Exercise 8-1 语言学第八章
语言学概论课件08语言的演变
第八章语言的演变*********************************************************是语言改变了世界，还是世界改变了语言？语言在变化，你无法阻挡。
语言就从你那里开始变化，你无法拒绝。
*********************************************************第一节语言演变的原因和特点语言的演变是指语言中新的语言要素的产生和旧的语言要素的消亡。
语言的演变是一个随社会发展的需要，新的语言要素的产生、旧的语言要素的消亡、语言各部分之间相对平衡的不断被打破和不断被建立的过程。
一、语言演变的原因随着社会的发展，新事物、新概念不断产生，人们的思维也越来越细致复杂，这些都会向语言提出新的要求。
为了满足这些要求，语言也就不断地丰富词汇，改进语法。
（二）语言结构要素的相互影响引起语言的演变。
内部的系统原因语言结构要素的相互影响是引起语言演变的内部原因语言的形式（声音）和内容（意义）结合的任意性决定了语言符号变化的可能性。
这种任意性决定了语言成分的形式与内容之间永远存在着既相适应又不相适应的矛盾。
语言就是在这种“矛盾对立——矛盾统一——矛盾对立”的斗争过程中不断发展的。
中古时期的汉语“甘”[kam]、“鸽”[ kap]、“割”[ kat35]，现代汉语普通话读成了[kan55] 、[ ke55] 、[ ke55] ，辅音韵尾的丢失，导致汉语音节结构发生了很大的变化——音节结构的双音化——双音词的出现。
二、语言演变的特点1、渐变性语言是人类须臾不可或离的工具，它的演变，自然不能采取爆发的方式。
语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。
2、不平衡性语言演变的不平衡性，主要是指语言系统的各个要素的发展速度不同，有快有慢。
这是由语言系统的各个要素与社会发展的联系的密切与否决定的。
Chapter8语言学
Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。
语言学初中一年级上册第八章词汇与词义
语言学初中一年级上册第八章词汇与词义主题：语言学初中一年级上册第八章词汇与词义引言：语言是人类沟通的重要工具，词汇是语言的基础。
在语言学的学习中，初中一年级的学生需要通过了解词汇与词义的概念和运用，提高他们的语言能力。
本教案将通过深入浅出的方式，对初中一年级上册第八章进行讲解，使学生能够更好地理解和运用词汇与词义。
一、基本概念1. 词汇的定义与作用词汇是语言中最基本的单位，是表达意义的最小粒度。
它是构建句子和表达语义的基础。
学生可以通过不断学习和积累词汇，提高自己的语言能力，丰富自己的表达能力。
2. 词义的概念与分类词义是指词汇所表达的具体含义。
词义可以分为直义和引申义，它们分别是词汇的字面含义和在具体语境中引申出的含义。
二、词汇与词义的学习方法1. 词义的理解与记忆通过理解词汇的直义和引申义，学生可以更好地掌握词汇的含义。
记忆词义时，可以运用联想、造句等方法，帮助记忆和理解。
2. 词汇的运用在写作和口语表达中，学生需要灵活运用各种词汇。
通过大量的阅读和写作练习，学生可以更好地掌握词汇的运用技巧。
三、词汇与词义的拓展1. 同义词与反义词同义词是指词义相近或相同的词汇，而反义词则是指意义相反的词汇。
学生可以通过学习同义词和反义词，丰富自己的词汇量，并提高自己的表达能力。
2. 词汇与文化词汇与文化密切相关，不同文化背景下的词汇有着不同的含义和用法。
学生需要通过学习和了解各种文化知识，提高自己对词汇的理解和运用。
结语：通过对词汇与词义的学习，学生可以提高自己的语言能力，丰富自己的表达能力。
同时，掌握词汇与词义的技巧也是学好语言学的基础。
希望同学们通过学习本章内容，能够对词汇与词义有更深入的理解，并能够在实际运用中灵活运用。
英语语言学笔记第八章
第八章语言的使用在语义那一章里，我们谈到"意义"一词可以有不同的意义，并对其中的几种作了讨论。
但是还有一种重要的意义我们没有涉及到。
假定有人对你说"You're a fool（你是个傻子）"，你一般都会反问："What do you mean?（你什么意思）"。
这并不是因为你不知道句子中各词的意思，也不是因为句子的结构太复杂，让你难以理解。
你清楚地知道you指谁，fool是什么涵义，也知道句子的结构。
你不知道的是说话人说这句话究竟是什么意思，有什么意图。
或者，你知道说话人的意图，却想用"What do you mean（你什么意思）？"来反驳对方的说法。
你这里用的并不是句子的概念意义。
这种意义有时称为"说话者意义"、"语句意义"或者"语境意义"。
这种意义与我们在语义学中研究的意义不同，对它的解释更多地依赖于说话人是谁，听话人是谁，什么时候在什么地方说这句话。
总之就是取决于语境。
研究这种意义的学科叫语用学。
因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。
现在如果我们把意义分成两大类：一类与所用的词密切相关，较稳定，是固有意义（语义学研究的意义）；另一类与语境密切相关，不太确定，是附加意义（语用学研究的意义），那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning - semantics（语用学意义= 意义- 语义学意义）。
8.1 言语行为理论这个理论是牛津哲学家奥斯汀（J. L. Austin）提出的，是研究语言使用的第一个重要理论。
奥斯汀从1952年开始讲授他的理论。
1955年，他去美国哈佛大学做威廉·詹姆斯（William James）讲座时，修订了自己的讲稿，把题目从《言与行》（Words and Deeds）改成了《怎样用词做事》（How to Do Things with Words）。
语言学教程第八章知识点
Chapter EightPragmatics⏹Definition⏹Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, andspecifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.⏹In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced theword “Pragmatics” into literature.⏹莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：⏹句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
⏹Teaching Focus⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 2. Speech act theory⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹ 4. Post-Gricean Developments⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹ 1.3 Context⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹Various definitions:⏹The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.⏹The study of language in use.⏹The study of meaning in context.⏹The study o f speakers’ meaning,utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of language.⏹没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realizationWhat essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.⏹If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditionalsemantics (decontextualized);⏹If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics. (contextualized)⏹Semantics & Pragmatics⏹Peter bought a car.⏹It was Peter who bought a car.⏹It was a car that Peter bought.⏹What peter bought was a car.⏹句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果⏹语义学：这些句子都是同义的。
【正式版】语言学概论第八章PPT
一、社会接触与语言接触
❖ 语言接触的类型
1. 不成系统的词汇借用 2. 语言（区域）联盟和系统感染 3. 语言替换和底层残留 4. 通用书面语、民族共同语进入方言或民族语的层次 5. 洋泾浜和混合语
二、不成系统的词汇借用
❖ 借词
1. 借词：即外来词，指语音形式和意义都借自外民族语言的词
化比较发达的民族的经济、政治和文化。
结构简单，语法则是不同语言的混合，且尽可能简化，形态变化
二、不成系统的词汇借用
四、语言的替换和底层
❖ 语言替换的社会原因
1.当两个民族的关系日益密切而逐步发生融合的时候，生产力发展水 平比较低、文化比较落后的民族，学习生产力发展水平比较高、文化 比较发达的民族的经济、政治和文化。政治上是否处于统治地位，并 不是决定的因素。
2.各族人民必须生活在同一地区，形成杂居的局面。
四、语言的替换和底层
❖ 自愿替换和被迫替换 ❖ 自愿替换： ❖ 被替换的语言社会采取积极主动的措施来掌握强势语
言，放弃自己的母语 ❖ ❖ 被迫替换： ❖ 在主观意愿上不愿意放弃自己的母语，但由于强势语
言背后强大的政治、经济或者文化等因素的强大压力而不 得不放弃自己的母语，换用强势语言 ❖ ❖ 我国 上的语言替换： ❖ 隋唐以前，以自愿替换占优势，而在隋唐以后，被迫 替换的比例大一些
巴尔干半岛的语言联盟 我国南部的侗台、苗瑶语族诸语言，藏缅语族的部分语言和境外东南 亚地区属于南亚语系的越南语，属于侗台语族的老挝语、泰语等等， 在语音、语法的结构类型方面十分类似，据研究这也是语言接触造成 的语言联盟
三、语言联盟与系统感染
❖ 系统感染
1. 系统感染 处于同一地区的若干语言在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规则
8语言学概论第八章语言的发展和演变真题习题集锦
语言学概论第八章语言的发展和演变习题、真题集锦一、单选题(本大题共20小题，每小题1分，共20分)1.下面各项中，属于汉语北方方言的是( C )p258A．广州话 B．福州话 C．重庆话 D．上海话2.与北京话同属于一个方言区的是（ A ）P258A.昆明话B.上海话C.长沙话D.客家话3.与兰州话同属于一个地区的是（ A ）P258A.长沙话B.昆明话C.厦门话D.梅县话4．与武汉话同属一个方言区的是（ B ）p258A.长沙话B.成都话C.南昌话D.广州话5．方言之间的差异主要体现在( D )（P258）A.语法方面B.语义方面C.语汇方面D.语音方面6.人们感觉到方言的不同首先是体现在( B )A.语法方面B.语音方面C.语汇方面D.语义方面7.彝族、羌族都来自于（ B ）P259-260A.古梵语B.原始汉藏语C.古粤语D.古斯拉夫语8.汉语、彝语、苗语、纳西语都来自于( B )p259A.古梵语B.原始汉藏语C.古日耳曼语D.古斯拉夫语9．不同行业有自己的“行话”，“行话”属于( B ) p260A．地域方言 B．社会方言 C．亲属语言 D．混合语言10．一种语言的共同语是在某—个方言的基础上形成的，这种方言叫( C )p262 A．母方言 B．底层方言 C．基础方言 D．原始方言12.吉普、狮子、琵琶”等词都是汉语里的（ D ）p131/263A.方言词B.常用词C.基本词D.外来词13.下面各词中属于仿译词的是( B )（P263）A.吉普B.热狗C.高尔夫D.尼龙14.用本族语言的语素逐个対译外语原词的语素而产生的词是（ B ）P263A.音译词B.仿译词C.意译词D.借词16.一个民族的全体或部分成员放弃使用本民族语言转而使用另一民族语言的现象叫( B )p265A．语言混合 B．语言转用 C．克里奥尔 D．双语现象17.语言的替换必然要经历（ D ）P266A.洋泾滨语阶段B.融合语阶段C.失语阶段D.双语阶段18.语言替换又被视为（ B ）P265A.语言混用B.语言转用C.语音混合D.语言渗透19.下列关于语言转用的表述，不正确的一项是( C )P265A.语言转用是语言统一的重要形式B.双语现象并非一定导致语言转用C.语言转用以民族融合为必要条件D.语言间的密切接触是语言转用的重要条件20.方言和亲属语言之间具有（ A ）P259A.语音对应关系B.语汇对应关系C.语义对应关系D.语音对应关系22.亲属语言产生的必要社会条件是（A）P259A.社会的完全地域分化B.社会的不完全地域分化C.社会的完全社群分化D.社会的不完全是社群分化23.语言间亲属关系的重要标志是( D ) P259A.语义对应B.词汇对应关系C.语法对应关系D.语音对应关系24．通常被看作语言亲属关系重要证据的是( B )P259A．语言类型相同 B．语音对应关系 C．地理位置相近 D．语言借用成25.克里奥耳语又叫做（ C ）P266-268A.皮琴语B.复综语C.混合语D.语言联盟26.洋泾浜语和克里奥耳语属于（ C ） P266A.语言的借用B.语言的转用C.语言的混合D.双语现象。
语言学概论(8)
例如： 例如： 食物 蔬菜 白菜…… 油菜 白菜 肉食 水果 ……
羊肉… 苹果 香蕉 橘子 橘子.. 猪肉 牛肉 羊肉
（2）组成关系 组成关系是指：包含项的词所指称的 组成关系是指： 事物由所有被包含项的词所指称的事物组 例如： 成。 例如： 房子 房顶 门 窗 墙 地板 ………
世界 ………
亚洲
反义关系（ 二、相反关系/反义关系（antonymy） 相反关系 反义关系 ） 两个词分别指称两个不同的事物， 两个词分别指称两个不同的事物，而这两 个不同的事物的本质属性或基本特征刚好是相 反的，这两个词的词义就有相反关系。 反的，这两个词的词义就有相反关系。这两个 词就是反义词。例如： 词就是反义词。例如： 轻--------重 重 夫--------妻 妻 早--------晚 晚 支持---------反对 支持 反对 朋友-------敌人 朋友 敌人
（3）义丛 义丛是由不成句的自由短语表示的 语义单位，由若干义项组合而成。 语义单位，由若干义项组合而成。如： 学习文件”有两种意思， “学习文件”有两种意思，这两种意义 就是两个义丛。 就是两个义丛。 （4）表述 表述是由句子表示的语义单位。 表述是由句子表示的语义单位。一 个句子表示的一种意义，就是一个表述。 个句子表示的一种意义，就是一个表述。 有些句子可以表示几种不同的意义， 有些句子可以表示几种不同的意义，每 一种意义就是一个表述。 一种意义就是一个表述。
三、语义学（semantics） 语义学（semantics） 语义学是研究语言的意义的学科， 语义学是研究语言的意义的学科， 它主要研究语义的各种性质、类型、 它主要研究语义的各种性质、类型、语 义关系、语义的结构和功能， 义关系、语义的结构和功能，以及语义 的形成和演变等等。 的形成和演变等等。 Semantics is the study of meaning in language, or the study of meaning of words ,phrases and sentences.
考研语言学第八章笔记
考研语⾔学第⼋章笔记笔记Pragmatics:It is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker's meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.* pragmatics and semantics区别1.Pragmatics' interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.= it depends more on the context.2.It takes context into consideration while semantics concentrates on the study of literal meaning without context.3.It can also be defined as the study of language in use.Pragmatics and semantics 联系Semantics: studies the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning. Pragmatics: studies the side more closely related to the context, the more indetermined side, or something extra.Speech Act TheoryPerformatives施为句and constatives叙事句Performatives: the statements which are used to do something. They do not describe a fact and they are not verifiable. (宣布，命名，许诺，打赌）I name this ship the Queen ElizabethI bequeath this watch to my brother.I promise to finish it in time.I find you guilty. You did it. Thank you. I order you to turn right. People are warned to keep off the grass.I state that I am alone responsible.I declare the meeting open.Constatives: the statements are used to state/describe a fact.They are verifiable.First i open the door then i sit next to the door.Though performatives cannot be true or false, there are still conditions for them to meet to be appropriate.----Austin, Felicity Conditions1.There must be a relevant conventional procedure. The relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.2.The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.3.The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.因为适合条件不够完善，只能使⽤于部分情况，所以Austin放弃了他最初对叙事句和施为句的区分，建⽴了另外⼀套模式来解释如何通过语⾔事实⾏为。
语言学 第八章PPT课件
It takes place in the speech community where one's first lge or SL is spoken. It is often natural, without much focus on form.
❖a complicated process, involving a wide range of social, psychological, cognitive, linguistic, physiological factors.文 秋 芳教 授来自吴 一 安教 授
❖ 高一虹教授
❖ (英)
❖ Chomsky
Anderson
❖ krashen
戴 炜 栋
教 授
❖ 刘润清教授
❖ Rod Ellis
a Professor in the Department of Applied language studies and Linguistics at University of Auckland, New Zealand
1) there is no formal instruction in FLA.
2) Children all over the world go through the same stage in LA.
先天论:
代表人物: 乔姆斯基、 卡茨，心理学家米 勒与马克奈尔。
主要观点：1）是一种基于对刺激—反应论猛烈 批判立场上建立起的理论,是基于理性主义的理 论。语言是一种规则体系，是一种以规则为基 础的复杂系统而并非习惯的总和，儿童之所以 能掌握，是因为人类有天生的、具有受遗传因 素决定的掌握语言规则的能力，即“语言能 力”。乔姆斯基还提出了“语言运用”的概念， 即说话人和听话人对语言规则的具体运用（言 语活动）。语言运用以语言能力为基础。
英语语言学 第八章 语言与社会
Register 语域
▪ Register, in a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
▪ Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacherstudent, etc.)语旨
away, please? ▪ Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once. ▪ Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the
upper floor by way of the staircase.
▪ When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.
语言学第八章讲课教案
Chapter Eight ExerciseI. Choose the best answer.1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning ______ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. “Logic and Conversation” was written by ______.A. H.P. GriceB. William JamesC. Stephen LevinsonD. John Austin3. According to the conversational maxim of _______ suggested by Grice, one should speak truthfully.A. quantityB. qualityC. relevanceD. manner4. Speech act theory did not come into being until _____.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century5. ____ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act6. All of the following are characteristics of implicature EXCEPT_______.A. conventionalityB. cancellabilityC. non-detachabilityD. calculability7. The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the things it refers to or stands for is known as the ________.A. An integrated TheoryB. Speech Act TheoryC. The Conceptual TheoryD. The Referential Theory8. Which of the following can best describe the relationship between “They have six cows” and “They have some animals”? _______A. presuppositionB. synonymC. antonymD. entailment9.In which of the following aspects conversational implicature theory and speech act theory are different ?A. how contextual meaning is generated.B. how much the implied meaning is dependent on the context.C. how much role the conventional meaning of words plays.D.how indeterminate the implied meaning is.10.‘I hereby declare the starting of the war’ reflects the ______ function of language.A. informativeB. interpersonalC. performativeD. emotive11.Which of the following statements is true about John Langshaw Austin ?A. He classified the following five types of speech acts performed by sentences: representative, directive, interrogative, expressive and declarative acts.B. He accounted for why people always spoke indirectly in daily conversation.C. He finally realized that there was no clear boundary between performatives and constatives.D. Austin proposed the felicity conditions to stress performatives can be true or false.12.Please point out how John in the following conversation succeeds in conveying his information implicitly.Tom: Let’s get the kids something.John: Okey, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-SA. By flouting the maxim of manner.B. By flouting the maxim of relevanceC. By flouting the maxim of quality.D. By flouting the maxim of quantity.13.Please point out how Mary in the following conversation succeeds in conveying his information implicitly.Lily: Where do you work ?Mary: On Machang Road.A. By flouting the maxim of manner.B. By flouting the maxim of relevanceC. By flouting the maxim of quality.D. By flouting the maxim of quantity.14.The fact that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form suggests conversational implicature has the characteristic of _______.A. CalculabilityB. Non-detachabilityC. ConventionalityD. Cancellability15.________ can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.A. constativesB. locutionary actC. illocutionary actD. perlocutionary actⅡ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.2. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.3. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.4. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.5. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.6. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.7. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.8. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.9. Utterance may be defined as a piece of actually used language.10. The meaning of a sentence is abstract and de-contextualized , while utterance meaning is concrete and context -dependent.Ⅲ. Fill in the blanks.1.Through the Williams James lectures Grice delivered at Harvard in 1967, the theory of ______________ became known to the public.2.If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course ofcommunication, it becomes an _______.3.The meaning of a sentence is _______, and decontexualized.4. __ _____ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable （能证实的）.5. The characteristics of implicature can be summarized as calculability, cancellability, __________ and non-conventionality.6. A(n) ______ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.7. A(n) ______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.8.According to the conversational maxim of ________ suggested by Grice, one should speak truthfully.9. ________ is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first.10. Conversational implicature as a type of implied meaning , which is deduced on the basis of the _______ meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.Ⅳ. Explain the following terms, using examples.1.Performative2.illocutionary act/force3.Pragmatics4.Conversational implicature5.CPⅤ. Answer the following questions.1.Austin’s first shot at his speech act theory is his claim that there are two types of sentences: PERFORMATIVES and CONSTATIVES. Please state what they are and illustrate them with examples.2.Give examples to analyze the violations of the four maxims of cooperative principle: maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relation and maxim of manner respectively..3. What are the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:(…the tele phone rings)----Husband: That’ the phone.----Wife: I’m in the bathroom.----Husband: Okay.。
【免费下载】语言学概论第八章语言的发展山东大学期末考试知识点复习
第八章语言的发展1．语言发展的原因语言作为社会现象和交际工具是随着社会的发展变化而不断发展变化的。
社会的发展是语言发展变化的基本条件，是语言发展的外因：社会的发展进步推动了语言的发展；社会的分化和统一影响并推动了语言的发展；社会之间的互相接触影响并推动着语言的发展；社会的变动影响并推动了语言的发展；社会的进步推动了人们思维的发展，思维的发展又直接影响了语言的发展。
语言内部矛盾是引起语言发展的内部原因：语言系统内部的各个要素之间以及每个要素的各个成分都处于对立统一的关系之中，相互间呈现出一种平衡的状态。
如果其中某一要素或某一成分发生了变化，原有的平衡被破坏，那么系统内部有关的要素或成分就会发生相应的变化，从而达到新的平衡。
于是它们内部就出现了从平衡到不平衡再到新的平衡的矛盾运动，从而推动了语言的发展。
2．语言发展演变的一般规律语言发展演变有渐变性规律：随着社会的发展以及由此产生的人们对语言提出的新的需要，语言必须随着社会的发展而发展，从而满足人们的交际需要。
但是语言的发展变化又不像一般的变革那样可以突变，不是废除现存语言而创造出崭新的语言，而是通过语言中新的要素逐渐积累、旧的要素逐渐消亡来实现。
语言发展之所以具有渐变性特点，这是由语言的社会功能这一本质决定的。
语言作为人类社会最重要的交际工具，作为社会成员相互联系的桥梁和纽带，时刻被人们使用。
因此，语言的发展演变以实现交际功能为前提，是渐进式的，是不知不觉发生的，是约定俗成的，而不能是突变的。
也就是说，语言发展中这种稳固和变化的对立就导致了语言的发展变化只能是渐变的方式而不能是突变的方式。
比如，新词的产生，旧词的消亡都是逐渐实现的。
语言发展演变有不平衡性规律：语言内部各要素的发展不是同步的，有发展速度快的，有发展速度慢的，呈现出不平衡性。
词汇能够随时随地反映社会生活，并且非常敏锐地反映出社会的细微变化，所以它发展速度最快，而且主要表现在一般词汇上。
第八章-语言学概论
语言学概论第八章语言的接触第八章学习目标：1、词的借用2、语言联盟与系统感染3、语言的替换4、通用语、共同语5、洋泾浜、混合语第一节社会和语言的接触贸易和文化交流、人口迁移、战争征服、海外殖民等都会带来社会的接触，社会的接触也为语言的接触和相互影响创造了条件。
社会的接触和语言的接触也存在不同的程度，有的社会接触程度较深，那么语言和语言之间的接触和相互影响也较深，可以分为以下几种情况：1、词的借用2、语言联盟和系统感染3、语言替换和底层残留4、通用语对方言、民族语的影响5、洋泾浜、混合语第二节词的借用一、借词借词也叫做外来词，它的语音形式和意义都是借自外民族语言的词。
例如“吉普”、“沙发”、“卡通”、“麦当劳”、“阿富汗”，等等。
借词不同于意译词和仿译词，它的音和义都借自外语的词。
意译词是运用本族语言的构词材料和规则构成的新词，把外语中的某个意义移植进来。
借从结构看，语言符号是由声音和意义两个要素构成的，借词的音和义都借自外语，是外来词，意译词的构成材料和规则都是本民族的，只吸收了意义，没有吸收形式，故不是外来词。
借词是外来词，意译词不是外来词。
汉语借词主要有音译、音译加意译、半音译半意译、字母词等等。
音译词如“咖啡”、“喇嘛”、“喀秋莎”等。
音译兼意译的词如“奔驰”（Bonze）、“可口可乐”（Coca-Cola）等。
半音译半意译如“分贝”（decibel）、“马克思主义”（Marxism）等。
仿译词，如“足球”（football）、“鸡尾酒”（cocktail）等。
字母词如AA制、MTV、VIP等等。
汉语中一些不容易辨认的借词：西域：葡萄、石榴、菠萝、狮子、玻璃、苜蓿印度：佛、菩萨、罗汉、阎罗、魔、僧、尼、和尚、塔蒙古：站、胡同、蘑菇、（馒头）日本：写真、经济、思想、资本、政治、劳动、侵略、想象、垄断、悲观、乐观、学士、硕士、博士二、结构规则的借用1234567借词虽然音义都借自外语，但语音、语法上还得服从本族语言的结构规则。
胡壮麟语言学Exercise 8
I . Fill in the blanks.
• 1. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the _____ Principle proposed by J. Grice. Cooperative • 2. While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an _____ is concrete and context-dependent. utterance
II. Choose the best answer.
• 21. Speech Act Theory was proposed by _____ in 1962. A. Saussure B. Austin C. Chomsky D. Grimm B
II. Choose the best answer.
A
III. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].
• __ 24. If the context of use is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. T • __ 25. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention. [F] An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.
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Exercise 8-1I. Choose the best answer.1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning ___D___ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a __B__ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) __C__.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Speech act theory did not come into being until __A___.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century5. __C__ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act6. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is __B_.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs7. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ ___C___.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought aboutⅡ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered. T3. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T4. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. F5. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. F6. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F7. Speech act theory started in the l ate 50’s of the 20th century. T8. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. TⅢ. Fill in the blanks.The notion of __context___ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomesan ___utterance____.The meaning of a sentence is ___abstract____, and decontexualized.__Constatives _____ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable （能证实的）.___Performatives___ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.A(n) ___locutionary___ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.A(n) ___illocutionary___ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.A(n) __ expressive_____ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.Ⅳ. Explain the following terms, using examples.Performative : utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.Locutionary act : A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. It refers to the action of moving vocal organs and producing sounds organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning while we are speaking.Ⅴ. Answer the following questions.Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between them can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean? (b) What did you mean by X?” （东北师范大学，2006）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.。