unified plans.●In scheduling, basic schedule representations such as bar charts are widely used as coordinationmechanisms for all participants, while more advanced analysis like resource leveling is carried out by project management specialists only. Similarly, the many potential applications of the unified approach fall into three general categories: 1) the use of the primary views as a broadly-applicable coordination mechanism shared by all participants, 2) the use of multiple views to capture all of the detailed information relevant to one participant carrying out one particular task, and 3) the use of detailed information in multiple views to carry out some specialized project analysis.We have discussed the unified approach to project management in terms of a representational framework and general methodology for project planning and management. However, the organizational context for the approach should also be addressed. This would include issues such as how the project team is organized (ideally, all key team members would be involved early in the process); who carries out which portions of the unified plans, when, and in how much detail; how incentives are structured to encourage effective use of the unified approach, etc. The approach is also quite dependant on a set of appropriate IT tools to support the process, as discussed in the following section.IT Tools to Support the Unified Approach to Project Management. A practical minimum requirement for applying the unified approach to project management is some type of IT platform that allows the views to be represented, inter-related, accessed, and utilized in an efficient manner by all project participants. Such asystem would be similar in many ways to various systems in common use today—project scheduling software, project management systems such as Prolog Manager from Meridian Project Systems, and web-based project collaboration systems such as Buzzsaw from Autodesk—yet none of these existing systems capture all of the multidimensional and integrated nature of the proposed approach.The unified approach would be an excellent complement to IT systems that use integrated product and process models, such as those based on the IFC’s, but these are not a necessary requirement for using the approach. Finally, while the minimum requirements for an IT platform would be the support of information entry and access (e.g., database-type functionality), it would also be possible to operationalize the integrated models. This could provide simulation, analysis, and visualization, e.g., as is done for certain views by scheduling software, 4D CAD systems (Fischer and Lam, 2002) or organizational simulation (Levitt, 2003). The representation of work activities in the system could also tie into workflow management systems to partially automate the management of the project activity. Thus, the problem of fit between project management practices and emerging IT technologies would be addressed in two ways. First, it creates explicit linkages between the project management framework and integrated IT systems. Second, and perhaps more importantly, it strongly emphasizes the integration and collaboration of all project activities, which is a basic requirement of highly integrated and interoperable IT approaches.ConclusionsIn summary, we have presented several perspectives of project management practices that suggest weakness with current practice and opportunities for improvement. We have synthesized these into a unified approach to project management, which is based on an explicit representation of multiple project。

建筑专业英语作文范文

建筑专业英语作文范文英文回答：Architecture: A Multidisciplinary Field.Architecture is a multidisciplinary field that encompasses engineering, art, and science. It involves the design and construction of buildings and other structures, as well as the planning of urban and rural environments. Architects must have a strong understanding of both the technical and aesthetic aspects of building design, as well as the ability to work collaboratively with other professionals.Engineering Aspects of Architecture.The engineering aspects of architecture primarily focus on the structural integrity and safety of buildings. Architects must ensure that their designs meet all applicable building codes and regulations. They must alsoconsider factors such as environmental loads (e.g., wind, snow, earthquakes) and the materials used in construction. Structural engineers play a vital role in the design process, ensuring that buildings are safe and habitable.Art and Aesthetic Aspects of Architecture.In addition to engineering considerations, architects must also pay attention to the aesthetic aspects of their designs. Buildings should be visually appealing and reflect the needs and desires of their users. Architects must consider factors such as the building's form, color, and texture, as well as the relationship between the building and its surroundings. Interior designers play a key role in the aesthetic aspects of architecture, creating spaces that are both functional and visually pleasing.Science and Sustainability in Architecture.Recent advances in science and technology have had a significant impact on architecture. Architects are now able to design buildings that are more energy-efficient,sustainable, and environmentally friendly. Green building practices, such as using recycled materials and incorporating renewable energy sources, are becoming increasingly common. Architects must be aware of the latest scientific advancements and incorporate sustainable principles into their designs.Collaboration and Teamwork in Architecture.Architecture is a collaborative field, and architects must be able to work effectively with a variety of professionals, including engineers, contractors, and clients. They must be able to communicate their ideas clearly and concisely, and they must be able to work within a team environment. Architects must also be able to adapt their designs to the needs of their clients and the constraints of the site.Importance of Architecture.Architecture is essential for creating livable and sustainable communities. Buildings provide shelter,protection, and a sense of place. They can also contribute to the social and economic well-being of a community. Well-designed buildings can improve air quality, reduce crime, and promote physical and mental health. Architects have a responsibility to design buildings that are safe, sustainable, and aesthetically pleasing.中文回答：建筑学，一门多学科领域。

介绍建筑作文英语带翻译

介绍建筑作文英语带翻译Title: Introduction to Architecture。

Architecture is a captivating blend of art, science,and culture. It is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings, structures, and spaces that notonly serve functional purposes but also evoke emotions and reflect the values of a society. In this essay, we will delve into the fascinating world of architecture, exploring its history, principles, and significance.建筑是艺术、科学和文化的迷人融合。

它是设计和建造建筑物、结构和空间的艺术和科学，不仅服务于功能目的，还能唤起情感并反映社会的价值观。

在这篇文章中，我们将深入探讨建筑这个迷人的世界，探索其历史、原则和意义。

History of Architecture。

Architecture has been an integral part of human civilization since ancient times. From the majesticpyramids of Egypt to the awe-inspiring temples of Greece, each period in history has left its mark on the built environment. The evolution of architectural styles reflects changes in societal needs, beliefs, and technological advancements. For example, the Gothic architecture of the Middle Ages emphasized verticality and light, symbolizing spiritual aspirations, while the modernist movement of the 20th century embraced simplicity and functionality.建筑从古代起就是人类文明的一个不可或缺的部分。

建筑类外文翻译+译文

Architecture in a Climate of ChangePage52-Page62Low energy techniques for housingIt would appear that,for the industrialised countries,the best chance of rescue lies with the built environment because buildings in use or in the course of erection are the biggest single indirect source of carbon emissions generated by burning fossil fuels,accounting for over 50 per cent of total emissions.If you add the transport costs generated by buildings the UK government estimate is 75 per cent.It is the built environment which is the sector that can most easily accommodate fairly rapid change without pain.In fact,upgrading buildings, especially the lower end of the housing stock,creates a cluster of interlocking virtuous circles. Construction systemsHaving considered the challenge presented by global warming and the opportunities to generate fossil-free energy,it is now time to consider how the demand side of the energy equation can respond to that challenge.The built environment is the greatest sectoral consumer of energy and,within that sector,housing is in pole position accounting for 28 per cent of all UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.In the UK housing has traditionally been of masonry and since the early 1920s this has largely been of cavity construction.The purpose was to ensure that a saturated external leaf would have no physical contact with the inner leaf apart from wall ties and that water would be discharged through weep holes at the damp-proof course level.Since the introduction of thermal regulations,initially deemed necessary to conserve energy rather than the planet,it has been common practice to introduce insulation into the cavity.For a long time it was mandatory to preserve a space within the cavity and a long rearguard battle was fought by the traditionalists to preserve this‘sacred space’.Defeat was finally conceded when some extensive research by the Building Research Establishment found that there was no greater risk of damp penetration with filled cavities and in fact damp through condensation was reduced.Solid masonry walls with external insulation are common practice in continental Europe and are beginning to make an appearance in the UK.In Cornwall the Penwith Housing Association has built apartments of this construction on the sea front, perhaps the most challenging of situations.The advantages of masonry construction are:● It is a tried and tested technology familiar to house building companies of all sizes.● It is durable and generally risk free as regards catastrophic failure–though not entirely.A few years ago the entire outer leaf of a university building in Plymouth collapsed due to the fact that the wall ties had corroded.● Exposed brickwork is a low maintenance system; maintenance demands rise considerably if it receives a rendered finish.● From the energy efficiency point of view,masonry homes have a relatively high thermal mass which is considerably improved if there are high density masonryinternal walls and concrete floors.Framed constructionVolume house builders are increasingly resorting to timber-framed construction with a brick outer skin,making them appear identical to full masonry construction.The attraction is the speed of erection especially when elements are fabricated off site. However,there is an unfortunate history behind this system due to shortcomings in quality control.This can apply to timber which has not been adequately cured or seasoned.Framed buildings need to have a vapour barrier to walls as well as roofs. With timber framing it is difficult to avoid piercing the barrier.There can also be problems achieving internal fixings.For the purist,the ultimate criticism is that it is illogical to have a framed building clad in masonry when it cries out for a panel,boarded,slate or tile hung external finish.Pressed steel frames for homes are now being vigorously promoted by the steel industry.The selling point is again speed of erection but with the added benefit of a guaranteed quality in terms of strength and durability of the material.From the energy point of view,framed buildings can accommodate high levels of insulation but have relatively poor thermal mass unless this is provided by floors and internal walls.Innovative techniquesPermanent Insulation Formwork Systems (PIFS) are beginning to make an appearance in Britain.The principle behind PIFS is the use of precision moulded interlocking hollow blocks made from an insulation material,usually expanded polystyrene.They can be rapidly assembled on site and then filled with pump grade concrete.When the concrete has set the result is a highly insulated wall ready for the installation of services and internal and exterior finishes.They can achieve a U-value as low as 0.11 W/m2K.Above three storeys the addition of steel reinforcement is necessary. The advantages of this system are:● Design flexibility; almost any plan shape is possible.● Ease and speed of erection;skill requirements are modest which is why it has proved popular with the self-build sector.Experienced erectors can achieve 5 m2 per man hour for erection and placement of concrete.● The finished product has high structural strength together with considerable thermal mass and high insulation value.Solar designPassive solar designSince the sun drives every aspect of the climate it is logical to describe the techniques adopted in buildings to take advantage of this fact as‘solar design’. The most basic response is referred to as‘passive solar design’.In this case buildings are designed to take full advantage of solar gain without any intermediate operations.Access to solar radiation is determined by a number of conditions:● the sun’s position relative to the principal facades of the building(solar altitude and azimuth);● site orientation and slope;● existing obstructions on the site;● potential for overshadowing from obstructions outside the site boundary.One of the methods by which solar access can be evaluated is the use of some form of sun chart.Most often used is the stereographic sun chart in which a series of radiating lines and concentric circles allow the position of nearby obstructions to insolation,such as other buildings,to be plotted.On the same chart a series of sun path trajectories are also drawn(usually one arc for the 21st day of each month); also marked are the times of the day.The intersection of the obstructions’outlines and the solar trajectories indicate times of transition between sunlight and shade. Normally a different chart is constructed for use at different latitudes (at about two degree intervals).Sunlight and shade patterns cast by the proposed building itself should also be considered.Graphical and computer prediction techniques may be employed as well as techniques such as the testing of physical models with a heliodon.Computer modelling of shadows cast by the sun from any position is offered by Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) with its‘Suncast’program.This is a user-friendly program which should be well within normal undergraduate competence. The spacing between buildings is important if overshading is to be avoided during winter months when the benefit of solar heat gain reaches its peak.On sloping sites there is a critical relationship between the angle of slope and the level of overshading.For example, if overshading is to be avoided at a latitude of 50 N,rows of houses on a 10 north-facing slope must be more than twice as far apart than on 10 south-facing slope.Trees can obviously obstruct sunlight.However,if they are deciduous,they perform the dual function of permitting solar penetration during the winter whilst providing a degree of shading in the summer.Again spacing between trees and buildings is critical.Passive solar design can be divided into three broad categories:● direct gain;● indirect gain;● attached sunspace or conservatory.Each of the three categories relies in a different way on the‘greenhouse effect’as a means of absorbing and retaining heat.The greenhouse effect in buildings is that process which is mimicked by global environmental warming.In buildings,the incident solar radiation is transmitted by facade glazing to the interior where it is absorbed by the internal surfaces causing warming.However,re-emission of heat back through the glazing is blocked by the fact that the radiation is of a much longer wavelength than the incoming radiation.This is because the re-emission is from surfaces at a much lower temperature and the glazing reflects back such radiation to the interior.Direct gainDirect gain is the design technique in which one attempts to concentrate the majority of the building’s glazing on the sun-facing facade.Solar radiation is admitted directly into the space concerned.Two examples 30 years apart are the author’s housein Sheffield,designed in 1967 and the Hockerton Project of 1998 by Robert and Brenda Vale.The main design characteristics are:● Apertures through which sunlight is admitted should be on the solar side of the building, within about 30 of south for the northern hemisphere.● Windows facing west may pose a summer overheating risk.● Windows should be at least double glazed with low emissivity glass (Low E) as now required by the UK Building Regulations.● The main occupied living spaces should be located on the solar side of the building.● The floor should be of a high thermal mass to absorb the heat and provide thermal inertia,which reduces temperature fluctuations inside the building.● As regards the benefits of thermal mass,for the normal daily cycle of heat absorption and emission,it is only about the first 100 mm of thickness which is involved in the storage process.Thickness greater than this provides marginal improvements in performance but can be useful in some longer-term storage options.● In the case of solid floors,insulation should be beneath the slab.● A vapour barrier should always be on the warm side of any insulation.● Thick carpets should be avoided over the main sunlit and heatabsorbing portion of the floor if it serves as a thermal store.However,with suspended timber floors a carpet is an advantage in excluding draughts from a ventilated underfloor zone. During the day and into the evening the warmed floor should slowly release its heat, and the time period over which it happens makes it a very suitable match to domestic circumstances when the main demand for heat is in the early evening.As far as the glazing is concerned,the following features are recommended: ● Use of external shutters and/or internal insulating panels might be considered to reduce night-time heat loss.● To reduce the potential of overheating in the summer,shading may be provided by designing deep eaves or external louvres. Internal blinds are the most common technique but have the disadvantage of absorbing radiant heat thus adding to the internal temperature.● Heat reflecting or absorbing glass may be used to limit overheating.The downside is that it also reduces heat gain at times of the year when it is beneficial. ● Light shelves can help reduce summer overheating whilst improving daylight distribution.Direct gain is also possible through the glazing located between the building interior and attached sunspace or conservatory;it also takes place through upper level windows of clerestory designs.In each of these cases some consideration is required concerning the nature and position of the absorbing surfaces.In the UK climate and latitude as a general rule of thumb room depth should not be more than two and a half times the window head height and the glazing area should be between about 25 and 35 per cent of the floor area.Indirect gainIn this form of design a heat absorbing element is inserted between the incident solar radiation and the space to be heated;thus the heat is transferred in an indirectway.This often consists of a wall placed behind glazing facing towards the sun,and this thermal storage wall controls the flow of heat into the building.The main elements● High thermal mass element positioned between sun and internal spaces,the heat absorbed slowly conducts across the wall and is liberated to the interior some time later.● Materials and thickness of the wall are chosen to modify the heat flow.In homes the flow can be delayed so that it arrives in the evening matched to occupancy periods. Typical thicknesses of the thermal wall are 20–30 cm.● Glazing on the outer side of the thermal wall is used to provide some insulation against heat loss and help retain the solar gain by making use of the greenhouse effect.● The area of the thermal storage wall element should be about 15–20 per cent of the floor area of the space into which it emits heat.● In order to derive more immediate heat benefit,air can be circulated from the building through the air gap between wall and glazing and back into the room.In this modified form this element is usually referred to as a Trombe wall. Heat reflecting blinds should be inserted between the glazing and the thermal wall to limit heat build-up in summer.In countries which receive inconsistent levels of solar radiation throughout the day because of climatic factors (such as in the UK),the option to circulate air is likely to be of greater benefit than awaiting its arrival after passage through the thermal storage wall.At times of excess heat gain the system can provide alternative benefits with the air circulation vented directly to the exterior carrying away its heat,at the same time drawing in outside air to the building from cooler external spaces.Indirect gain options are often viewed as being the least aesthetically pleasing of the passive solar options,partly because of the restrictions on position and view out from remaining windows,and partly as a result of the implied dark surface finishes of the absorbing surfaces.As a result,this category of the three prime solar design technologies is not as widely used as its efficiency and effectiveness would suggest.Attached sunspace/conservatoryThis has become a popular feature in both new housing and as an addition to existing homes.It can function as an extension of living space,a solar heat store,a preheater for ventilation air or simply an adjunct greenhouse for plants.On balance it is considered that conservatories are a net contributor to global warming since they are often heated.Ideally the sunspace should be capable of being isolated from the main building to reduce heat loss in winter and excessive gain in summer.The area of glazing in the sunspace should be 20–30 per cent of the area of the room to which it is attached.The most adventurous sunspace so far encountered is in the Hockerton housing development which will feature later.Ideally the summer heat gain should be used to charge a seasonal thermal storage element to provide background warmth in winter.At the very least,air flow paths between the conservatory and the main building should be carefully controlled.Active solar thermal systemsA distinction must be drawn between passive means of utilising the thermal heat of the sun, discussed earlier,and those of a more‘active’nature Active systems take solar gain a step further than passive solar.They convert direct solar radiation into another form of energy.Solar collectors preheat water using a closed circuit calorifier.The emergence of Legionella has highlighted the need to store hot water at a temperature above 60 C which means that for most of the year in temperate climes active solar heating must be supplemented by some form of heating.Active systems are able to deliver high quality energy.However,a penalty is incurred since energy is required to control and operate the system known as the ‘parasitic energy requirement’.A further distinction is the difference between systems using the thermal heat of the sun,and systems,such as photovoltaic cells, which convert solar energy directly into electrical power.For solar energy to realise its full potential it needs to be installed on a district basis and coupled with seasonal storage.One of the largest projects is at Friedrichshafen.The heat from 5600 m2 of solar collectors on the roofs of eight housing blocks containing 570 apartments is transported to a central heating unit or substation.It is then distributed to the apartments as required.The heated living area amounts to 39 500 m2.Surplus summer heat is directed to the seasonal heat store which,in this case, is of the hot water variety capable of storing 12 000 m3.The scale of this storage facility is indicated by Figure 5.9.The heat delivery of the system amounts to 1915 MWh/year and the solar fraction is 47 per cent.The month by month ratio between solar and fossil-based energy indicates that from April to November inclusive,solar energy accounts for almost total demand,being principally domestic hot water.In places with high average temperatures and generous sunlight,active solar has considerable potential not just for heating water but also for electricity generation.This has particular relevance to less and least developed countries.环境变化影响下的建筑学房屋设计中的低能耗技术显而易见，在工业化国家，最好的营救机会依赖于建筑环境，因为不论是在使用的建筑或者是在建设的建筑，都是最大的、单一的、间接地由化石燃料的燃烧所引起的碳排放的源头，而这些站了所有排放的50%。

建筑类相关外文翻译

On quality control of construction engineeringAbstract construction is the formation process of the project entity also formed an important stage of the final product. Therefore the quality control of construction phase is the key of project quality control. This article will focus on the quality control of the construction phase of the content analysis on how to strengthen the quality control in construction stage and put forward some opinions.Quality control1 architectural engineering project construction phase of the work program .The construction phase in the process of construction projects in order to ensure the construction quality of construction projects the building construction production real all-round the whole process of quality supervision and control. It includes the construction project before the construction to complete quality control quality control construction projects in the construction process and afterwards the individual and the whole project quality control of construction project.Three big links above control system are not isolated and separated from each other constitute the system of organic between them.2 quality control in construction stage In order to strengthen the quality control of construction projects a clear focus on the construction phase quality control to control the construction project quality control and afterwards control is divided into three stages beforehand control in.2.1 control refers to the quality control of construction engineering project preparation work before construction. We should do the following.2.1.1 according to the construction project is located range and area of the construction project the local natural condition and the technical and economic conditions are investigated selection of construction technology and organization scheme and as a preparation for construction work on the basis of. The project Department of construction preparation work for the organization of the construction team and related personnel give full play to the advantages of the technology and management advanced technology management methods and experience and wisdom of the formation of long-term creatively applied to engineering project.The required quality 2.1.2 construction projects on the raw materials for the control in advance is the basis of construction quality control of project construction. The first requirement of construction enterprises in the staffing organization management detection method as well as the means of all aspects of strengthening the management clear quality requirements of required materials and technical standards especially strengthening project of construction of key materials such as cement steel. For these key materials must have the corresponding qualification certificate quality inspection report the re-inspection report and so on for the imported material sand analysis of the inspection report and chemical composition no product certification and inspection unqualified materials shall not be admitted while strengthening the material the use of certification to prevent misuse or use of substandard materials.2.1.3 to the designs and drawings. Before the start of the project to identify the images drawing and drawing review before starting the construction project therelevant technical personnel should analyze the construction drawings carefully from the angle of the construction and put forward the construction ideas for construction engineering quality.2.1.4 Promulgated the collection of national and local government departments related to quality management laws regulations and quality acceptance standard quality responsibilities and obligations of the parties involved in the project construction the establishment of quality management system requirements standards quality problem processing requirements these are the important basis for quality control.Control 2.2. Process control refers to the quality control in the construction process. We should do the following.Control of 2.2.1 construction units own quality. First ensure the testing quality control system can play a role required to maintain good working condition in quality control. Secondly to improve he quality control process the factors affecting the process quality into the quality control on the important and complex construction project or process quality control point to strengthen the control of. 2.2.22.2.2 quality tracking control. First of all in the construction process we should pay attention to in the construction preparation stage factors to affect the quality of the project making the arrangements and in the construction process is changed is not conducive to the quality of the project. Secondly strict inspection process of transition. For the important process and main project must be examined within the prescribed time confirm its reach relevant quality requirements to the next process.2.2.3 in the construction projects in the construction process and to the important project of change or drawings must pass through the corresponding examination in the organization of research analysis discussion and confirmation only to issue a change command.2.2.4 strict inspection and acceptance. First check and acceptance of the product of each process should be carried out in accordance with the provisions of the corresponding self-test self-test after passing submitted to the supervision engineer quality approval notice the engineer after receiving notice check the quality process within the time specified in the contract the confirmation of the quality of qualified issued by quality acceptance of single you can enter the next procedure.Second materials semi-finished products finished products the important parts of the construction equipment and equipment should be carried out on-site inspection where the products involved in safety function should be in accordance with the provisions of code for acceptance of the project to conduct re-inspection shall be subject to examination and approval by the engineer.2.2.5 project quality control should be a model of the housing system.2.2.6 project manager department shall establish the responsibility system of the project and the evaluation system responsible for the project manager to deal with project quality control process quality control should be the responsibility of each procedure and post responsibility.2.2.7 should pay special attention to check before the start process related trades between handover inspection hidden engineering inspection inspection after shutdownrestart. The timely processing of quality problems and accidents have occurred to ensure the construction quality of construction projects.2.2.8 procurement quality control Procurement quality control mainly includes the control of procurement of products and suppliers puchasing requirements and verification of purchased products. Construction projects in the Engineering Subcontract shall also comply with the specified purchase requirements.2.3、after controlAfter control the construction quality control of the formation process we should do the following.2.3.1 segment subentry engineering. First mid-term acceptance for form in the process of construction engineering division. Second according to the requirements of the contract mid-term acceptance at the same time to complete the division project should also be based on the nature of the construction project in accordance with the quality standards of industry engineering evaluation of corresponding branch engineering quality grade.2.3.2 single project or the entire construction project completion and acceptance. The completion of the construction project or in a single project is completed the construction units should be completed acceptance. In the acceptance made the final completion and acceptance of application to the supervisor.2.3.3 when the construction quality does not meet the requirements should be timely rectification in accordance with the requirements of. The detection unit qualification identification is still not up to the design requirements shall consult with the design units to develop technical solutions.2.3.4 education and training. Improve the ability of employees through training and other measures enhance the quality and customer awareness so that employees can meet the quality requirements in the ability of the Approaches and methods of quality control of construction engineering project .construction stage33.1 in each procedure before the construction the project technical director for technical clarification written for construction team leader.3.2 quality inspector for real-time quality supervision attendant handling quality problems found in time the construction does not comply with the construction project design and requirement side mand the immediate stoppage and rectification take quality veto system.3.3 completes the process under and cross. If a process does not meet the quality requirements the construction process can not be a Cross.3.4 rational arrangement of construction procedure. Clear cross the responsibility of units do a good job handover and acceptance of work strengthen the protection of construction products.3.5 each construction process to quality inspection system to self-inspection mutual inspection special inspection to do each inspection ceng ceng ba guan. All projects must be approved by the supervisor or the owners of acceptance well concealed records the owner or supervisor signature before entering the next process.3.6 strengthen the management of Engineering data. Person in charge of project datato collect and collate relevant information to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the information and data at the same time according to the contract requirements for the preparation of the completion data.3.7 continue to effectively carry out quality audit make correct diagnosis of quality system operation the detected nonconformities or potential nonconformity corrective preventive measures make quality system to enter benign loop.ConclusionThis paper analyze and Research on the problems of quality control in construction stage of construction project. In the actual construction process quality control is a very complex process ，we should constantly in practice to explore and improve it.。

建筑设计论文外文翻译-(2)

实用文档设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：Discussion on The Planning and Designof Commercial Buildings学生姓名：XXX学号：09******83专业：建筑学所在学院：XX学院指导教师： XX职称：副教授201X年XX月XX日实用文档原文：Discussion on The Planning and Designof Commercial BuildingsAbstract: the commercial building in residential buildings has become, most attract sb.'s attention, the largest building is influenced by the type of energy and landscape of the city planning, design of commercial buildings will face more problems. This paper discusses how to carry on planning and design of commercial buildings, the construction of a rational, reasonable, appropriate business building, so as to create a good social and economic benefits. Keywords: construction planning; commercial buildings; architectural designPrefaceComprehensive is the development trend of modern commercial buildings, architects in the design of commercial buildings and functions are changing, different positioning of planning, business characteristics and local cultural influence commercial building mode, which requires us to continuously improve our project products, create more in line with the business needs of the best plan and design works, and finally let investors and consumers feel a constant value, so that they feel superior combination of spatial continuous operation, let the customer feel shopping pleasure, feel the beauty of life and the world.mercial architectural schemeCommercial buildings are generally large investment, high risk, long cycle, the successful operation of returns, different commercial patterns determine different commercial building form, and commercial pattern is determined and market positioning, the positioning accuracy of the architect, to commercial building various functions, property, facilities should have full understanding and effective organization, and different commercial construction planning ideas to produce commercial architectural design works are different, economic benefits of investment has great difference. Good architectural planning has decided the success or failure of architectural design.1.Market survey of commercial building design must be based on the market survey results. Based on the characteristics and trend of foreign consumption, economic conditions, traffic conditions, the surrounding commercial pattern, city infrastructure, city development planning, full market research business situation, on the project itself, choose format, format portfolio, the distribution of industrial chain and area proportion, industry selection, distribution and area ratio to the shops, division, architectural form, area and the floor function, people oriented system, project environment and supporting facilities are set in advance. Provide design basis for the architect to design.2.Mode demand regardless of commercial building is rental, sale or rental run combination, the most important is to determine the main format, for commercial buildings,different types of decision model is different, its business scale, function flow, and so on are designed by itself to determine, different formats have different functional requirements, and design the use is required by the business decisions rather than the developer to advocate. The lack of directional design basis, the design appears to be universal, but shoot at random. Once the function with the shop owner conflict, the design must be from the beginning. Language planning can increase the early unnecessary cost and later investment difficulty. Therefore, architects should design according to different formats of different architectural space mode analysis and recommendations.3.In commercial buildings in the process of planning, commercial real estate is the key to grasp the global experts and architects. Commercial real estate planner requires multidisciplinary personnel coordination ability of organization, according to the project of regional history and culture characteristic, according to local consumer preferences, in particular, the design project of the overall concept, culture orientation and market orientation is determined. At present, the commercial real estate projects generally organized by developers to overall planning, the investment in the project needs and business management experts, business format store managers and retail marketing planner, planner, communication landscape planners, architects, etc. In the implementation of construction plan, still need to urban planner, computer talented person to participate, to form a complete construction plans. Neither side may be arranged to replace, the architectural design is inclusive and absorbing these opinions, solutions and professional values of materialized labor and can form a complete architectural planning and design.4.Sustainable development and the characteristics of commercial building is a public place, with the development of business, commercial buildings in 5-6 years will be to do a decoration, simple and durable quality, less as far as possible need to repair and maintenance, and at the same time, according to the different project environment and commercial content is flexible to adapt and ultimately the value of investors and consumers are continuous. Complete function, rich forms, and space is varied, characteristic, design must be the contemporary tendency of time again at the same time, in all sorts of culture and the differences between s resonate.mercial building designCommercial building design is for the purpose of the construction project to produce a good and lasting economic benefits, the architect in commercial building design is to realize project to achieve a dynamic model of investment return, is to complete a final acceptance by consumers and continuous use of building products. Prophase planning orientation, investment, operation and management, each situation is very complex, has brought great influence, architecture design is an important link. And architects for commercial architecture design is inclusive and absorbing these opinions, solutions and professional values of materialized labor and can form a complete works of architectural design.(1)Formats combination designThe composition of commercial complex is decided by the business itself industry value chain, what kind of business combination is better for business. Architects should accordingto the preliminary planning and positioning, the first investment, operation and management of the planning scheme, starting from the basic function and practical application of building, clear the relationship between the function, space, environment, in line with The Times to design not only requires a new breath, also requires a reasonable and clear arrangement of the whole space functional requirements, and actively guide the passenger flow, manufacturing flow, different articles require different forms of space and location, reasonable distribution area, the partition of floor paving segmentation and supporting facilities design can avoid all kinds of goods mixed Chen, mixed traffic situation, the architect should create rich, flexible, comply with the appropriate space to contain different aspects of business combination technology needs. Must do to make it a complex, the industrial chain, industrial chain out after the value chain came out, can produce all kinds of benefits.(2)Pattern designPlanning, design of commercial building in different commercial real estate development mode, have completely different results. Rent is not only sales, emphasizing on management and value-added shops, if considering concurrently, also consider the preferences and requirements of the buyer shops. Commercial buildings due to the different requirements for merchants function layout is different, also different brands to the layout of the same forms are different. By the limit of commercial buildings, or different development cycle, or running effect is different. Those who do not conform to the business law of commercial building design, although space modeling is rich, has implied the bad management of hidden trouble. Therefore, meet the demand of merchants, digest the negative influence of all kinds of changes, architects in the design of the flexible space combination, providing different pattern design, to the use of a variety of forms do fully consider function of balance and coordination. Commercial building itself the function of the combination is very complex, for commercial, residential, office each mixed complex project, the process will be more difficult. Commercial and apartment part often deployed in a low-end, office and hotel in the high-end. The advantages of this design can facilitate the building line layout; Low-end flat layer in the core tube location is advantageous to the toilet set up; High-end part of the landscape advantage is more advantageous to project high value products. But in the concrete project, but should also fully consider building itself the vertical transportation efficiency of the impact on business. In the design of architectural plane layout, space efficiency will approach combined with architectural form and structure. For example, many senior project adopted the practice of Angle, when the design according to the economy, it can increase economic returns of about 30%, but in the specific project be careful not to damage to the corner form.(3)The guidance system designStream of people, logistics, decision function layout reasonable guidance system is the key to the success of commercial building design. Make sure people line, logistics, inward and outward, channel form, to make the layout of the commercial function, consumer groups have a wide range of interest and today free time, thus providing rich architectural space, integrating shopping, entertainment, leisure and so on need comprehensive shopping mall is their needs. Rich function as much as possible to meet the requirements of the customers, but also satisfy the buyers (pavement investors, business investors) needs to provide convenient logistics channel. And express more interest in the construction details. And then to createnew business environment. Let the consumer feel the pleasure shopping consumption, feel the beauty of life and the world at the same time, create more economic benefits for store operators.(4)Green building and characteristicGreen building on the one hand can save energy, on the other hand the sustainable of benefits will far outweigh the prophase investment so as to achieve the value of overall implementation, green buildings gives the possibility of ability of sustainable development and alteration, when architects in the design of commercial buildings so there is no need to do best, do it right, and not have to do much more luxurious style reflected is the commercial buildings, stronger in proper. Commercial buildings tend to be the center of the city commercial culture, different cities have different style, therefore, the architects in the use of his style and technique, need deep understanding urban commercial culture characteristics, extract the essence of the regional culture, architectural design make commercial buildings should have cultural features, local feature, more want to highlight the characteristics of the formats, spatial characteristics, cultural characteristics used in commercial buildings, not only can sense the material shell, are showing strong commercial buildings.3.ConclusionModern commercial architecture planning and design major programs, including the investment purpose and the understanding of the business environment for investors, commercial content on the project, the location of the business environment of consumer behavior, commercial buildings, the understanding of the business concept research, commercial building project planning, design process and method of design, for project construction total plane design and auxiliary space design professional design, space form and form design, the project design space and form of management main body,property requirements,facilities and equipment requirements,architectural engineering and construction of the professional requirement.中文译文：浅谈商业建筑规划设计摘要：商业建筑现已成为除居住建筑以外，最引人注目的，对城市活力和景观影响最大的建筑类型，商业建筑规划设计将面临更广泛的问题。

建筑英文作文和翻译

建筑英文作文和翻译下载温馨提示:该文档是我店铺精心编制而成，希望大家下载以后，能够帮助大家解决实际的问题。

文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by theeditor. I hope that after you download them,they can help yousolve practical problems. The document can be customized andmodified after downloading,please adjust and use it according toactual needs, thank you!In addition, our shop provides you with various types ofpractical materials,such as educational essays, diaryappreciation,sentence excerpts,ancient poems,classic articles,topic composition,work summary,word parsing,copyexcerpts,other materials and so on,want to know different data formats andwriting methods,please pay attention!Paragraph 1: The building stands there, tall and majestic. It's like a silent giant, looking over the city. The bricks and mortar tell stories of the past and the present.那座建筑矗立在那里，高大而威严。

毕业论文外文文献翻译-高层建筑

外文翻译题目：高层建筑学院土木建筑工程学院专业土木工程（建筑工程方向）班级学号姓名指导教师Tall BuildingsAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig. 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame; Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building (1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for bothstrength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York.Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with. Diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional story building.Fig. 1. Graphical relationship between design quantities of steel and building heights for a typical building frame. Curves A and B correspond to the boundary conditions indicated in the two building diagrams. 1 psf = 0. 048kPa.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The i10-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at tile base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft (442 m), is the world's tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind or earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes, minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building, exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft (1.68-m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in.-thick (20-cm) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world's present tallest (714 ft or 218m) lightweight concrete Building in Houston)for structure of only 35 s oriel building the unit 52—story One Shell Plaza of a traditional shear wallSystems compiling both concrete and steel have also been developed，an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore，Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing，thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structuralsteel systems．The 52—story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system．NEW WORDS AND PHRASES1．spectacular 壮观的，惊人的，引人注意的2．sway 摇动，摇摆，歪，使倾斜3．residential 居住的，住宅的，作住家用的4．commercial 商业的，商业上的，商务的5．innovation 革新，创新，新方法，新事物6．boundary 分界线，边界7．eliminate 排除，消除，除去8．apartment 公寓住宅，单元住宅9．column 柱，支柱，圆柱，柱状物10．demonstrate 示范，证明，演示，11．project 凸出，投射，计划，工程12．stress 应力，压力13．truss 构架，桁架14．bundle 捆，束，包15．terminate 使终止，使结尾，结束16．facade (房屋的)／E面，立面，表面17．perimeter 周，周围，周界，周长18．encroach 侵犯，侵占，蚕食19．high·rise building 高层建筑20．reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土21．spandrel beam 窗下墙的墙托梁22．shear wall 剪力墙高层建筑大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。

建筑工程外文文献（含翻译）

建筑工程外文文献（含翻译）外文文献：Construction of the competition and competition strategy Engineering and construction firms from the United States dominated the global market for many decades but recent world events have altered their position.To investigate the driving forces and trends that will affect engineering and construction competition in the next decade, a research project, called the "Anatomy of Construction Competition in the Year 2000", was sponsored by the Construction Industry Institute's Construc-tion 2000 Task Force- The project examined the factors that affect competitiveness, including the following, The shaping of corporate capabilities; vertical integration and horizontal expansion to increase corporate capabilities and market share, including acquisition and mergers by offshore conglomerates and the acquisition of foreign firms by U. S. companies.Financing options; the role of privatization, build-own-transfer projects, and the nature of project financing in future markets, Management, organization, and structure; future management and organizational approaches, structures, and techniques to attract personnel to perform in a global competitive environment.Work force characteristics; future availability of engineering and construction workers at the professional and craft levels.Technological issues:how technology will affect competition and be used to offset work force shortages.Research Objectives and ScopeThis research project's goal is to collect information, to adaptto the 2000 and the engineering construction after adjustment, formulate strategies needed to provide insight and formulate 2000 engineering construction of possible development plan. This study reviewed the project construction process of history, current development trend, to determine the impact of the industry, and the impetus to the future industrial enterprises are related to reshape the ability, privatisation and financing methods of potential function and management, organization structure, methods for future development direction.Research scope includes selected some of the company, the company has interviewed expertise personnel. The staff professional wide range, including commercial buildings, public buildings, industrial infrastructure, infrastructure construction, power, light industry. The production process and space science. Engineering construction competitive characteristics Engineering construction of competition because the following reasons in change features:In the 1980s, and plan in the 1990s, the implementation of theproject construction are guided from contradictory situation, to cooperate.Should be in a positive view of the new company to enter the international market, because of its construction increased global cooperation opportunities. Cooperation will make all the partners, because the American company benefit can be found in the country partner, likewise, foreign companies opportunities will break into the U.S. Market.Competitive strategyFuture strategyIn 2000, the company will strive to do:Provide the highest quality serviceCan assume any part of the worldIn order to reduce the split ground and risk controlOut in international market the most competitive priceIn order to achieve the ideal, engineering construction should be: Increase staff capital investmentThe knowledge and improve labor technology levelHave solid complete communications and transport infrastructure Concentrate on key research, product quality is guaranteed, fine, and arouse the enthusiasm of the workers, improve workers technology level.The 21st century is the main factor fractal ring will compete in the international market, including the integration of productivity, union salary to abate, reduce the power industry management and privatization.American company competition ability, largely depends on developing and effective use of technical innovation. American companies need not only use the technical innovation, domestic by other countries optimization improved technology. In the future will be popular technology innovation will not some big breakthrough, but the existing technology continuous improvements.British buildings company profileIn the early 1990s, the head of the flexible builders who don't make a building, but what else can do, making many buildings company suffered a serious blow the economic depression, experienced and excessive expansion of real estate industry also. But, when he saw them in the real estate industry (in the big money, most of them in order to disencumber the bet down again in the real estate market. By Alan cosmas indicopleustesunder the leadership of Mr. Shaw ai enjoy in the old field company Merck's reputation can earn cash on the balance sheet, and can keep the balance. However, in some areas of the world, the company also man a dilemma, especially in the United States, the change from a Louisiana oil and natural gas market of recession, it is especially outstanding in Britain, the commercial and industrial real estate market, the company is faced with a difficult situation, with profits. And it also became worse. The company's development, walid UK early 1990s third big house builders, probably because London suburb will have a copy from the era of George sell buildings of former prime minister Margaret thatcher and world-famous. The company's character, chairman of the unique Laurie walid from Mr Often "give" iron lady public support. The approximate mythological blessing that he seemed destined to enjoy. In fact, the company also is different, the influence of the housing slump is strong in Laurie, under the leadership of the company now recover its stronger towards the financial status. Laurie retired charge again situation (1991 fall after his retirement he restored to the company recalled). As most of its business competitors, the industry in different market also suffered a serious blow, although the slump in 1993, the company is beginning to improve long-term credit rating IBCA institution of the first buildings company business development for a while. John, the company is different, have very good to withstand the latest world construction difficulties. They have abundant capital, clearly recognized that they have greatly reduced the book value of the asset. For example, in early 1990, they in real estate in the bank delimit lost 1 ￡2m value. After that, they cut and labor. Despite their housing sales still quite good, but its profit isreduced. The company is in most lai attention is famous for its environmental problems.The status and the tower mike company walid special form bright contrast, in 1993, their credit rating agency reduced by IBCA. This company in the 1980s most time trying to prove to the world that they are the UK's biggest builders, the information being understanding, and either, but hopefully it never happened. They suffer from cope with high growth rate cuts, to build houses. But the company is still tower mike Britain's biggest construction and building materials group company. October 1992, they closed the real estate business, and this is the will of the seven business to three (building, quarrying and residential building) part of the plan. Michael essien, Somerville, resistant to fly, the group's President, in the company after 22 years in the spring of 1992, sit on the seat of the hot ass. People think that the housing problem of exposure, this position has arrived at the point, which including several on a company's balance sheet of the large-scale joint enterprise, joint enterprise business, actually makes corporation debts machine more. T aylor wood of real estate industry recession Royce unpleasant experiences embodied in 1992, when the estate of autumn is DanielPeter HeJi sudden resignation, it also happens in its predecessor, Peter trillion resigned after all shocked by only a few months. Home, then reverse, Taylor wood Rolls-Royce announced due to bad management, caused severe losses. Although construction contracting business increasingly important status in a recession, but company two-thirds of income from this business is. However, the company has a huge investment assets securities, rental income more than 5 year 2000 million pounds. The company has no longer conduct riskybusiness projects, at least until the situation in better later.Eastern European architectural market competition situation analysisAt present, the economic reforms of the eastern Europe, thus caused confusion of these areas of business activities with the new economic system. Experts say, analyzed from a long-term perspective, using the market economic policy will bring a more stable, and more favorable economic environment. The reform of political economy in eastern Europe will be for those who are willing to invest in this area of the company to create a lot of money but market. If you keep the momentum, before long, eastern Europe 5640 billion dollars each year for the construction of international construction market will be more than one-third of the market. This area is open to the worldsituation inaugurated a new construction.The object of studyThe goal is to establish a framework, and international engineering and construction company may formulate feasible strategy, and to evaluate the. The framework has been introduced for the project construction company outside the eastern area in the construction business is very helpful. In order to measure the market opportunities and challenges, we sent the questionnaires and interviews, the individual to identify important success factors or aspects. Thus illustrates construction company in determining their strategy must possess the characteristics. Through the research of strategic framework has been set up in this area by an actual construction, an international engineering and construction company is considering to undertake the engineering, to test this strategic framework in specific market environment effect.The research methodsBy reference to the literature, questionnaire issued a personal interview, and the research target has been achieved. This research using data from the world's major construction company. Including 13 U.S. companies, two south Korean companies.Questionnaires to collect data compiled for investigation and ensure the consistency of the content. The problem, not the way people won't produce a certain criteria. Free to answer this question, ask questions in order to guarantee the unfavorable and overmuch. Participate in the company's answer to the question, questionnaire involving the problems in three aspects:(1) the eastern architecture market opportunities and challenges,(2) the construction of key factors YangChengGong city, (3) to determine the strategic framework, construction industry should make adjustments. Each main parts attached to a set of problems under which the object of study, make clear further.Interview based on construction engineering company voluntary under the condition of the study of the company, in answerThe telephone interviews survey or separate. For these companies how to build and use their own in this area is a strategic framework, if the researchers believe that the method is feasible, and they put main skills assembly written. By visiting personnel to answer questions, what is eastern architecture market success factor ? The important factor in his company is a positive or negative impact? What effect? Researchers also collected from international architectural engineering, as well as a lesson in later in the project of measures have been taken.The future trend of real estate investmentHousing has been the most important in the modern life of demand.Families with more spacious and comfortable housing demand has increased, and hope to have more disposable income in the house. As a result, households residential become very expensive. In addition, the new population statistics show that currently existing housing needs to sell the house of points, recreational property and retiree community. Commercial and industrial real estate investment is also very good. In order to judge what real estate market within the scope of comparative spruce, analyzed the market is very important. However, many investment prospects are very optimistic.The feasibility of the economy, the future of the investment real estate showing strong. But in general economic conditions, also do not exclude it "low" period. If investors can develop a safety strategy, so they will get considerable income. These strategies including effective operation and management, analyzes the problem, real estate and correct treatment, the contradiction between the owner and the occupiers and understand the role of investment and investment project, the influence of the government in property. The real estate investor can dominate the market this problem with real estate income has more than ordinary shares, the problem is an old problem. Actually no reason to believe that an investor can use the same market information and analytical skills in long-term operation can obtain excess profit. However, using internal message, data analysis and complex analysis method, so investors will probably make a better choice than its competitors. According to the real estate market, real estate investment process for investment and reduce costs "and" obtain goodresults provide the opportunity of investors.We know "lucky" or luck may produce short-term abnormal returns. We even have a few people because of good news to avoid "seek more expensive and succeed. Although a few of these people, they have intuition according to the real estate investment process. If you have the talent, don't study also to investment.The types of real estate investment in real estate investment is residence though relatively common form, and some properties of future investors have quite attractive. In each of the different fields during, and residential areas including real estate, commercial real estate, industrial real estate, agriculture, such as golf, and real estate and other special purposes. Although effective analysis skills necessary to investment projects with enlarged and complex and increasing, but the basic skills and real estate investment process remains unchanged.But the real income in accordance with the income level can rent levels and geographical location and according to the classification. The position of urban real estate value economic influence the effect of economic environment, so the analysis is very important. However, some places of the land clearly more suitable for specific purposes. For example, in the development of new urban residential area, the land may be too expensive, is not suitable for the development of low density garden project. Because it is so hard to use accurate way to predict future events, forecast and actual differences between the results may cause some serious problems. Overestimates rent rate or future price, low operation cost estimates, or to determine equipment renewal fee will cause serious cash flow problems. Fail to fulfill debt obligations or real estate tax lien may be compelledto cancel. All these things are closely related with investors.中文译文：建筑业的竞争及竞争策略美国的工程建筑公司几十年来一直控制着国际建筑市场，但近来世界上发生的事件改变了它的主导地位。

建筑类英文翻译文章

建筑类英文翻译文章人类建设的超级建筑India's Gigantic Smart Cities印度的百座智能城市It sounds like a Silicon Valley dream: a city where everything isconnected to the Internet and acentral command center digitally links every citizen. Yet this idle daydream may soon beareality and not in California. Known as Dholera, it's one of the Indian government's enormousnew infrastructure projects that could be ready within a decade.这听起来像一个硅谷梦：一座每件事情都连接到网络的城市和一个数字化联系着每个市民的中央指挥中心。

然而这个白日梦不久就会成为现实，当然不是在加利福尼亚。

印度政府预计在十年内完成大量新型基础设施的建设，而作为托莱拉出名的项目则是其中之一。

Part of the phenomenally ambitious Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor, a $90 billion scheme tolink the two most important cities on the subcontinent, Dholera would be the jewel in theproject'scrown. Built from scratch on reclaimed land, it would be big, powerful, and stunninglyhigh-tech. Digital crowd and traffic control would aim for no jams, no pollution, no mobs ofpeople liningup at terminals, no dirt, and no littering. Every house would be wiredup to theInternet, a stunning achievement in a country where, in 2021, only 3 percent of homes hadany Internet access.Dholera's other draw is its size. Designed to cope with India's ever-expanding population, the city would be twice as big as Mumbai, or roughlythree times thesize of Malta. Even moreimpressively, Dholera is just the tip of the iceberg. If the project comesoff and the government is pushing ahead, despite serious setbacks, there are plans to buildanother 23 smart citiesjust as impressive across the region.该项目作为宏伟的德里-孟买工业走廊的一部分，预期投资900亿美元，连接印度次大陆的两个最重要的城市，托莱拉犹如皇冠上的明珠。

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

土木工程概论摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。

整个世界每天都在改变，而建筑也随科学的进步而发展。

力学的发现，材料的更新，不断有更多的科学技术引入建筑中。

以前只求一间有瓦盖顶的房屋，现在追求舒适，不同的思想，不同的科学，推动了土木工程的发展，使其更加完美。

关键词：土木工程；建筑；力学；材料土木工程是建造各种工程的统称。

它的原意是与“军事工程”相对应的。

在英语中，历史上土木工程、机械工程、电气工程、化工工程都属于Civil Engineering，因为它们都具有民用性。

后来，随着工程科学技术的发展，机械、电气、化工都已逐渐形成独立的科学，Civil Engineering就成为土木工程的专门名词。

至今，在英语中，Civil Engineering还包括水利工程、港口工程；而在我国，水利工程和港口工程也成为与土木工程十分密切的相对独立分支。

土木工程既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。

土木工程是一种与人们的衣、食、住、行有着密切关系的工程。

其中与“住”的关系是直接的。

因为，要解决“住”的问题必须建造各种类型的建筑物。

而解决“行、食衣”的问题既有直接的一面，也有间接的一面。

要“行”，必须建造铁路、道路、桥梁；要“食”，必须打井取水、兴修水利、进行农田灌溉、城市供水排水等，这是直接关系。

而间接关系则不论做什么，制造汽车、轮船也好，纺纱、织布、制衣也好，乃至生产钢铁、发射卫星、开展科学研究活动都离不开建造各种建筑物、构筑物和修建各种工程设施。

土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。

土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。

土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。

建筑工程就是兴建房屋规划，勘测，设计，施工的总称。

目的是为人类的生产和生活提供场所。

房屋好比一个人，它的规划就像人生活的环境，是由规划师负责的；它的布局和艺术处理相应于人的体形、容貌、气质，是由建筑师负责的；它的结构好比人的骨骼和寿命，是由结构工程师负责的；它的给排水、供热通风和电气等设施就如人的器官、神经，是由设备工程师负责的。

也像自然界完好地塑造人一样，在城市我地区规划基础上建造房屋，是建设单位，勘察单位、设计单位的各种设计工程师和施工单位全面协调合作的过程。

结构说穿了，不过就是受力体的反力与内部应力如何与外力达到平衡。

建筑首先要解决，也是必须要解决的问题就是受力的问题。

我们把解决这个问题的学科称为建筑力学。

建筑力学有可以分为：静力学，材料力学和结构力学三大力学体系。

建筑力学是讨论和研究建筑结构及构件在荷载和其他因素影响的工作状况，也就是建筑的强度，刚度，稳定性。

在载荷作用下，承受载荷和传递载荷的建筑结构和构件会引起周围的物体对它们的作用，同时物件本身受载荷作用而产生变形，并且存在着被破坏的可能性，但是结构本身就具有一定的抵抗变形和破坏的能力，而结构的承载能力的大小是与构件的材料，截面的几何尺寸，受力性质，工作条件和构造情况有关。

而这些关系都可以由力学关系式通过计算而得以解决。

建筑材料在建筑中也有着举足轻重的作用。

建筑材料是随着人类社会生产力和科学技术的提高而逐步发展起来的。

远古时代，人类的住、行采用的是石块和树木。

公元前12～4世纪先后创制了瓦和砖，人类才有用人造材料做成的住房。

17世纪有了生铁和熟铁以后，直到18世纪有了波特兰水泥，才使后来的钢筋混凝土工程得到蓬勃发展。

如今各种高强度结构材料、新型装饰材料和防水材料的开发，则和20世纪中期以来高分子有机材料在土木工程中的广泛应用密切相关。

在所有材料中，最为主要和最为大众的是钢材、混凝土、木材、砌体。

近年来，采用两种材料的优点，将它们组合在一起，做成的组合结构得到很快发展。

现在的建筑中，工程质量的优劣通常与所采用材料的优劣，性能及使用的合理与否有直接的联系，在满足相同技术指标和质量要求的前提下，选择不同的材料不同的使用方法，都对工程的造价有直接的影响。

在建筑过程中，建筑工程施工是和与建筑力学，建筑材料同样重要的一个环节。

建筑施工是将设计者的思想，意图及构思转化为现实的过程，从古代的穴居巢处到现在的摩天大楼，从农村的乡间小道到城市的高架道路都需要通过“施工”的手段来实现。

一个工程的施工包括许多工种工程，诸如土石方工程，深基坑支护工程，基础工程，钢筋混凝土结构工程，结构吊装工程，防水工程，装饰工程等，各个工种工程都有自己的规律，都需要根据不同的施工对象及施工环境条件采用相应的施工技术，在土建施工的同时，需要与有关的水电及其它设备组成一个整体，各工程之间合理的组织与协调，更好的发挥投资的效益。

土木工程施工在发挥效益的同时，还要严格按照国家颁发的有关施工技术规范，从而进一步提高我国的施工水平，保证施工质量，降低工程成本。

任何建筑无不修建在地球表面的地层上，建筑的重量最后都会传给地层，有地层来承受。

支撑建筑的地层被统称为地基，建筑物在地面以下并将上部结构的自重与所承担的载荷传递到地基上的构件或部分构件称为基础。

地基，基础和上部结构是建筑物的三个不可分割的部分。

三者的功能不同，但在载荷的作用下，它们彼此相关，是共同作用的整体。

地基可分为天然地基和人工地基，基础根据埋深分为深基础和浅基础。

，基础和地基的质量是保证建筑物的安全和正常使用的关键所在，建筑物的地基在建筑物的载荷作用下既要保持整体的稳定性又要是地基产生的沉降在建筑物许可范围内，而地基本身应有足够的强度，刚度和耐久性，同时还要考虑修基础的方法和必要的挡土挡水及相关措施。

随着人们生活的水平的不断提高，人们对自己所处的建筑空间已经不仅仅单纯从数量上提出更高的要求，而且从质量上也提车了更高的要求，要求环境的美观，有一定的舒适度。

这就需要对建筑进行必要的装修。

如果说建筑主体工程构成了建筑的骨架，那么装饰后的建筑则成了有血有肉的有机体，最终以丰富的，完善的面貌出现在人们的面前，最佳的建筑应该充分体现各种装饰材料的有关特性，结合现有的施工技术，最有效的手法，来达到构思所要表达的效果。

建筑装修要考虑建筑空间的使用要求，保护主体机构免受损害，给人以美的享受，满足消防疏散的要求，装饰材料和方案的合理性，施工技术和经济的可行性等。

房屋建筑发展的同时，像房屋建筑一样影响着人们生活的道路，桥梁，隧道等也取得了长足的发展。

总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。

地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。

在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大洋的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。

科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。

近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。

同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能化技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。

一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃。

这是一门需要心平气和和极大的耐心和细心的专业。

因为成千上万，甚至几十万根线条要把建筑物的每一处结构清楚的反映出来。

没有一个平和的心态，做什么事情都只是浮在表面上，对任何一幢建筑的结构，对要从事的事业便不可能有一个清晰、准确和深刻的认识，这自然是不行的。

从事这个行业，可能没有挑灯夜战的勇气，没有不达目的不罢休的精神，只会被同行所淘汰。

这是一个需要责任感和爱心的行业。

要有一颗负责的心——我一人之命在我手，千万人之命在我手。

既然选择了土木，就应该踏踏实实的肩负起这个责任。

最后，这是一个不断追求完美的行业。

金字塔，壮观吧；长城，雄伟吧......但如果没有一代又一代人的不断追求，今天的我们或许还用那种最古老的办法来造这同样的建筑。

设计一幢建筑的结构是很繁，但是这都是经历了数个世纪的涤荡，经过不断的积累，不断改良，不断创新所得到的。

而且这样的追求，绝不局限于过去。

试想，如果设计一幢建筑能够像计算一加一等于二一样简单而易于掌握，那何了而不为呢？因此，土木工程师总是在不断的求索中。

一个最简单的结构，最少的耗费，最大的功用。

选择土木，选择了一条踏实勤奋，不断创新，追求完美的道路。

参考文献[1]罗福午主编.土木工程（专业）概论.武汉.武汉理工大学出版社.2007年[2]王福川，宫米贵主编.建筑工程材料.北京.科学技术文献出版社.2002[3]江见鲸，叶志明主编.土木工程概论.北京.高等教育出版社.1992年Civil engineering introduction papersAbstract: the civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, build --ing whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of scien --ce and development. Mechanics findings, material of update, ever more scientific tech --nology into the building. But before a room with a tile to cover the top of the house, now for comfort, different ideas, different scientific, promoted the development of civil engineering, making it more perfect.key words : civil engineering; Architecture; Mechanics, Materials.Civil engineering is build various projects collectively. It was meant to be and "military project" corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to to Engineering, because they all have MinYongXing. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port Engineering, While in our country, water conservancy projects and port projects also become very close and civil engineer --ing relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering is a kind of with people's food, clothing, shelter and transporta --tion has close relation of the project. Among them with "live" relationship is directly. Because, to solve the "live" problem must build various types of buildings. To solve the "line, food and clothes" problem both direct side, but also a indirect side. "Line", must build railways, roads, Bridges, "Feed", must be well drilling water, water conservancy, farm irrigation, drainage water supply for the city, that is direct relation. Indirectly relationship is no matter what you do, manufacturing cars, ships, or spinning and weav --ing, clothing, or even production steel, launch satellites, conducting scientific research activities are inseparable from build various buildings, structures and build all kinds of project facilities.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, water and wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines.Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of people's life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineer --ing construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerho --uses.Construction project is housing planning, survey, design, construction of the floorboard. Purpose is for human life and production provide places.Houses will be like a man, it's like a man's life planning environment is responsible by the planners, Its layout and artistic processing, corresponding to the body shape looks and temperament, is responsible by the architect, Its structure is like a person's bones and life expectancy, the structural engineer is responsible, Its water, heating ventilation and electrical facilities such as the human organ and the nerve, is by the equipment engin --eer is responsible for. Also like nature intact shaped like people, in the city I districtplanning based on build houses, and is the construction unit, reconnaissance unit, design unit of various design engineers and construction units comprehensive coordination and cooperation process.After all, but is structural stress body reaction force and the internal stress and how external force balance. Building to tackle, also must solve the problem is mechanical problems. We have to solve the problem of discipline called architectural mechanics. Architectural mechanics have can be divided into: statics, material mechanics and structural mechanics three mechanical system. Architectural mechanics is discussion and research building structure and component in load and other factors affecting the work --ing condition of, also is the building of intensity, stiffness and stability. In load, bear load and load of structure and component can cause the surrounding objects in their function, and the object itself by the load effect and deformation, and there is the possib --ility of damage, but the structure itself has certain resistance to deformation and destr --uction of competence, and the bearing capacity of the structure size is and component of materials, cross section, and the structural properties of geometry size, working condi --tions and structure circumstance relevant. While these relationships can be improved by mechanics formula solved through calculation.Building materials in building and has a pivotal role. Building material is with human society productivity and science and technology improves gradually developed. In ancient times, the human lives, the line USES is the rocks and Trees. The 4th century BC, 12 ~ has created a tile and brick, humans are only useful synthetic materials made of housing. The 17th century had cast iron and ShouTie later, until the eighteenth century had Portland cement, just make later reinforced concrete engineering get vigorous devel --opment. Now all sorts of high-strength structural materials, new decoration materials and waterproof material development, criterion and 20th century since mid organic polymer materials in civil engineering are closely related to the widely application. In all materials, the most main and most popular is steel, concrete, lumber, masonry. In recent years, by using two kinds of material advantage, will make them together, the combina --tion of structure was developed. Now, architecture, engineering quality fit and unfit quality usually adopted materials quality, performance and using reasonable or not havedirect connection, in meet the same technical indicators and quality requirements, under the precondition of choice of different material is different, use method of engineering cost has direct impact.In construction process, building construction is and architectural mechanics, building materials also important links. Construction is to the mind of the designer, intention and idea into realistic process, from the ancient hole JuChao place to now skyscrapers, from rural to urban country road elevated road all need through "construction" means. A construction project, including many jobs such as dredging engineering, deep foundation pit bracing engineering, foundation engineering, reinforced concrete structure engineering, structural lifting project, waterproofing, decorate projects, each type of project has its own rules, all need according to different construction object and construction environment conditions using relevant construction technology, in work-site.whenever while, need and the relevant hydropower and other equipment composition of a whole, each project between reasonable organizing and coordination, better play investment benefit. Civil engineering construction in the benefit, while also issued by the state in strict accordance with the relevant construction technology stand --ard, thus further enhance China's construction level to ensure construction quality, reduce the cost for the project.Any building built on the surface of the earth all strata, building weight eventually to stratum, have to bear. Formation Support building the rocks were referred to as foun --dation, and the buildings on the ground and under the upper structure of self-respect and liable to load transfer to the foundation of components or component called founda --tion. Foundation, and the foundation and the superstructure is a building of three insep --arable part. According to the function is different, but in load, under the action of them are related to each other, is the interaction of the whole. Foundation can be divided into natural foundation and artificial foundation, basic according to the buried depth is divid --ed into deep foundation and shallow foundation. , foundation and foundation is the guarantee of the quality of the buildings and normal use close button, where buildings foundation in building under loads of both must maintain overall stability and if the settlement of foundation produce in building scope permitted inside, and foundationitself should have sufficient strength, stiffness and durability, also consider repair methods and the necessary foundation soil retaining retaining water and relevant mea --sures.As people living standard rise ceaselessly, the people to their place of building space has become not only from the number, and put forward higher requirement from quality are put car higher demands that the environment is beautiful, have certain comf --ort. This needs to decorate a building to be necessary. If architecture major engineering constitutes the skeleton of the building, then after adornment building has become the flesh-and-blood organism, final with rich, perfect appearance in people's in front, the best architecture should fully embody all sorts of adornment material related properties, with existing construction technology, the most effective gimmick, to achieve concetion must express effect. Building outfit fix to consider the architectural space userequire --ment, protect the subject institutions from damage, give a person with beautifulenjoy --ing, satisfy the requirements of fire evacuation, decorative materials and scheme of rationality, construction technology and economic feasibility, etc. Housing construction development and at the same time, like housing construction as affecting people life of roads, Bridges, tunnels has made great progress.In general civil engineering is one of the oldest subjects, it has made great achieve --ments, the future of the civil engineering will occupy in people's life more important position. The environment worsening population increase, people to fight for survival, to strive for a more comfortable living environment, and will pay more attention to civil engineering. In the near future, some major projects extimated to build, insert roller sky --scrapers, across the ocean.Bridges, more convenient traffic would not dream. The development of science and technology, and the earth is deteriorating environment will be prompted civil engineer --ing to aerospace and Marine development, provide mankind broader space of living. In recent years, engineering materials mainly is reinforced concrete, lumber and brick materials, in the future, the traditional materials will be improved, more suitable for some new building materials market, especially the chemistry materials will promote the construction of towards a higher point. Meanwhile, design method of precision, designwork of automation, information and intelligent technology of introducing, will be people have a more comfortable living environment. The word, and the development of the theory and new materials, the emergence of the application of computer, high-tech introduction to wait to will make civil engineering have a new leap.This is a door needs calm and a great deal of patience and attentive professional. Because hundreds of thousands, even hundreds of thousands of lines to building each place structure clearly reflected. Without a gentle state of mind, do what thing just floating on the surface, to any a building structure, to be engaged in business and could not have had a clear, accurate and profound understanding of, the nature is no good. In this business, probably not burn the midnight oil of courage, not to reach the goal of spirit not to give up, will only be companies eliminated.This is a responsible and caring industry. Should have a single responsible heart - I one's life in my hand, thousands of life in my hand. Since the civil, should choose dependably shoulder the responsibility.Finally, this is a constant pursuit of perfect industry. Pyramid, spectacular now: The Great Wall, the majestic.But if no generations of the pursuit of today, we may also use the sort of the oldest way to build this same architecture. Design a building structure is numerous, but this is all experienced centuries of clarification, through continuous accumulation, keep improving, innovation obtained. And such pursuit, not confined in the past. Just think, if the design of a building can be like calculation one plus one equals two as simple and easy to grasp, that was not for what? Therefore, a civil engineer is in constant of in formation. One of the most simple structure, the least cost, the biggest fun --ction. Choose civil, choosing a steadfast diligence, innovation, pursuit of perfect path.Reference[1] LuoFuWu editor. Civil engineering (professional). Introduction to wuhan. Wuhan university of technology press. 2007[2] WangFuChuan, palace rice expensive editor. Construction engineering materials. Beijing. Science and technology literature press. 2002[3] jiang see whales, zhiming editor. Civil engineering introduction of higher education press. Beijing.1992。