英语语言学第八章 语用学 pragmatics备课讲稿
英语语言学第八章 语用学 pragmatics ppt课件
How to Do Things with Words (1962)
speech acts: actions performed via utterances
Constatives vs. performatives Constatives: utterances which roughly serves
Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning
Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context
2. Speech Act Theory
(ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.
B. The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.
C. Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.
Minister: addressing the groom) (Groom’s Name), do you take (Bride’s Name) for your lawful wedded wife, to live together after God’s ordinance, in the holy estate of matrimony? Will you love, honor, comfort, and cherish her from this day forward, forsaking all others, keeping only unto her for as long as you both shall live?
Chapter6pragmatics语言学整理的资料
Chapter 61.pragmatics:自测：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)术语：pragmatics语用学解释：语用学处理的是语言的实际意义，是在应用中的意义，而不是固有的意义。
术语：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
解释：Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么，听者或读者读到的是什么。
并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。
格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。
他把这种机制称作合作原则。
2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。
②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。
①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。
新编简明英语语言学教程_第二版_戴炜栋6_pragmatics课件
Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:
----(the telephone rings)
----H: That’ the phone. (1)
----W: I’m in the bathroom. (2)
---- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Some basic notions in Pragmatics
Context Pragmatics vs. semantics Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Correctness vs. appropriateness
the locutionary act （言内行为） ----an act of saying
something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);
the illocutionary act （言中行为） ----an act performed
Correctness vs. appropriateness
“John play golf”---- grammatically incorrect; “Golf played John” ---- logically incorrect; but it might
be appropriate pragmatically in certain context.
英语语言学课件(胡壮麟版)
9
1. A: Are you going to the seminar? B: It‟s on linguistics. 2. A: Would you like some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake. 3. A: 我带的钱不够，今天买不了。 B: 那就下次再买吧。
Chapter Eight Language in Use
1. Definition of Pragmatics
The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers‟ meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.
2. Robert Gibbs named Obama Press Secretary U.S. President-elect Barack Obama has named his longtime spokesman Robert Gibbs as his White House press secretary
“Janet! Donkeys!” (David Copperfield)
5
Leech曾指出，“意义”在语义学中是二价 的(bivalent)，而在语用学中就成了三价的 (trivalent)。也就是说，语义研究的是“X 的意义是Y”(X means Y)。例如：Donkey means “ass”。而语用学研究的是“说话者 S通过话语X来表达Y的意思”(S means Y by X)。例如一个家庭主妇对仆人说： “Janet! donkeys!”的时候，单独从语义上 看并没有明确的意思；但是从语用学角度 看，女主人是想让Janet把驴子从草坪上赶 走。 Sentence meaning: What does X mean? Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?
简明新编英语语言学教程教案
简明新编英语语言学教程教案《英语语言学》课程大纲课程名称：英语语言学课程编号：总学时：36适应对象：英语本科专科一、教学目的与任务《英语语言学》是英语专业高年级学生开设的学科方向课。
旨在使学生了解人类语言研究的成果，提高对语言的本质、功能的认识，了解语言与人类之间的关系，培养学生的语言意识，发展理性思维。
该课程要求学生掌握语言学学科的基本概念；了解语言与心理、社会、文化、文学等跨学科研究的关系及其发展现状和趋势。
该课程的学习有助于拓宽学生的思维与视野，培养并激发学生对语言研究的兴趣，为其在相关领域的进一步学习及研究打好基础。
二、教学基本要求语言学是以语言为研究对象的一门科学。
教学中应处理好以下方面的关系。
1、在理解的基础上进行记忆，特别是一些重要术语的翻译与定义以及几大语法学派的理论主张，有影响力的语言学家的姓名、著作以及贡献等。
注意阅读课文时要认真仔细。
2、通读和理解课文的基础上进行总结，对各部分所讲的主要内容做到心中有数，重点明确。
3、在学习过程中，注意联系、对比，将所学语言学理论与英语外语学习实际相结合。
4、注意提高运用理论解决实际问题的能力。
5、培养学生学术论文写作的能力，建构写作的理论基础及理论依据。
三、教学内容及要求：1.1 为什么学习语言？1.2 什么是语言？1.3 语言的本质特征1.3.1 任意性 arbitrariness1.3.2 二重性 duality1.3.3 创造性 productivity or creativity1.3.4 移位性 displacement1.4 语言的起源1.5 语言的功能1.5.1 信息功能 informative1.5.2 人际功能1.5.3 施为功能1.5.4 感情功能emotive1.5.5 交感性谈话1.5.6 娱乐性功能1.5.7 元语言功能1.6 什么是语言学？1.7 语言学的主要分支1.7.1 语音学phonetics1.7.2 音系学phonlogy1.7.3 形态学mprphology1.7.4 句法学syntax1.7.5 语义学semantics1.7.6 语用学pragmatics1.8 宏观语言学1.8.1 心理语言学1.8.2 社会语言学1.8.3 人类语言学1.8.4 计算语言学1.9 语言学中的一些重要区别1.9.1 “描写式”和“规定式”descriptive and prescriptive 1.9.2 “共时”和“历时”synchronic and diachronic1.9.3 “语言”和“言语”langue and parol1.9.4 语言能力和语言应用competence and performance1.9.5 “非位的”与“位学的”2.1 言语产生和言语感知2.2 言语器官2.3 音段、分化和标音法 2.3.1 音段和分化2.3.2 标音法2.4 辅音2.4.1 辅音和元音2.4.2 辅音2.4.3 发音方法2.4.4 发音部位2.4.5 英语中的辅音2.5 元音2.5.1 元音描写的原则 2.5.2 基本元音理论2.5.3 元音音渡2.5.4 标准发音中的元音2.6 协同发音和语音描写 2.6.1 协同发音2.6.2 宽式标音和严式标音2.7 音位分析2.8 音位和音位变体2.8.1 最小对立体2.8.2 音位理论2.8.3 音位变体2.9 音位过程2.9.1 同化2.9.2 音系过程和音系规则 2.9.3 规则顺序2.10 区别性特征2.11 音节2.11.1 音节结构2.11.2 响音阶2.11.3 音节划分和最大节首原则2.12 重音3.1 什么是词？3.1.1 “词”的三种含义3.1.2 词的识别3.1.3 词的分类3.2 词的形成3.2.1 语素和形态学3.2.2 语素的类型3.2.3 曲折变化和词的形成 3.2.4 音系学和形态学的对立3.3 词汇变化3.3.1 特有的词汇变化 3.3.2 音位变化3.3.3 形态-句法变化3.3.4 语义变化3.3.5 拼写的变化4.1 传统学派4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.2 结构主义学派4.2.1 组合关系与聚合关系 4.2.2 直接成分分析法 4.2.3 向心结构和离心结构4.3 生成学派4.3.1 深层结构和表层结构 4.3.2 标准理论及其后的发展 4.3.3 管辖、约束等4.4 功能学派4.4.1 功能句子观4.4.2 系统功能语法5.1 “意义”的意义5.2 指称论5.3 涵义关系5.3.1 同义关系5.3.2 反义关系5.3.3 上下义关系5.4 成分分析5.5 句子意义5.5.1 一个整体理论5.5.2 逻辑语义学6.1 言语行为理论 (Speech act theory) 6.1.1 施为句（performatives）和表述句(constatives)6.1.2 行事行为(illocutionary act)理论6.2 会话含义(conversational implicature)理论6.2.1 合作原则6.2.2 准则的违背6.2.3 含义的特征6.3 后格莱斯时期的发展6.3.1 关联理论(relevance theory)6.3.2 数量原则(Q-Principle)和关系原则(R-Principle)6.3.3 数量原则(Q-principle)、信息原则(I-principle)和方式原则(M-principle)四、学时分配与教学方式：总学时：36学时Chapter One: Introduction（6学时）Chapter Two: Phonology （6学时）Chapter Three: Morphology（6学时）Chapter Four: Syntax （6学时）Chapter Five: Semantics （6学时）Chapter Six: Pragmatics（6学时）五、考核方式考查六、本课程与其他课程的关系：英语语言学是专业学生高年级的知识课。
Chapter 8 Pragmatics 语用学 语言学教程 胡壮麟.ppt
(c) The room was wanted for a meeting.
பைடு நூலகம்
(2) I can’t work under untidy circumstances.
are acts.
8.1.1 Performatives and constatives Austin (How to Do Things with Words,
1962) Consider these sentences: a) I name this ship Elizabeth. b) I bequeath my watch to my brother. c) I now pronounce you man and wife. d) I bet you sixpence it will rain
A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and
(ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.
B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.
Possible contexts:
(a) A request to someone to tidy up the circumstances.
(b) It was an excuse for not wanting to do something there.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章
Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。
格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。
他把这种机制称作合作原则。
2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。
②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。
①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。
语用学 pragmatics
语用学pragmatics语用学：语用学(pragmatics)是对人类有目的的行为所作的研究(广义)，对有目的的语言活动的研究(狭义)。
源起符号学(semiotics)。
符号学：符号学是系统地研究语言符号和非语言符号的学科。
有三个分支--符号关系学、语义学、语用学。
符号关系学(syntactics)研究符号之间的形式关系。
语义学(semantics)研究符号与符号所代表的事物之间的关系。
语用学(pragmatics)研究符号与符号解释者之间的关系。
语用学与语义学的联系和区别：语用学和语义学都是符号学的分支。
语义学主要指狭义的语义学，即逻辑语义学，它研究句子和词语本身的意义，研究命题的真值条件(truth conditions)。
语用学研究言语使用上的意义，研究传递语言信息的适宜条件(felicity conditions)。
语义学揭示的意义是二元关系的句子意义(sentence meaning)，解决"Whatdoes Xmean?"的问题。
语用学揭示的是三元关系的说话人意义(Speaker meaning)，解决"What did you mean by X?"的问题。
语境(context)：最狭义的语境是指语言的上下文。
语境还必须包括语言外的因素。
语境因素包括语言知识、语言外知识；语言知识包括对所使用的语言的掌握、对语言交际上文的了解；语言外知识包括背景知识、情景知识、相互知识，背景知识包括百科全书式的知识(常识)、特定文化的社会规范、特定文化的会话规则，情景知识包括交际的时间、地点、交际的主题、交际的正是程度、交际参与者的相互关系。
语境是一个动态的、发展的概念。
交际本身就是一个动态的过程，在交际过程中，语境也随之而变。
有些语境因素相对来说比较稳定，例如背景知识、交际的时间、地点等，但有些因素却会变化，特别重要的是相互知识这一因素，它在交际过程中不断扩大，原来不为双方所共有的知识完全可能在交际过程中变为相互知识，成为进一步交际的基础。
Pragmatics语用学
摘要：本篇论文旨在探讨中国人讲英语的礼貌问题。
尽管中国人学英语时已经掌握了很多语法知识，但是在实际交际中，在表达的礼貌方面还有很大欠缺。
中国式英语被很多外国人认为很粗鲁。
但是在国内，很多英语学习者和英语教师还没有认识到这个问题。
在同外国人用英语交流时，礼貌问题也影响了中国人在外国的形象。
本文在总结生活实例的基础上，对中英文转化过程中的礼貌问题做出了详细的解释。
本论文对日常言语行为中的礼貌语用失误进行了描述和简单地分析，例如对招呼语，称赞语，告别语，拒绝语，道歉语，请求语等中出现的礼貌语用失误进行阐述。
研究发现，中国人并不是没有礼貌，只是在句子的使用及表达方面未注意到礼貌的问题。
无论是单词还是句式的选择，在英语的礼貌表达上都发挥着很大的作用。
总的来说，本文利用认知语言学的理论和观点来分析英语礼貌问题，为英语的学习与教学，以及跨文化交际等方面提供了参考和借鉴。
关键词：礼貌跨文化日常交际Abstract: This paper concerns itself with the politeness failure when Chinese speak English. Though Chinese has learned English vocabularies and grammar for many years, the English we speak is not even polite enough for native speakers. According to many natives from English-speaking countries, Chinglish, which is regarded as English of Chinese, is rude and impolite sometimes. However, at home, many English learners and teachers have not realized this issue yet. The politeness failure has influenced the image of China while Chinese communicate with foreigners. Based on the examples from daily life, this paper explains details to the politeness failure during the transforming between Chinese and English. In terms of daily speech acts, such as greetings, compliment, farewell, refusal apology request and so on, pragmatic failures in practice are illustrated and simply discussed. By collecting typical cases from daily life, we find this research that Chinese fail to use sentences in a polite way in the result of unnoticing politeness instead of being rude on purpose. The selection of words and sentence structure make great difference in expression.In a conclusion, to support the point of this paper, the linguistic cognitive theory is used to analyze the problems existing in Chinglish. This paper presents the discussion of causes and provides a reference for English learning and teaching, as well asintercultural communication.Key words: politeness, cross-culture, daily communicationⅠ.IntroductionIn cross-cultural communication, pragmatic failure in politeness has become an essential problem. However, politeness is the key pragmatic principles in language use, especially in the intercultural communication between different groups. Due to some differences in language, culture, and some living environments, politeness in utterances differ dramatically from one community to another community sharing no universal language. In more and more exchanges，trade businesses and other interactive activities among different countries, different polite philosophy has brought various obstacles for inter-cultural communications. Because of those clear discrepancies from different groups，distinct understanding of communication context and other factors that a great number of pragmatic failures in politeness have become the prevailing phenomena in inter-cultural communication.Pragmatic failures in polite utterances are unavoidable. Participants as native speakers and those as non-native speakers encounter all kinds of violation of polite principles.Failures in politeness are most reflected in the speech acts to display the intended meanings and to convey the expected ideas. Therefore, the main issue to be discussed in this thesis is narrowed to the specific pragmatic failures in daily life. Ⅱ.Literature ReviewA.Politeness Study AbroadThe four conversational maxims proposed by Grice in logic and Conversation (1967) are formulated as quantity maxim, quality maxim, relation maxim and manner maxim. Grice advocates these conversational maxims and the Cooperative Principle (CP) to reveal the ways or the mechanisms by which people interpret implicature to accomplish their conversations. His theory has been seen as pragmatic principles in conversations for interpersonal communications.But there is another type of implicature that receives no account in the pragmatic theory of the cooperative principle, which is implicature of politeness. As argued by Thomas (1995), politeness as an illocutionary phenomenon, is closely connected withpragmatics.Following Thomas, we have grouped the pragmatic approach to politeness under four headings: the conversational maxim view advocated by Leech (1980), the face-management view proposed by Brown and Levinson (1987), the conversational-contract view put forward by Fraster (1990)and the pragmatic scales view presented by Spencer-Oatey(1992). Particularly, Leech …s six maxims which include the tact maxim, the generosity maxim, the approbation maxim, the modesty maxim, the agreement maxim and the sympathy maxim are regarded as the politeness principle.According to Leech, communicators generally observe some rules of good behavior which he terms the Politeness Principle. The principle can explain why people are sometimes indirect in conveying what they mean. It is a necessary complement that may rescue the CP from serious trouble in theorizing.B.Politeness Study in Chinathe most worth mentioning is Prof．Gu Yueguo (p237-257)，who summarizes four essential elements of Chinese politeness：respectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth and refinement. Later on, Gu (1992) elaborates these four essentials into five maxims of politeness in Chinese, They are Self-denigration Maxim; Address Term Maxim; Refinement Maxim; Agreement Maxim; Virtues-word deeds Maxim.C.Studies of Pragmatic Failures AbroadThe notion of pragmatic failure has been initially defined by British linguist Thomas in her paper of cross—cultural pragmatic failure. Thomas defines it as “the inability to understand” what is meant by what is said (Thomas, 1983:p91-112). In other words, it means that the speaker‟s utterance is interpreted or understood by a hearer as different from what the speaker intends to be interpreted. So often pragmatic failure occurs in interactions between native and non-native speakers, and it also can be found in cross-cultural communications between native speakers.D.Studies of Inter-cultural Pragmatic Failure in ChinaChinese famous scholar Mr. He Ziran ( 2002) argues that the umbrella notion of pragmatic failure can refer to any failure that speakers have not accomplished theexpected effect in language communications. He remarks that it is not the wrong grammatical structure that leads to inadequate expression of meaning and sense.Chen Xinren (2004) has also explored pragmatic failures from the aspect of pragmatic competence．He holds that the skills of using language can be seen as pragmatic competence. Language grammar stipulates the correct form and structure of language, and semantic codes regulates that the form must take some meaning or sense.Ⅲ. The pragmatic failure of politeness in daily lifeA.Greeting failureWe are obviously more familiar with some expressions, such as, “hello”, “hi”“I am so sorry”. However, “Good bye” and “See you” is not always equal to the other. Especially when you are a waiter/waitress and the hearer is your customer. The customer can say “See you”when he/she is going to leave. This sentence means he/she likes to be here, and he/she may come here next time. But as a waiter/waitress, using “See you”seems too aggressive; actually, it will make customers feel uncomfortable. The best way, also the simplest way is just say “Bye”.Similarly, “You are welcome” cannot be used to answer every “Thank you”. It sounds too much formal. You can say “Cheers”or “No worry”. If the hearer likes saying “Thank you”, sometimes you can ignore his/her “thanks”and continue your speech. If you are the customer, there is no necessity to say “You are welcome” to the seller. The better way is just say “Thank you” back.According to last two examples, we can clearly see that some expressions in English are not as that familiar to us as what we think of. When we are at school or some other training institutions, we are taught their meanings, but those are the semantic meanings, as for pragmatic meaning, we can only get them from foreigner‟s laughter or contempt. Obviously, that is the reason that most foreigners think Chinese rude and impolite.B.Invitation failureWhen you get a good friend who is an America or British, someday, he says”Would you like to have dinner with me in my house?” Unfortunately, you do not havetime to go there. Some people may say “No, thanks. I have another appointment.”Then, congratulations, you probably will not be invited next time. Or even worse, you just lose a friend. How to say “No” politely is a complex skill no matter in China or abroad. In this condition, “Thanks”cannot make up the hurt you have made. In a polite way, you should say” That is a good idea. I would like to join in, but I have another appointment today.” In this way, you show that you are sorry about not going and give a respect to his/her invitation.C.Request failureIn a restaurant, you want to have a hamburger. You tell the waiter” I want a hamburger”. You are so lucky if he does not treat you like rubbish. It is not a polite way to give a request. Through this way, nothing can even be called “a request”. You should say “Could I have a hamburger, please?”, or “Can I have a hamburger, please?”.D.Euphemism failureWhen British say “I only have a few minor comments”, they mean “Please re-write completely”. But what others understand is “He has found a few typos”. This is a very common phenomenon in daily life. Sometimes, when a British says “Could we consider some other options?”, It means “I do not like your idea” But what others understand is “They have not yet decided.” These two examples show that we cannot get what the British mean completely. Then we should remember more examples.“That is not bad”means “That is good”. “That is very brave”means “That is very stupid” or “You are insane”. “Quite good” means” a bit disappointment”. “Very interesting” means “That is clearly nonsenses”.According to these examples, we can see that if we do not know anything about pragmatics, it is very difficult to get what they actually mean. In this condition, pragmatic failure in politeness is inevitable.Ⅳ. Reason analysis on pragmatic failure in politenessA.Model Verbs(Model Auxil-iaries)The cultured westerners would use model verbs more frequently to show their politeness to others. Therefore, model verbs like “can, could, may, might, and would”will function well in conversations. It sounds more polite to express suggestion, request, willing and so on. For example, “Pass me the salt” is less polite than “Could you please pass me the salt?” apparently.B.Subjunctive moodBy using words like”would rather, would sooner, would as soon”and “had”which is also called as subjunctive mood. It will cause hearer to feel that you are considering a better result or way to avoid the bad ones. It will also show that you are deducing the probable problems and trying to find a way to solve it.C.PleaseWhen “please” goes after the sentence, it sounds better than when it goes before the sentence. Because the sentence sounds like an order when you use “please” as the beginning of a sentence. For example, “Could you please reply to me by Monday? Thank you.” is much more polite than “Please reply to me by Monday. Thank you.”D.Passive voiceSometimes, declarative sentences may be stiff and impolite. This is time to use passive voice or negative sentences or interrogative sentences to show you politeness. In this way, it avoids our subjective opinions and gives the hearer a positive mood. For instance, “Every piece of luggage has to be examined through.” is better than “We will examine every piece of luggage”.E.Past tenseSimilarly, when you use past tense to make a request, it sounds more comfortable and acceptable. For example,”I thought you were needing me, Mr. Smith.”Ⅴ. ConclusionFollowing the definition of pragmatic failures in inter-cultural communication given by Thomas in the 1970s, pragmatic failures in inter-cultural communication has been the hot topic discussed by many scholars more than ever both at home and abroad and many scholars have explored the pragmatic failures from various points of view, such as sociolinguistics, psychology, second language acquisition and so on. This paper mainly investigates the pragmatic failures in politeness, more specificallyin a variety of polite speech acts.The studies of causes of pragmatic failures in inter-language communication can also be applied to those occurring in the politeness and such traditional causes are generalized into four categories as culture and language differences, language transfer in second language acquisition, teaching induced causes and violation of pragmatic rules in language use. But few scholars turn their attention to causes studies in a cognitive approach. That is a reason why this paper is engaged in the exploration of the causes leading to politeness failures in a cognitive perspective.The major causes of politeness failures discussed in this paper are concluded as politeness transfer, different culture-based cognitive environment and an improper choice of context. The study of the causes for politeness failures is on the basis of the common politeness failure phenomena in different speech acts. From a cognitive perspective, prototype and category theory as well as cognitive approach on relevance theory are applied to explain the causes for politeness failures in inter-cultural communication between Chinese and English native speakers.Though, this paper is facilitated with some new perspectives on the analysis of certain causes for politeness failures, there are still some other important causes to generate pragmatic failures, like individual factors, society and others. The focus here is only on three causes, which may be one limitation of this paper. Besides, due to some limitations, no empirical survey is conducted to illustrate the failure phenomenon, and some of those pragmatic failures are collected directly from the books of other scholars, but still they bear pragmatic significance and are scientific enough to be used as evidence in this paper.ReferencesBrown. P & Levinson. S. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.Leech, G.N. Principles of pragmatics. New York: Longman Group Limited, 1983. Levinson, S.C. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University PressThomas, J. Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press, 1983.Yule, G. The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985陈新仁. 当代语用学. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2004.何自然. 语用学概论. 长沙: 湖南教育出版社, 2002何伟, 彭漪, 于晖. 当代语言学. 北京: 高等教育出版社,2007顾曰国. “Politeness phenomenon in modern Chinese.”Journal of Pragmatics 141- 990(1993): 237-257.何兆熊.Study of Politeness in Chinese and Eng1ish Cultures. 北京: 北京外国语大学出版社，1995。
英语语言学学习
❖ (2)Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily
produced symbols.
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The design/defining features of human language
Arbitrariness
Productivity/Creativity Duality
Displacement Cultural transmission
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❖ Examination
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Reference Books
❖ 戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教 育出版社。
❖ 胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。 ❖ 刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。 ❖ Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the
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What is language?
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❖ Language can mean ❖ what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions) ❖ the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s language,
semantics?thestudyofmeaninginabstraction?语义学考察的是意义如何在语言中编码不仅研究字词作为词汇的意义还研究语言中仅研究字词作为词汇的意义还研究语言中词之上和词之下的其他成分的意义如语素和句子的意义
英语语用学pragmatics
context
For example, “ It is cold in here.” from semantics, it simply expresses the semantic proposition of “the low temperature in a certain place”. They do not consider the following factors as “who speaks it to whom , when, where, why etc. In other words , they do not include context in the study of meanings
Definitions of Pragmatics
Definition 1: Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language. 语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化 或被编码的那些语言和语境之间的关系 的研究。
Austin’s new model
Later,he gave up his distinction between constatives and performatives and set up his new model-a speaker might be performing 3 acts at the same time when speaking: locutionary act言内行 为,illocutionary act言外行为 and perlocutionary言后行为.
Pragmatics 语用学教学PPT
• 交际目的 • 交际目的是各种各样的。或是陈明一种心理， 希望对方明知；或是提出一种问题，希望能 够得到解答；或是表达一种请求，希望对方 照办；或是抒发一种感情，希望引起共鸣。 不同的交际目的制约着人们的交际行为。
• 交际过程
– 改变语音形式， “一”作 “幺”；“0‖作 “洞”。 – 重复话语：如电影《英雄儿女》中：“我是王 成，我是王成！为了祖国，为了人民，请向我 开炮！” – 增加羡余成分：我明天早上，早上九点到！请 到机场接我！ – 放慢语速，加大音量。
• 交际对象 • 言语交际离不开交际对象。交际对象是具有各种个 性特征的。如性别、年龄、身份、地位、生活环境、 职业经历、思想性格、修养爱好、文化水平、社会 心理、处境心情等。这些个性特征都会不同程度地 制约着言语交际。 • 交际对象涉及双方的关系亲疏、地位高低、辈分尊 卑、年龄长幼等因素。一般说来，交际双方关系越 密切，地位、年龄、辈分相当，所需的礼貌成度就 越低；双方关系越疏远，越陌生，双方地位、辈分、 年龄相差越大，越要客气。“礼貌的其中一个功能 便是创造交际双方之间的社会距离。”
• 意义：提醒、催促、或是对听话人不守时间的批评。若考虑 到双方的关系：上下级关系，师生关系，父母子女之间、恋 人之间等，则可以理解的意思还多些。 • 一个人老想着出国，老对别人讲要办好手续了，但老也没见 他出国，有人就说，“你怎么还没走？” • 意义：关心、调侃或嘲讽。 • 下班时间早过了，某人还在办公室里忙乎，值班人员过来锁 门，说：“你怎么还没走？” • 意义：值班人员可能是出于爱护，也可能是出于生气，还可 能是某种猜测（是不是有什么不能在办公时间处理的不可告 人的什么事情，是不是在等什么人的电话，等等。） • 一个普通老百姓来到某个部门办事，被某个态度不好的工作 人员拒之门外，过了半天，那个工作人员看见老百姓还在门 口，于是说：“你怎么还不走？” • 意义：可以比较肯定地认为，这是一种不太友好的态度，是 让对方赶快走开的意思。
英语语言学 语用学 Pragmatics
The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning.
6.1.2 pragmatics and semantics
related but different linguistic studies of meaning both study meaning
Semantics treats meaning as an abstract, self contained, intrinsic system, a property attached to language itself, which is not influenced by context.
研究语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际 的
It is a discipline of studying meaning not in isolation, but in context.
Pragmatics： the study of linguistic acts and the contexts in which they are performed
因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语 义学和语用学的根本区别所在。
如 It is cold in here 这个句子，对传统语义学 家来说，只是表达了“某一地点气温比较低” 这样的命题内容。而对语用学家来说，除了陈 述一个客观的气温情况外，说话人很可能是为 了请听话人做点什么，如关上窗户、打开暖气、 借件衣服御寒等。
Lecture 6 pragmatics语用学
Sentence meaning vs utterance meaning
Sentence meaning（句子意义）: abstract, de-contextualized utterance meaning（话语意义）: concrete, context-dependent Eg. John is still single. JOHN(BEING SINGLE) Utterance meaning might be…? My bag is is like a fish. There will be several possible interpretations to this sentence. 1: if it is said when John is swimming… 2: if it is said at a party…(John can drink a lot of wine.) 3: on other occasion it can mean “John is as cold as fish”.
Pragmatics
Language in use
“语用”一词的由来 Pragma-表示“行动，做” 哲学：美国哲学家Morris和 Carnap—研究符号与符号解释 者之间的关系。
definition
The study of language in use and linguistic communication.
Topics for study:
deixis（指示） speech acts（言语行为） indirect language（语言的间接性） conversation（会话原则） politeness（礼貌原则） cross-cultural communication, presupposition（前提）
《语言学教程》第 8 章 语用学
精选版课件ppt
7
①But gradually linguists found that it would be
impossible to give an adequate description of meaning
if the context of language use was left unconsidered.
pragmatic study of language. ②It is generally
considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by
the speaker and the hearer. ③Various components of
shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge
study. ③Pragmatics is a comparatively a new branch
of study in the area of linguistics; its development and
establishment in the 1960s and 1970s resulted from the
being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
精选版课件ppt
8
“句子”与“语句”
①某年某月某日某时，张三说“天在下雨”；
这是语句( utterance)。②某年某月某日某时，李四
也说“天在下雨”；这也是语句( utterance) 。③张
三、李四各自的语句所表现出的共有的、得到普
certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.
语言学_Chapter 6_Pragmatics
对所使用语言的掌握 语言知识
对语言上文的了解 百科全书式的知识（常识）
语境
背景知识
语言外知识 情景知识
特定文化的社会规范 特定文化的会话规则 交际的时间、地点 交际的主题 交际的正式程度 交际参与者的相互关系
相互知识Biblioteka • 1. Situational context
• • • •
refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events existent in the situation.
performed via utterances • 3 simultaneous act in a speech act
6.2.1 Austin’s model: Speech Acts （言语 行为理论）
Austin (1962) distinguish two categories of utterances.
Annie: Cats were very happy today.
I think Annie means “Cats eat the cream.” What does Annie mean? Cats today were in high spirit.
Both are right. It is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning!
[研究生入学考试]语言学讲义考研 8 Pragmatics
![[研究生入学考试]语言学讲义考研 8 Pragmatics](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/126156ec89eb172ded63b772.png)
Definition
• Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.
____ is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.
• • • • •
A. Syntax B. Semantics C. Pragmatics D. Sociolinguistics Answer: C
• Performantive & Constative • The theory of Illocutionary Act
Performative & Constative
• If the uttering of the sentences is a part of the doing of an action, the sentences are called performatives. And verbs like name are called performative verbs. • I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. • I promise to finish it in time. • I apologize.
语用学与修辞学讲义
语用学与修辞学讲义第一章绪论第一节语用学与修辞学的概念一、什么是语用学Pragmatics这一术语由美国哲学家C.Morris在《符号学理论基础》(1938)一书中首次提出。
如果以1977年在荷兰创刊的《语用学杂志》为标志，则语用学作为一们独立的学科迄今不过30多年的历史。
1、定义：Charles W.Morris在其《符号理论基础》中提出：语用学研究“符号与符号解释者的关系”，研究“符号与有生命的方面，即研究符号作用下出现的所有心理、生理和社会现象”。
列文森（Levinson S.C.，1983：转引自何兆熊，1989：8-9）有关语用学的几个定义：（1）“语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化后被编码的语言和语境之间的关系的研究”；（2）“语用学是对所有那些未能纳入语义理论的意义侧面研究”；（3）“语用学是对语言和语境之间对于说明语言理解来说是十分根本的那些关系的研究”；（4）“语用学是对语言使用者把句子和使这些句子得以合适的语境相匹配的能力的研究”；（5）“语用学是对指示（至少是其中的一部分）、含义、前提、言语行为以及话语结构各个侧面的研究。
”（6）“语用学多要研究的是语言使用者在特定的语境中运用合适的语句的能力。
”（英·列文森 S。
C。
Levinson,Pragmatics,Cambrige University Press。
1983 P。
24。
再来看看其他学者对语用学的定义（何兆熊，1989：10-11）：（1）“语用学是对语言行为以及实施这些行为的语境所作的研究（Stalnaker，1972）”；“语用学是一种旨在描述说话人如何使用一种语言的句子达致成功交际的理（2）论（Kempson，1975）”；（3）“语用学是对语言的使用和语言交际进行的研究（Akmajian，1979）”；（4）“语用学可以有效地定义为对话语如何在情景中取得意义的研究。
”（英·利奇G。
N。
Leech,Principles of Pragmatics,Longman,1983。
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(Pragmatics)
1. Introduction: Definition of Pragmatics
The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers’ meaning,
Sentence Meaning context-independent. Utterance Meaning It is context-dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.
John Austin
How to Do Things with Words (1962)
speech acts: actions performed via utterances
Constatives vs. performatives Constatives: utterances which roughly serves
Minister: addressing the groom) (Groom’s Name), do you take (Bride’s Name) for your lawful wedded wife, to live together after God’s ordinance, in the holy estate of matrimony? Will you love, honor, comfort, and cherish her from this day forward, forsaking all others, keeping only unto her for as long as you both shall live?
XXX，你是否愿意娶xxx为妻，按照圣经的教训与他 同住，在神面前和她结为一体，爱她、安慰她、尊重 她、保护他，像你爱自己一样。不论她生病或是健康、 富有或贫穷，始终忠於她，直到离开世界？
Groom: I do.
Felicity conditions:
A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure.
utterance, i.e. the act of verbally saying something.
Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.
I do. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth. I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow. I give and bequeath my watch to my brother. I promise to finish it in time. I apologize. I declare the meeting open. I warn you that the bull will charge.
utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.
Sentence meaning: What does X mean? Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?
Ex. 1. Dog! 2. My bag is heavy.
Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning
Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context
2. Speech Act Theory
The distinction between constatives & performatives cannot be maintained.
All sentences can be used to do things.
3 . Illocutionary Act Theory Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels: A locutionary act: is the linguistic aspect of an
(ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.
B. The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.
C. Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actio fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is, eg:
I go to the park every Sunday. I teach English.
Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.