哲学的历史发展【英文】
教育哲学的发展历程
教育哲学的发展历程The journey of educational philosophy has traversed a rich and diverse path, evolving over centuries to encapsulate various theories and perspectives. Tracing its origins, we find that early philosophers like Plato and Aristotle pondered over the essence of education, debating its aims and methods. Plato emphasized the cultivation of the soul through rational inquiry, while Aristotle advocated a more practical approach, focusing on the development of virtues through habituation.教育哲学的发展历程经历了丰富而多样的道路，几个世纪以来不断发展，包含了各种理论和观点。
追溯其起源，我们发现诸如柏拉图和亚里士多德等早期哲学家对教育的本质进行了深思，对教育目的和方法进行了辩论。
柏拉图强调通过理性探究来培养灵魂，而亚里士多德则主张一种更为实用的方法，即通过习惯养成来发展美德。
The Medieval era saw a shift towards religious education, with the church playing a pivotal role in shaping educational systems. The Renaissance, on the other hand, marked a rebirth of classical learning, emphasizing humanism and the importance of individuality in education.中世纪时期，教育转向了宗教教育，教堂在塑造教育体系中发挥了关键作用。
19世纪哲学发展【英文】
Kant's "Copernican revolution", that placed the role of the human subject or knower at the center of inquiry into our knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they are independently of us or of how they are for us; his invention of critical philosophy, that is of the notion of being able to discover and systematically explore possible inherent limits to our ability to know through philosophical reasoning; * his creation of the concept of "conditions of possibility", as in his notion of "the conditions of possible experience" -- that is that things, knowledge, and forms of consciousness rest on prior conditions that make them possible, so that to understand or know them we have to first understand these conditions; * his theory that objective experience is actively constituted or constructed by the functioning of the human mind; * his notion of moral autonomy as central to humanity; * his assertion of the principle that human beings should be treated as ends rather thNovember 28, 1820 – August 5, 1895) was a German social scientist and philosopher, who developed communist theory alongside his better-known collaborator, Karl Marx, co-authoring The Communist Manifesto (1848). Engels also edited the second and third volumes of Das Kapital after Marx's death.
西方哲学的发展历程
西方哲学的发展历程
西方哲学的发展历程可以追溯到古希腊时期。
在这个时期，一些重要的哲学家如亚里士多德、柏拉图和苏格拉底开始思考关于人类存在、真理和道德的问题。
亚里士多德强调通过观察和推理来获得知识，并提出了逻辑学的基本原则。
柏拉图则着重思考理念和观念的本质，并认为真理存在于超越个体的普遍理念中。
苏格拉底则将注意力集中于伦理学，通过对话的形式引导人们反思自己的行为和价值观。
这些古希腊哲学家的思想直接或间接地影响了后世哲学家的思考。
在古罗马时期，斯多噶派学派的哲学家如塞内卡等将古希腊哲学进一步发展和传播。
而基督教的兴起则给哲学思考带来了新的方向。
中世纪的哲学家圣奥古斯丁和托马斯·阿奎纳斯提出了基督教哲学的观点，将信仰与理性相结合。
文艺复兴时期，人文主义思想逐渐兴起，启蒙运动带来了理性主义和经验主义的争论。
笛卡尔提出了“我思故我在”的理性主义观点，而洛克则强调通过感觉和经验来获取知识。
18世纪，以康德为代表的德国哲学家提出了“启蒙”的理念，主张人们应该依靠自己的理性来解决问题。
19世纪，黑格尔的唯心主义和尼采的超人观念改变了人们对于真理和人类存在的看法。
20世纪，在逻辑实证主义和存在主义的影响下，哲学注重语言分析和人类存在的问题。
维特根斯坦和罗素等逻辑实证主义
者强调语言的清晰和逻辑性。
而存在主义者如海德格尔和萨特则关注人类存在的意义和自由的问题。
当代哲学则呈现出多样性和多元化的局面。
从后现代思潮到分析哲学，从女性主义哲学到环境伦理学，各种各样的思想流派使得西方哲学在不同的领域和问题上得到了深入的探讨。
0101哲学一级学科简介
0101哲学一级学科简介一级学科（中文）名称：哲学（英文）名称：Philosophy一、学科概况哲学是从整体上把握世界及其发展的一般规律，探索人与世界的关系以及人自身的发展规律的学科。
人类哲学思想源远流长，已有二千六百多年的历史。
古代哲学是自然知识、社会知识和思维知识的总汇和概括。
随着近现代科学的发展，越来越多的学科从哲学领域分离出去。
在现代教育和学科体系中，哲学是一门特殊学科，作为理论化、系统化的世界观、价值观和方法论，具有重要的地位。
19世纪中叶诞生的马克思主义哲学是重大的哲学变革，对现代哲学思想乃至社会的政治、文化和经济产生重大影响。
我国在现代化革命和建设的进程中，充分发挥和体现了马克思主义哲学的指导作用，同时重新整理、解释和改造中国古代哲学文献和思想，积极引进外国哲学思想，创立并正在发展凝聚着中国当代时代精神和民族精神精华的哲学形态。
哲学在中国对人们的文化素质、思维方式、认知能力和价值取向起着导向作用，哲学关注和研究的重大理论问题和现实问题对社会发展和精神文明具有积极的促进作用，哲学学科与其他学科有着广泛而密切的相互交流和影响的关系。
当代中国的哲学与世界各国的哲学的交流日益频繁和深入，成为促进中外文化交流、增进相互理解的重要思想媒介和精神纽带。
二、学科内涵在长期历史发展中，哲学内部逐渐形成了一系列相对独立而又彼此有机联系着的分支学科。
其中主要有：包括本体论、认识论、社会历史观、方法论和价值论等在内的基本理论，以及关于哲学产生、发展过程和人类认识规律的哲学史。
随着社会、文化和科学的发展，哲学在不同时代所关注的对象、理论形态和研究方法都经历着不同的变化。
现代哲学的重要特征是与自然科学、社会科学、人文学科和新兴学科日益渗透、贯通,由此形成了一系列新的哲学分支学科和交叉学科，它们不但影响着相关学科的理论范式和方法论基础，而且也影响着哲学自身的理论形态和知识结构。
这些分支学科相互影响和渗透，包含着复杂的内容，存在着进一步分化和综合的可能。
西方哲学发展史英语论文
A History of Western PhilosophyThe conceptions of life and the world which we call "philosophical" are a product of two factors: one, inherited religious and ethical conceptions; the other, the sort of investigation which may be called "scientific," using this word in its broadest sense. Individual philosophers have differed widely in regard to the proportions in which these two factors entered into their systems, but it is the presence of both, in some degree, that characterizes philosophy.Western Philosophy, as distinct from theology, began in Greece in the sixth century B.C. After running its course in antiquity, it was again submerged by theology as Christianity rose and Rome fell. Its second great period, from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, was dominated by the Catholic Church, except for a few great rebels, such as the Emperor Frederick II (1195-1250). This period was brought to an end by the confusions that culminated in the Reformation. The third period, from the seventeenth century to the present day, is dominated, more than either of its predecessors, by science; traditional religious beliefs remain important, but are felt to need justification, and are modified wherever science seems to make this imperative. Few of the philosophers of this period are orthodox from a Catholic standpoint, and the secular State is more important in their speculations than the Church. Throughout this long development, from 600 B.C. to the present day, philosophers have been divided into those who wished to tighten social bonds and those who wished to relax them. With this difference others have been associated. The disciplinarians have advocated some system. of dogma, either old or new, and have therefore been compelled to be, in a greater or less degree, hostile to science, since their dogmas could not be proved empirically. They have almost invariably taught that happiness is not the good, but that "nobility" or "heroism" is to be preferred. They have had sympathy with the irrational parts of human nature, since they have felt reason to be inimical to social cohesion. The libertarians, on the other hand, with the exception of the extreme anarchists, have tended to be scientific, utilitarian, rationalistic, hostile to violent passion, and enemies of all the more profound forms of religion. This conflict existed in Greece before the rise of what we recognize as philosophy, and is already quite explicit in the earliest Greek thought. In changing forms, it has persisted down to the present day, and no doubt will persist for many ages to come.It is clear that each party to this dispute--as to all that persist through long periods of time--is partly right and partly wrong. Social cohesion is a necessity, and mankind has never yet succeeded in enforcing cohesion by merely rational arguments. Every community is exposed to two opposite dangers: ossification through too much discipline and reverence for tradition, on the one hand; on the other hand, dissolution, or subjection to foreign conquest, through the growth of an individualism and personal independence that makes co-operation impossible.In general, important civilizations start with a rigid and superstitious system,gradually relaxed, and leading, at a certain stage, to a period of brilliant genius, while the good of the old tradition remains and the evil inherent in its dissolution has not yet developed. But as the evil unfolds, it leads to anarchy, thence, inevitably, to a new tyranny, producing a new synthesis secured by a new system of dogma. The doctrine of liberalism is an attempt to escape from this endless oscillation. The essence of liberalism is an attempt to secure a social order not based on irrational dogma, and insuring stability without involving more restraints than are necessary for the preservation of the community. Whether this attempt can succeed or not is only determine by the future..。
西方哲学的发展历程
西方哲学的发展历程西方哲学的发展历程可以追溯到古希腊时期的哲学家们。
在这个时期，一些思想家开始思考人类存在的本质和宇宙的本原。
他们提出了许多关于知识、道德、政治和宇宙的问题，并试图通过逻辑和推理来解决这些问题。
在古希腊时期，最重要的哲学流派是柏拉图学派和亚里士多德学派。
柏拉图主张通过忍耐和哲学的努力来达到智慧的境界，他认为智慧和真理是通过超越感知世界和理性思考获得的。
而亚里士多德则强调通过研究感知世界和实证的方法来获取真理，他的思想对科学方法的发展产生了重要的影响。
接下来的几个世纪，西方哲学在罗马帝国时期以及中世纪的宗教观念的影响下发展。
基督教的兴起使得宗教信仰成为哲学讨论的重要议题。
一些哲学家如奥古斯丁和托马斯·阿奎那致力于将宗教信仰和哲学思考结合起来，试图回答神学和哲学的问题。
文艺复兴时期是西方哲学的重要转折点。
人文主义思想的兴起使得人的自由和个体权利成为哲学讨论的核心议题。
对于理性和经验的重视也成为了一种普遍趋势。
伽利略和笛卡尔等科学家及哲学家的出现，推动了新科学方法的发展，对于理性和经验的解释方法打下了基础。
18世纪是西方哲学史上的重要时期，被称为启蒙时代。
大量的哲学家开始质疑传统的宗教观念和社会制度，主张通过理性和知识来改善人类社会。
伏尔泰、卢梭和康德等思想家的思考拓宽了哲学的领域，涉及到伦理、政治、社会和法律等方面。
到了19世纪，新的思潮和思想流派不断涌现。
马克思主义的出现推动了社会主义和共产主义的思想发展，对于政治、经济和社会的研究产生了重要的影响。
同时，尼采和存在主义的兴起使得对于人类存在和自由意志的思考成为了重要的议题。
20世纪的西方哲学发展如火如荼，包括逻辑学、分析哲学、实证主义、后现代主义等不同的思潮。
逻辑学家如罗素和维特根斯坦开创了逻辑实证主义的学派，试图通过逻辑和语言分析来解决哲学问题。
然而，这一思潮在20世纪中叶逐渐被批判，并在后现代主义思潮的影响下出现了新的哲学思考方法。
关于西方哲学的历程
关于西方哲学的历程，流行一种说法：古代哲学是本体论哲学，近代哲学发生了“认识论转向”（Epistemological turn），现代哲学发生了“语言学转向”（Linguistic turn）。
此说虽很时髦，但却未必确切。
我们认为，西方哲学的两次大转向应该是：第一次是近、现代的“意识论转向”（包括近代的“认识论转向”、近现代的“意志论转向”及现代的“潜意识转向”三个阶段），第二次是现、当代的“符号论转向”（不仅有语言哲学，尤其是有更具一般意义的符号学）。
简单说来，古代哲学的基本对象是客观存在，近、现代哲学的基本对象是主观存在（意识、精神），而现、当代哲学的基本对象则是处于主观与客观之间的一种“中介存在”棗符号、尤其语言符号。
哲学对象的这种“客体-主体-介体”的演变，可以简要列表如下：1．古代：本体论哲学………以自然客体为对象2．近代-现代：意识论哲学………以心灵主体为对象（1）近现………“认识论转向”………有意识（2）近现代……“意志论转向”………有意识（3）现当代……“潜意识转向”………无意识3．现代-当代：符号论哲学………以符号介体为对象本文尝试对其中第二次转向、即“意识论转向”的前面两个阶段棗即西方“近代”哲学、包括“认识论”阶段和“意志论”阶段棗进行一些初步的讨论。
为此，有必要先对意识、精神或“心灵”进行一番简要分析。
对人的心灵、意识或精神生活，可以依据心理学范畴二分法（1），分为“认知活动”、“意向活动”两类。
认知包括感性认识和理性认识两种，即经验的“感知”与逻辑理智的“思维”；意向同样包括感性和理性两种，即“情感”（情感是一种“感”）和“意志”（所以康德称意志为“实践理性”）。
就西方哲学看，古代哲学的任务是“把握客观实在”，而近代、现代哲学的任务则是“把握心灵能否以及如何把握客观实在”。
但是，这种“把握”并不仅指“认识”亦即认知的把握，还有意向的把握；也不仅指“有意识”的把握，还有“无意识”的把握。
第一讲：哲学的诞生
主讲：刘畅
第一讲：哲学前史
“哲学”
哲学：philosophia =philos(爱)+sophia(智慧) 日本学者西周把philosophy译作“希哲 学”、“哲学”，这个译名后来又被引介 到中国。
为什么是希腊？
“在全部的历史中，最使人感到惊异或难于解 说的莫过于希腊文明的突然兴起了。构成文明的 大部分东西已经在埃及和美索不达米亚存在了好 几千年，又从那里传播到了四邻的国家。但是其 中却始终缺少某些因素，直到希腊人才把它们提 供了出来。” ——罗素
埃斯库罗斯
苏格拉底
柏拉图 （阿里斯托克勒 ）
arche（本原）
亚里士多德：
“本原（arche）就是万物从它那里来，毁灭之 后复归到它那里去，万物生灭变化，唯独它不变 的东西。”
第一个哲学家：泰勒斯
水是万物的本原。
泰勒斯（鼎盛年：前585）
• 水是万物的本原。［大地浮于水上。］
根据：
一切生物的种子都是潮湿的；都以水为必需的养料；
• 对自身文化的反省带来了对异质文化的宽容，也 带来了论理的态度。
“蛮夷人是奴隶，而希腊人是自由人。” ——狄摩西尼
我们的政治制度，不是从我邻人的制度中模 仿得来的。我们的制度是别人的模范，而不是出 自对任何其他人的模仿。我们的制度之所以被称 为民主政治，因为政权是在全体公民手中，而不 是在少数人手中。 ——伯利克里
难以解释的耶利问题
• 遗传学？——几千年来，欧亚人死亡的主因是传染性 疾病，战争状态则是例外。而新几内亚人死亡的主因 则是他杀、长期的部落战争、意外事故和获取食物时 遭遇的危险。
• 既然非洲大陆是人类的故乡，长期的进化优势为什么 仍然使非洲落在世界文明发展的后面？
哲学作业
什么是哲学一、历史沿革Philosophia （哲学）是距今两千五百年前的古希腊人创造的术语。
希腊文Philosophia是由philo和sophia两部分构成的动宾词组，philein是动词，指爱和追求，sophia是名词，指智慧。
希腊文Philosophia的含意是爱智慧，爱智慧这个动宾词组表述和界定的事情或事物，就是人类为了提高认识思维能力，为了更有智慧而进行的思想认识活动。
最早使用philosophia（爱智慧）和philosophos（爱智者）这两个词语的是毕达戈拉斯。
据蓬托斯的赫拉克利德在《论无生物》中记载，当毕达戈拉斯在同西库翁或弗里阿西亚的僭主勒翁交谈时，第一次使用了philosophia（爱智慧）这个词语，并且把自己称作philosophos（爱智者）。
毕达戈拉斯还说，在生活中，一些奴性的人生来是名利的猎手，而philosophos（爱智者）生来寻求真理。
他明确地把爱智者归到了自由人的行列，也把自由和真理联系在了一起。
古希腊时期的自然派哲学家被认为是西方最早的哲学家，不管他们认识世界的方式是否正确，但是他们的想法之所以有别于迷信的原因在于，这些哲学家是以理性辅佐证据的方式归纳出自然界的道理。
苏格拉底，柏拉图与亚里斯多德奠定了哲学的讨论范畴，他们提出了有关形而上学，知识论与伦理学的问题，至今依然。
某些现代哲学家认为，直到今日的哲学理论依旧只是在为他们三人做注脚而已，仍离不开他们所提出的问题。
换言之即使数千年后，我们依旧在试著回答他们所提出的问题，这也代表着我们依然为这些问题或是这些问题所延伸的更多问题而感到困惑。
“哲”一词在中国起源很早，历史久远。
如“孔门十哲”，“古圣先哲”等词，“哲”或“哲人”，专指那些善于思辨，学问精深者，即西方近似“哲学家”，“思想家”之谓。
一般认为中国哲学起源东周时期，以孔子的儒家、老子的道家、墨子的墨家及晚期的法家为代表。
而实际上在之前的《易经》当中，已经开始讨论哲学问题。
二十世纪西方现代哲学发展翻译
现代西方哲学The history of twentieth-century analytic philosophy is marked by the rapidity with which major movements suddenly appear , flourish , lose their momentum , become senescent , and eventually vanish . examples include idealism . in its absolutist and subjectist variants, sense-data theory , logical atomism , neutral monism , and logical positivism . there are , of course , exceptions to this patte rn. in ontology , various forms of materialism continue to enjoy widespread sup port , and naturalized epistemology as developed by w . v .o . quine and expand ed by his followers shows no signs of abatement . indeed , if anything , the tre mendous prestige of science has intensified in the twentieth century ,scientism , which p .s .churchland has defined as the notion that " in the idealized long r un , the completed science is a true description of reality there is no other trut h and no other reality , is today widely espoused in epistemology , metaphysics , philosophy of language , and philosophy of mindContemporary philosophers have reacted to the impact of science principally in three different ways , two of which are forms of scientism . the more radical o f the two Asserts that if philosophy has a function , it must be something other than trying to give a true account of the world . a variant of this view holds th at philosophy should deal with normative or value questions , while science eng ages in wholly descriptive activity . a second, less radical reaction is to maintain that philosophy . when done correctly , is just an extension of science . accordi ng to quine , for example , there is a division of labor among scientific investiga tors including philosophers and their tasks and problems , though compatible , are somewhat different . finally , there is a variety of approaches that reject scie ntism and in different ways defend the autonomy of philosophy; they hold that philosophy has a descriptive function and can arrive at nonscientific truths abo ut reality . G,E. moore , ludwig wittgenstein , J.L . Austin , P.F strawson , and jo hn searle , among others , espouse this last sort of .It is difficult to give a precise definition of analytical philosophy , since it is not so much a specific doctrine as a loose concatenation of approaches to tradition al problems . if there is a single feature that characterizes analytical philosophy , it is probably its emphasis on trying to articulate clearly the meaning of conce pts such as “knowledge " , "truth " , and " justification " . this project is guided by the assumption that a proposed thesis cannot be assessed judiciously until it and its constituent concepts are understood plainly . the effort at such clarifica tion constitutes roughly what is meant by " analysis " . there are , however , ma ny different ways of pursuing this end , from the strict formal approach of Got tlob Frege or Alfred Tarski to the aphoristic example-oriented technique of the later wittgenstein . therefore , rather than trying to define the concept exhausti vely , we shall concentrate on individuals who are unquestionably regarded as a nalytical philosophers . this group includes Gottlob frege ( 1848-1925 ) , bertra nd russell ( 1872-1970 ), G.E. moore ( 1873-1958 ) Rudolf carnap ( 1891-1970 ) , J.L. austin ( 1911-1960) . gilbert ryle ( 1900-1976) . karl Popper ( 1902-1994 ) , and W.V.O . quine ( 1908 -) . nearly all of the major achievements in this field a re due to these people . many of them have transformedolder traditions in new ways ( as we will see with quines holistic empiricism ) , but some ( especially wittgenstein and austin ) have developed new and uniqu e approaches to philosophical questions . without a doubt , the most influential philosopher of the era has been wittgenstein (1889-1951)his writingnearly all of them published only after his death--dominate the contemporary s cene and seem destined to remain of central importance in the foreseeable futu re . a fruitful way surveying the period is thus to concentrate ( chronologically ) upon the contributions of this distinguished group of individualsThe creation of symbolic ( or mathematical ) logic is perhaps the single most s ignificant development in the century . apart from its intrinsic interest and tech nical sophistication , it has exercised an enormous influence on philosophy per se . though there are anticipations of this kind of logic among the stoics , its m odern forms without exact parallel in western thought . it quickly became appa rent achievement of this order could not easily be ignored , and no matter how diverse their concerns nearly all analytical philosopher acknowledge the importance ofmathematical . this was especially true when the new logic , with its close affinities to mathematics , was recognized as fundamental to scientific theorizin g . the combination of logic and science was regarded by many philosophers as a model that philosophical inquiry should follow . logical positivism-a doctrine that flourished in the 1930s and 1940s--was an egregious expression of this poi nt of viewBut logic itself , apart from its scientific affiliations . served as a role model . many philosophers felt that its criteria of clarity , precision , and rigor should be the desired ideals in grappling with philosophical issues . yet other thinkers , especially the later Wittgenstein , rejected this approach , arguing that treating logic as an ideal language , superior to natural languages such as english or german , led to paradox and coherence . wittgenstein's later philosophy consisted in developing a unique method that emphasized the merit of ordinary language in describing the world . in particular his method avoided the kind of theorizing and generalization essential to logic . since the new logic initiated such powerful and diverse reactions , we shall begin with a brief account of its central tenets . on this basis , we can describe why these philosophers responded to it in their different ways二十世纪分析哲学的历史是通过与主要的动作突然出现，蓬勃发展，失去了自己的气势，变得衰老，并最终消失在迅速显着。
哲学发展作文模板英语
哲学发展作文模板英语英文回答：Introduction。
Philosophy, the systematic inquiry into the fundamental nature of reality, knowledge, and morality, has evolved through a rich and multifaceted trajectory over the centuries. To understand the development of philosophy, it is essential to examine its major schools of thought and the contributions of key philosophers.Presocratic Philosophy。
The earliest philosophical inquiries emerged in Ionia, a region of ancient Greece, around the 6th century BCE. Presocratic philosophers, such as Thales, Anaximander, and Heraclitus, sought to explain the origin and essence of the universe through natural principles. They questioned the traditional mythological explanations and proposed naturalelements (e.g., water, air) as the foundational constituents of all things.Socratic Philosophy。
In the 4th century BCE, Socrates revolutionized philosophy by emphasizing the importance of critical thinking and self-examination. Known for his Socratic method, he would lead conversations with his students, questioning their beliefs and assumptions until they reached a clearer understanding. Socrates's interrogation technique, which became known as dialectic, was instrumental in the development of logical reasoning.Platonic Philosophy。
《哲学的历史发展》PPT课件
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世界是否真是由水构成的，这并不是最重 要的，重要的是泰勒斯看出了世界好像是 什么与它实际是什么之间的区别，而这一 点已经被我们认为是理所当然之事了。这 个世界似乎是由各种各样不同的质料所构 成的，要意识到这也许只是某种单一的基 本元素构成的，这的确需要某种天才。
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现代科学理论只不过是同一种策略的延伸，它把 泰勒斯关于水的初创理论替换成了一套关于元素 和亚原子粒子的复杂理论，也是为了解释世界为 什么会如此显现，从而区分世界显现出的样子和 它实际的样子。一旦我们做出了这种基本区分， 一个完整的新世界，一个位于现象背后的“真实 的世界”就展现在我们面前。
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真实的东西是永恒不变的，这个原则构成了大多 数哲学家以及每一位现代科学家和宗教信仰者提 出了自己宇宙观的框架。然而，有一位哲学家却 对这个基本原则提出了挑战。他就是赫拉克利特。 他认为恒常变化（或流动）才是大自然的最基本 特征。每一件事物都在不停变化、移动，没有任 何事物是静止不变的，因此“人不可以两次踏入 同一条河流”。
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万物皆数
他同时任意地把非物质的、抽象的数夸大为 宇宙的本原，认为“万物皆数”，“数是万 物的本质”，是“存在由之构成的原则”， 而整个宇宙是数及其关系的和谐的体系。毕 达哥拉斯将数神秘化，说数是众神之母，是 普遍的始原，是自然界中对立性和否定性的 原则。
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毕达哥拉斯谈自律
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泰勒斯
泰勒斯（公元前624年-公元前 546年）西方思想史上第一个 有记载有名字留下来的思想家。 “科学和哲学之祖”，泰勒斯 是古希腊及西方第一个自然科 学家和哲学家。
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(1)西方历史哲学的演变解析
2．西方古代历史哲学思想的特点
他们对历史有反省和反思，至少认真思考了如 下的问题： （1）历史写作的目的是什么？ 希罗多德提出史学的任务是“为了保存人类的 功业”，把史学从记神事发展到记人事，人本观点 是其史学的实质。修昔底德也一再赞赏人的主动精 神与非凡气质。这一传统为罗马史学家萨拉斯特、 李维、塔西陀等人所继承。人本主义的特征。
2.“循环”的历史观
每一个帝国必然要走向解体，然后又要不断重 现。 这个思想的影响：谈及我们对当天对美国命运 的看法；保罗· 肯尼迪的《大国的兴衰》：中国动摇 世界各国力量之间的平衡的潜力的可能，“这只是 个时间的问题”。
关于循环的历史观： 希腊——罗马历史思想中认为历史是循环的或 回旋的，这样一种基本设想，强烈地表明一种没有 方向的历史，从一开始就产生了一种顺从的宿命论， 而不管在一个特殊时段中有多少令人兴奋的事情和 成就。 如何任何国家和王国的历史最终是，一个事先 就注定要在一个循环模式中重复自身的普遍世界历 史的一个部分或一个例子，历史（或者说人类的努 力）实质上就是无意义的、伟大的城邦、王国和文 化可以建立，但最终毫无用处，因为命运毫不留情 地规定了他们的衰落，并将被一个新的同样要衰亡 的国家所替代。
中世纪神学历史哲学
奥古斯丁的神学历史哲学 1.奥古斯丁：
奥古斯丁(Aurelius Augustinus，公元354— 430) 是古罗马帝国时期基督教思想家，欧洲中世 纪基督教神学、教父哲学的重要代表人物、集大成 者，也是基督教史学的奠基者，他的传世名作是 《忏悔录》、《上帝之城》。 西方学者对基督教史学的产生评价甚高，认为 它是史学发生的一场“智力革命”，其意义可与哥 伦布发现新大陆相比。
绪论 西方哲学概论 一、西方哲学从古代到近代的简要发展过程
形而上学是研究超经验的东西的学问
在亚里士多德哲学中，专指研究“作为存在
的存在”的本体论问题的学科，又称“第一哲
学”，以区别于“第二哲学”别称。
形而上学的核心问题是现象与本质的对立
形而上学的核心问题是现象与本质的对立。 现象与本质的关系：月印万川。
生活，主张回到一种神人杂居的生活环境中去，这
一种神人杂居的生活环境实际上就是文艺复兴时期
艺术家们所要表现的世俗生活世界。
人文主义者对人性的赞美
“我是人，人的一切特性我无所不有”，这句 古老的箴言成为人文主义者的共同口号。
英国人文主义者莎士比亚借《哈姆雷特》主人 公之口对人的热情赞美，更是脍炙人口的名言： “人是多么了不起的一件作品！理想是多么高贵， 力量是多么无穷，仪表和举止是多么端正，多么出 色。论行动，多么像天使，论了解，多么像天神！ 宇宙的精华，万物的灵长。”（张志伟主编《西方哲
亚里士多德说，“全部本原所共有意义就是， 存在、生成和认识由之开始之点，它们既可以内在 于事物，又可以外在于事物。”（《古希腊哲学》，第
499页）
水、原子、理念等都是本原。
2．中世纪哲学 从公元5世纪到15世纪为中世纪哲学。
西方哲学的发展从古希腊哲学过渡到中世纪哲 学，这期间起决定作用的历史事件是基督教（1世纪 发源于巴勒斯坦地区，4世纪成为罗马国教）的产生。
世纪到15世纪为中世纪哲学；⑶公元15、16世纪为
文艺复兴时期哲学；⑷从17世纪到19世纪40年代为
近代哲学；⑸从19世纪40年代以后为现代哲学。
学习西方哲学的计划与目的
第一，我们的计划是：以学习现代西方哲学
为主，同时了解西方哲学史的基本知识；
第二，我们学习西方哲学的目的在于，锻炼 我们的理论思维能力。
哲学发展作文英语模板
哲学发展作文英语模板英文回答：Philosophy has been an integral part of human civilization for millennia, constantly evolving and expanding our understanding of the world around us. The development of philosophy can be traced through distinct historical periods, each characterized by its unique set of philosophical schools and ideas.Ancient Philosophy (6th Century BCE 3rd Century CE)。
Pre-Socratic philosophers: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras。
Focus on the nature of reality and the origins of the universe。
Emphasis on rational inquiry and natural explanation。
Classical Greek Philosophy (5th 4th Century BCE)。
Socrates: Known for the Socratic method of questioning and emphasis on self-knowledge。
Plato: Developed the theory of Forms, which posits the existence of a realm of perfect and unchanging ideas。
Aristotle: A prolific philosopher who wrote extensively on logic, ethics, metaphysics, and politics。
古希腊哲学发展
古希腊时期：公元前七世纪——公元前二世纪Ancient Greece: the seventh century B.C. -- the second century B.C.古希腊哲学的发展可以明确地分为三个阶段：自然哲学时期、人本主义和系统哲学时期、希腊化和罗马哲学时期。
The development of ancient Greek philosophy can be clearly divided into three stages: natural philosophy, humanism and system philosophy, Hellenization and Roman period.古希腊哲学的整个学说体系以“实体原理”为核心展开,具体包括物质本原说、自然类观念、形成论和还原原理,它们构成了严整的逻辑关系。
the ancient Greek philosophy of the whole theory system with principle of "entity" as the core, including material origin conception, nature, formation theory and principle of reduction, they constitute a rigorous logic relationship.1.自然哲学时期1. Natural philosophy公元前6世纪，东方伊奥尼亚地方的一些哲学家开始提出世界的本原问题，The 6th century BC, the east of ionia place some philosophers began to put forward the roots of the problem,他们反对过去流传的种种神话创世说，认为世界的本原是一些物质性的元素，如水、气、火等；they are againstthe spread of a variety of myths creationism, think the origins of the world are some material elements, such as water, air, fire, etc.他们最早用自然本身来解释世界的生成，是西方最早的唯物主义哲学家。
古希腊哲学
古希腊哲学古希腊哲学（Graeco philosophy）：公元前6-公元5世纪出现在希腊本土以及地中海沿岸，特别是小亚细亚西部、意大利南部的哲学学说。
又称古希腊罗马哲学，是西方哲学最初发生和发展的阶段。
古典希腊哲学，或称早期希腊哲学集中在辩论与质询的任务。
在很多方面，它同时为现代科学与现代哲学铺设了道路。
早期希腊哲学家对后世产生的影响从未间断，从早期穆斯林哲学到文艺复兴，再到启蒙运动和现代的普通科学。
中文名：古希腊哲学外文名：Graeco philosophy出现时间：公元前6～公元5世纪出现地点：希腊本土以及地中海沿岸。
后世影响：古典希腊哲学的影响在很多方面为现代科学与现代哲学铺设了道路。
在宗教方面，古典希腊哲学对早期不同宗教的希腊化发展都具有深远的影响。
例如，犹太教的希腊化，著名犹太哲学家：亚里斯多布鲁斯(Aristobulus)和斐洛，便采用了寓意的解经方法。
而在基督宗教当中，早期的教会父老（即教父）都融合了古希腊哲学的思想和解经方法。
由于受著名的教父游斯丁、俄利根和特土良等所影响，形成了很多基督教传统教义。
早期希腊哲学家对后世所产生的影响从未间断，从早期基督教神学、穆斯林哲学到文艺复兴，再到启蒙运动和现代的普通科学都可见得到。
历史地位：在西方哲学的发展史中，古希腊哲学是它的幼年时期。
最初的希腊哲学家同时也是自然科学家，他们不满足于原始宗教和神话，根据自己的直观，以人类正常的常识为依据，用自然现象本身来说明世界；他们从无限多样的自然现象中看到它们的统一和联系，看到它们的不断变化和发展，看到它们的矛盾和对立。
因此，最初的希腊哲学家都具有自发的朴素唯物主义或朴素的辩证法思想。
最初的唯心主义哲学是在阶级偏见、宗教影响和认识的片面性中发生发展起来的。
即使是唯心主义的哲学家，他们也将世界当作一个整体而从总的方面来观察。
马克思说希腊人是“正常的儿童”，他们受到的歪曲比较少，因此能够向我们提供比较正确的、虽然是幼稚的世界观。
世界哲学史(英文)
Metaphysics形而上学I. IntroductionMetaphysics, branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of ultimate reality. Metaphysics is customarily divided into ontology, which deals with the question of how many fundamentally distinct sorts of entities compose the universe, and metaphysics proper, which is concerned with describing the most general traits of reality. These general traits together define reality and would presumably characterize any universe whatever. Because these traits are not peculiar to this universe, but are common to all possible universes, metaphysics may be conducted at the highest level of abstraction. Ontology, by contrast, because it investigates the ultimate divisions within this universe, is more closely related to the physical world of human experience.The term metaphysics is believed to have originated in Rome about 70 bc, with the Greek Peripatetic philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes (flourished 1st century bc) in his edition of the works of Aristotle. In the arrangement of Aristotle's works by Andronicus, the treatise originally called First Philosophy, or Theology, followed the treatise Physics. Hence, the First Philosophy came to be known as meta (ta) physica, or “following (the) Physics,” later shortened to Metaphysics. The word took on the connotation, in popular usage, of matters transcending material reality. In the philosophic sense, however, particularly as opposed to the use of the word by occultists, metaphysics applies to all reality and is distinguished from other forms of inquiry by its generality.The subjects treated in Aristotle's Metaphysics (substance, causality, the nature of being, and the existence of God) fixed the content of metaphysical speculation for centuries. Among the medieval Scholastic philosophers, metaphysics was known as the “transphysical science” on the assumption that, by means of it, the scholar philosophically could make the transition from the physical world to a world beyond sense perception. The 13th-century Scholastic philosopher and theologian St. Thomas Aquinas declared that the cognition of God, through a causal study of finite sensible beings, was the aim of metaphysics. With the rise of scientific study in the 16th century the reconciliation of science and faith in God became an increasingly important problem.II Metaphysics Before Kant康德(德国哲学家, 1724-1805, 古典唯心主义的创始人)Before the time of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant metaphysics was characterized by a tendency to construct theories on the basis of a priori knowledge, that is, knowledge derived from reason alone, in contradistinction to a posteriori knowledge, which is gained by reference to the facts of experience. From a priori knowledge were deduced general propositions that were held to be true of all things. The method of inquiry based on a priori principles is known as rationalistic. This method may be subdivided into monism, which holds that the universe is made up of a single fundamental substance; dualism, the belief in two such substances; and pluralism, which proposes the existence of many fundamental substances.The monists, agreeing that only one basic substance exists, differ in their descriptions of its principal characteristics. Thus, in idealistic monism the substance is believed to be purely mental; in materialistic monism it is held to be purely physical, and in neutral monism it is considered neither exclusively mental nor solely physical. The idealistic position was held by the Irish philosopher George Berkeley, the materialistic by the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, and the neutral by the Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza. The latter expounded a pantheistic view of reality in which the universe is identical with God and everything contains God's substance. See Idealism; Materialism; Pantheism.The most famous exponent of dualism was the French philosopher René Descartes, who maintained that body and mind are radically different entities and that they are the only fundamental substances in the universe. Dualism, however, does not show how these basic entities are connected.In the work of the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the universe is held to consist of an infinite number of distinct substances, or monads. This view is pluralistic in the sense that it proposes the existence of many separate entities, and it is monistic in its assertion that each monad reflects within itself the entire universe.Other philosophers have held that knowledge of reality is not derived from a priori principles, but is obtained only from experience. This type of metaphysics is called empiricism. Still another school of philosophy has maintained that, although an ultimate reality does exist, it is altogether inaccessible to human knowledge, which is necessarilysubjective because it is confined to states of mind. Knowledge is therefore not a representation of external reality, but merely a reflection of human perceptions. This view is known as skepticism or agnosticism in respect to the soul and the reality of God.III The Metaphysics of KantSeveral major viewpoints were combined in the work of Kant, who developed a distinctive critical philosophy called transcendentalism. His philosophy is agnostic in that it denies the possibility of a strict knowledge of ultimate reality; it is empirical in that it affirms that all knowledge arises from experience and is true of objects of actual and possible experience; and it is rationalistic in that it maintains the a priori character of the structural principles of this empirical knowledge.These principles are held to be necessary and universal in their application to experience, for in Kant's view the mind furnishes the archetypal forms and categories (space, time, causality, substance, and relation) to its sensations, and these categories are logically anterior to experience, although manifested only in experience. Their logical anteriority to experience makes these categories or structural principles transcendental; they transcend all experience, both actual and possible. Although these principles determine all experience, they do not in any way affect the nature of things in themselves. The knowledge of which these principles are the necessary conditions must not be considered, therefore, as constituting a revelation of things as they are in themselves. This knowledge concerns things only insofar as they appear to human perception or as they can be apprehended by the senses. The argument by which Kant sought to fixthe limits of human knowledge within the framework of experience and to demonstrate the inability of the human mind to penetrate beyond experience strictly by knowledge to the realm of ultimate reality constitutes the critical feature of his philosophy, giving the key word to the titles of his three leading treatises, Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, and Critique of Judgment. In the system propounded in these works, Kant sought also to reconcile science and religion in a world of two levels, comprising noumena, objects conceived by reason although not perceived by the senses, and phenomena, things as they appear to the senses and are accessible to material study. He maintained that, because God, freedom, and human immortality are noumenal realities, these concepts are understood through moral faith rather than through scientific knowledge. With the continuous development of science, the expansion of metaphysics to include scientific knowledge and methods became one of the major objectives of metaphysicians.IV Metaphysics Since KantSome of Kant's most distinguished followers, notably Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Schelling, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Friedrich Schleiermacher, negated Kant's criticism in their elaborations of his transcendental metaphysics by denying the Kantian conception of the thing-in-itself. They thus developed an absolute idealism in opposition to Kant's critical transcendentalism.Since the formation of the hypothesis of absolute idealism, the development of metaphysics has resulted in as many types of metaphysical theory as existed in pre-Kantian philosophy, despiteKant's contention that he had fixed definitely the limits of philosophical speculation. Notable among these later metaphysical theories are radical empiricism, or pragmatism, a native American form of metaphysics expounded by Charles Sanders Peirce, developed by William James, and adapted as instrumentalism by John Dewey; voluntarism, the foremost exponents of which are the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer and the American philosopher Josiah Royce; phenomenalism, as it is exemplified in the writings of the French philosopher Auguste Comte and the British philosopher Herbert Spencer; emergent evolution, or creative evolution, originated by the French philosopher Henri Bergson; and the philosophy of the organism, elaborated by the British mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead. The salient doctrines of pragmatism are that the chief function of thought is to guide action, that the meaning of concepts is to be sought in their practical applications, and that truth should be tested by the practical effects of belief; according to instrumentalism, ideas are instruments of action, and their truth is determined by their role in human experience. In the theory of voluntarism the will is postulated as the supreme manifestation of reality. The exponents of phenomenalism, who are sometimes called positivists, contend that everything can be analyzed in terms of actual or possible occurrences, or phenomena, and that anything that cannot be analyzed in this manner cannot be understood. In emergent or creative evolution, the evolutionary process is characterized as spontaneous and unpredictable rather than mechanistically determined. The philosophy of the organism combines an evolutionarystress on constant process with a metaphysical theory of God, the eternal objects, and creativity.V Contemporary DevelopmentsIn the 20th century the validity of metaphysical thinking has been disputed by the logical positivists (see Analytic and Linguistic Philosophy; Positivism) and by the so-called dialectical materialism of the Marxists. The basic principle maintained by the logical positivists is the verifiability theory of meaning. According to this theory a sentence has factual meaning only if it meets the test of observation. Logical positivists argue that metaphysical expressi ons such as “Nothing exists except material particles” and “Everything is part of oneall-encompassing spirit” cannot be tested empirically. Therefore, according to the verifiability theory of meaning, these expressions have no factual cognitive meaning, although they can have an emotive meaning relevant to human hopes and feelings.The dialectical materialists assert that the mind is conditioned by and reflects material reality. Therefore, speculations that conceive of constructs of the mind as having any other than material reality are themselves unreal and can result only in delusion. To these assertions metaphysicians reply by denying the adequacy of the verifiability theory of meaning and of material perception as the standard of reality.Both logical positivism and dialectical materialism, they argue, conceal metaphysical assumptions, for example, that everything is observable or at least connected with something observable and that the mind has no distinctive life of its own. In the philosophical movement known as existentialism, thinkers have contended that thequestions of the nature of being and of the individual's relationship to it are extremely important and meaningful in terms of human life. The investigation of these questions is therefore considered valid whether or not its results can be verified objectively.Since the 1950s the problems of systematic analytical metaphysics have been studied in Britain by Stuart Newton Hampshire and Peter Frederick Strawson, the former concerned, in the manner of Spinoza, with the relationship between thought and action, and the latter, in the manner of Kant, with describing the major categories of experience as they are embedded in language. In the U.S. metaphysics has been pursued much in the spirit of positivism by Wilfred Stalker Sellars and Willard Van Orman Quine. Sellars has sought to express metaphysical questions in linguistic terms, and Quine has attempted to determine whether the structure of language commits the philosopher to asserting the existence of any entities whatever and, if so, what kind. In these new formulations the issues of metaphysics and ontology remain vital.。
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Plato (4Байду номын сангаас7-347)
• The son of wealthy and influential Athenian parents, Plato began his philosophical career as a student of Socrates. When the master died, Plato travelled to Egypt and Italy, studied with students of Pythagoras, and spent several years advising the ruling family of Syracuse. Eventually, he returned to Athens and established his own school of philosophy at the Academy. • Author of The Dialogues
Philosophy As Historical
• philosophical thought evolves • the thought of two different eras are so intimately connected that a genuine understanding of any one of them requires an understanding of the other. • What is important for our purposes is simply to be conscious and sensitive to the importance of history and the historical context in our understanding of philosophical texts.
Pre-Socratics
• • • • • • • • • • • Thales (624-546 B.C) Anaximander (5th cn. B.C.) Anaximenes (585-525 B.C.) Phythagoras (fl. 530 B.C.) Heraclitus (6th cn B.C.) Parmenides (b. 510 B.C.) Zeno (b. 488 B.C.) Empedocles (490-430) Anaxagoras (500-428 B.C.) Leucippus (490-430 B.C.) Democritus (460-370 B.C.)
The History of Philosophy
An Overview
What Is A Historical Overview And What Is Its Benefit?
• The main objective of this overview is to have the tools to properly situate a particular philosopher in their corresponding historical framework.
Aristotle (384-322)
• Aristotle was born in Stagira in north Greece, the son of Nichomachus, the court physician to the Macedonian royal family. He was trained first in medicine, and then in 367 he was sent to Athens to study philosophy with Plato. He stayed at Plato's Academy until about 347
The History of Philosophy
• • • • Ancient Medieval Modern Contemporary
Ancient Philosophy 600 B.C. - Birth of Christ
• • • • • Pre-Socratics The Sophists 3 main philosophers Hellenic Philosophy Stoicism
3 Main Ancient Philosophers
• Socrates (470-399 B.C.E) • Plato (428-348 B.C.E) • Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E)
Socrates (469-399)
• In his use of critical reasoning, by his unwavering commitment to truth, and through the vivid example of his own life, fifth-century Athenian Socrates set the standard for all subsequent Western philosophy.
The Sophists
• • • • • Protagoras (c. 490-c. 420 B.C.) Gorgias (483-378 B.C.) Thrasymachus (c. 459– c. 400 B.C.) Hippias (5th cn. B.C.) Prodicus (fl. 5th cn. B.C.)
Philosophy and Society
• philosophy does not take place in a vacuum, and therefore, the social, scientific, literary, economic and cultural context have a bearing upon the evolution of thought.