单片机英文参考文献
单片机设计体参考文献
单片机设计体参考文献介绍单片机（Microcontroller）是一种集成了微处理器核心、存储器、输入/输出端口以及其他功能模块的集成电路芯片。
它具有低功耗、体积小、易于控制和使用的特点，广泛应用于各种电子设备中。
在单片机的设计过程中，参考文献的重要性不言而喻。
好的参考文献可以为设计者提供丰富的知识和经验，指导设计过程并解决问题。
本文将就单片机设计方面的参考文献进行全面、详细、完整和深入的探讨，为读者提供有关单片机设计的一些建议和指导。
选择合适的参考文献选择合适的参考文献是进行单片机设计的第一步。
以下是一些有关单片机设计的经典参考书目，供读者参考。
1. 《The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems Using Assembly and C》•作者：Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie Mazidi, Rolin D.McKinlay•出版年份：2007年•内容简介：本书全面介绍了8051单片机的架构、编程和应用。
书中涵盖了从基本知识到高级应用的内容，适合初学者和有一定经验的读者。
2. 《ARM Cortex-M3和Cortex-M4单片机高级编程》•作者：Yifeng Zhu•出版年份：2013年•内容简介：本书详细介绍了ARM Cortex-M3和Cortex-M4单片机的架构、指令集和编程技巧。
作者通过丰富的实例和案例，深入浅出地讲解了单片机的高级编程技术。
3. 《单片机与嵌入式系统应用》•作者：Ryan Heffernan, Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Danny Causey•出版年份：2012年•内容简介：本书介绍了单片机和嵌入式系统的基本概念和原理，包括硬件和软件的设计和开发。
书中还提供了大量的实例和项目，帮助读者将理论知识应用到实际项目中。
单片机设计流程在进行单片机设计时，遵循一定的设计流程是非常重要的。
单片机参考文献2024
引言概述：单片机（Microcontroller）是一种集成了处理器核心、内存、输入/输出接口和定时器等功能的集成电路，广泛应用于嵌入式系统、消费电子产品、工业自动化等领域。
本文旨在通过参考相关文献，深入探讨单片机的相关概念、原理、开发工具和应用方面的知识。
正文内容：一、单片机的基本概念和原理1. 单片机的定义和分类：介绍单片机的基本概念，包括其定义、分类和特点。
2. 单片机的工作原理：详细介绍单片机内部的组成结构和工作原理，包括CPU、内存、I/O口等。
3. 单片机的指令系统和编程方式：讲解单片机的指令系统和编程方式，包括汇编语言和高级语言的使用。
4. 单片机的时钟和定时器：介绍单片机的时钟系统和定时器的原理和应用，包括计时、计数和中断处理等。
二、单片机的开发工具和环境1. 单片机的编程和调试工具：介绍常见的单片机编程和调试工具，包括开发板、编译器和调试器等。
2. 单片机的开发环境配置：详细讲解如何配置单片机的开发环境，包括软件安装、驱动程序设置和调试工具的使用方法。
3. 单片机的模拟仿真和实际应用：介绍单片机的模拟仿真技术和实际应用调试方法，包括仿真器和仿真软件的选择和使用。
三、单片机的应用领域和案例分析1. 单片机在嵌入式系统中的应用：介绍单片机在嵌入式系统中的应用，包括家电、智能家居、智能穿戴设备和机器人等领域。
2. 单片机在消费电子产品中的应用：详细介绍单片机在消费电子产品中的应用，包括手机、电视、音响和游戏机等。
3. 单片机在工业自动化中的应用：讲解单片机在工业自动化中的应用，包括自动控制系统、传感器、仪表和机器人等。
4. 单片机在通信和网络中的应用：介绍单片机在通信和网络中的应用，包括无线通信、数据传输和互联网连接等技术。
5. 单片机在医疗和生物技术中的应用：讲解单片机在医疗和生物技术中的应用，包括医疗设备、生物传感器和基因工程等方面。
四、单片机的发展趋势和未来展望1. 单片机的发展历程和趋势：回顾单片机的发展历程，分析当前单片机技术的趋势，包括集成度、功耗和性能等方面的改进。
单片机课设参考文献2019
单片机课设参考文献2019针对单片机课设参考文献，2019年有许多优秀的文献可以作为参考。
以下是一些可能对你有帮助的文献：1. "Design of Single Chip Microcomputer Experiment Courseware Based on STM32"，作者，Yan Li，发表于2019年的《International Journal of Engineering & Technology》。
该文献介绍了基于STM32的单片机实验课程软件的设计，对于单片机课设可能提供了一些有用的思路和方法。
2. "Application of Single Chip Microcomputer in the Design of Intelligent Home Control System"，作者，Liang Zhang，发表于2019年的《Journal of Physics: Conference Series》。
该文献探讨了单片机在智能家居控制系统设计中的应用，对于单片机课设的实际应用具有一定的参考价值。
3. "Research on the Application of Single Chip Microcomputer in Intelligent Traffic Light Control System"，作者，Xiao Wang，发表于2019年的《IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering》。
该文献研究了单片机在智能交通灯控制系统中的应用，可能对于单片机课设中涉及到交通信号灯控制的项目有所帮助。
以上文献仅仅是2019年的部分文献，希望对你有所帮助。
当然，在进行课设时，你也可以查阅更多相关的文献，以获取更全面的信息和灵感。
祝你在单片机课设中取得成功！。
单片机英文文献及翻译)
Validation and Testing of Design Hardening for Single Event Effects Using the 8051 MicrocontrollerAbstractWith the dearth of dedicated radiation hardened foundries, new and novel techniques are being developed for hardening designs using non-dedicated foundry services. In this paper, we will discuss the implications of validating these methods for the single event effects (SEE) in the space environment. Topics include the types of tests that are required and the design coverage (i.e., design libraries: do they need validating for each application?). Finally, an 8051 microcontroller core from NASA Institute of Advanced Microelectronics (IAμE) CMOS Ultra Low Power Radiation Tolerant (CULPRiT) design is evaluated for SEE mitigative techniques against two commercial 8051 devices.Index TermsSingle Event Effects, Hardened-By-Design, microcontroller, radiation effects.I. INTRODUCTIONNASA constantly strives to provide the best capture of science while operating in a space radiation environment using a minimum of resources [1,2]. With a relatively limited selection of radiation-hardened microelectronic devices that are often two or more generations of performance behind commercialstate-ofthe-art technologies, NASA’s performance of this task is quite challenging. One method of alleviating this is by the use of commercial foundry alternatives with no or minimally invasive design techniques for hardening. This is often called hardened-by-design (HBD).Building custom-type HBD devices using design libraries and automated design tools may provide NASA the solution it needs to meet stringent science performance specifications in a timely,cost-effective, and reliable manner.However, one question still exists: traditional radiation-hardened devices have lot and/or wafer radiation qualification tests performed; what types of tests are required for HBD validation?II. TESTING HBD DEVICES CONSIDERATIONSTest methodologies in the United States exist to qualify individual devices through standards and organizations such as ASTM, JEDEC, and MIL-STD- 883. Typically, TID (Co-60) and SEE (heavy ion and/or proton) are required for device validation. So what is unique to HBD devices?As opposed to a “regular” commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) device or application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) where no hardening has been performed, one needs to determine how validated is the design library as opposed to determining the device hardness. That is, by using test chips, can we “qualify” a future device using the same library?Consider if Vendor A has designed a new HBD library portable to foundries B and C. A test chip is designed, tested, and deemed acceptable. Nine months later a NASA flight project enters the mix by designing a new device using Vendor A’s library. Does this device require complete radiation qualification testing? To answer this, other questions must be asked.How complete was the test chip? Was there sufficient statistical coverage of all library elements to validate each cell? If the new NASA design uses a partially or insufficiently characterized portion of the design library, full testing might be required. Of course, if part of the HBD was relying on inherent radiation hardness of a process, some of the tests (like SEL in the earlier example) may be waived.Other considerations include speed of operation and operating voltage. For example, if the test chip was tested statically for SEE at a power supply voltage of 3.3V, is the data applicable to a 100 MHz operating frequency at 2.5V? Dynamic considerations (i.e., nonstatic operation) include the propagated effects of Single Event Transients (SETs). These can be a greater concern at higher frequencies.The point of the considerations is that the design library must be known, the coverage used during testing is known, the test application must be thoroughly understood and the characteristics of the foundry must be known. If all these are applicable or have been validated by the test chip, then no testing may be necessary. A task within NASA’s Electronic Parts and Packaging (NEPP) Program was performed to explore these types of considerations.III. HBD TECHNOLOGY EVALUATION USING THE 8051 MICROCONTROLLERWith their increasing capabilities and lower power consumption, microcontrollers are increasingly being used in NASA and DOD system designs. There are existing NASA and DoD programs that are doing technology development to provide HBD. Microcontrollers are one such vehicle that is being investigated to quantify the radiation hardness improvement. Examples of these programs are the 8051 microcontroller being developed by Mission Research Corporation (MRC) and the IAμE (the focus of this study). As these HBD technologies become available, validation of the technology, in the natural space radiation environment, for NASA’s use in spaceflight systems is required.The 8051 microcontroller is an industry standard architecture that has broad acceptance, wide-ranging applications and development tools available. There are numerous commercial vendors that supply this controller or have it integrated into some type of system-on-a-chip structure. Both MRC and IAμE chose this device to demonstrate two distinctly different technologies for hardening. The MRC example of this is to use temporal latches that require specific timing to ensure that single event effects are minimized. The IAμE technology uses ultra low power, and layout and architecture HBD design rules to achieve their results. These are fundamentally different than the approach by Aeroflex-United Technologies Microelectronics Center (UTMC), the commercial vendor of a radiation–hardened 8051, that built their 8051 microcontroller using radiationhardened processes. This broad range of technology within one device structure makes the 8051an ideal vehicle for performing this technology evaluation.The objective of this work is the technology evaluation of the CULPRiT process [3] from IAμE. The process has been baselined against two other processes, the standard 8051 commercial device from Intel and a version using state-of-the-art processing from Dallas Semiconductor. By performing this side-by-side comparison, the cost benefit, performance, and reliability trade study can be done.In the performance of the technology evaluation, this task developed hardware and software for testing microcontrollers. A thorough process was done to optimize the test process to obtain as complete an evaluation as possible. This included taking advantage of the available hardware and writing software that exercised the microcontroller such that all substructures of the processor were evaluated. This process is also leading to a more complete understanding of how to test complex structures, such as microcontrollers, and how to more efficiently test these structures in the future.IV. TEST DEVICESThree devices were used in this test evaluation. The first is the NASA CULPRiT device, which is the primary device to be evaluated. The other two devices are two versions of a commercial 8051, manufactured by Intel and Dallas Semiconductor, respectively.The Intel devices are the ROMless, CMOS version of the classic 8052 MCS-51 microcontroller. They are rated for operation at +5V, over a temperature range of 0 to 70 °C and at a clock speeds of 3.5 MHz to 24 MHz. They are manufactured in Intel’s P629.0 CHMOS III-E process.The Dallas Semiconductor devices are similar in that they are ROMless 8052 microcontrollers, but they are enhanced in various ways. They are rated for operation from 4.25 to 5.5 Volts over 0 to 70 °C at clock speeds up to 25 MHz. They have a second full serial port built in, seven additional interrupts, a watchdog timer, a power fail reset, dual data pointers and variable speed peripheral access. In addition, the core is redesigned so that the machine cycle is shortened for most instructions, resulting in an effective processing ability that is roughly 2.5 times greater (faster) than the standard 8052 device. None of these features, other than those inherent in the device operation, were utilized in order to maximize the similarity between the Dallas and Intel test codes.The CULPRiT technology device is a version of the MSC-51 family compatible C8051 HDL core licensed from the Ultra Low Power (ULP) process foundry. The CULPRiT technology C8051 device is designed to operate at a supply voltage of 500 mV and includes an on-chip input/output signal level-shifting interface with conventional higher voltage parts. The CULPRiT C8051 device requires two separate supply voltages; the 500 mV and the desired interface voltage. The CULPRiT C8051 is ROMless and is intended to be instruction set compatible with the MSC-51 family.V. TEST HARDWAREThe 8051 Device Under Test (DUT) was tested as a component of a functional computer. Aside from DUT itself, the other componentsof the DUT computer were removed from the immediate area of the irradiation beam.A small card (one per DUT package type) with a unique hard-wired identifier byte contained the DUT, its crystal, and bypass capacitors (and voltage level shifters for the CULPRiT DUTs). This "DUT Board" was connected to the "Main Board" by a short 60-conductor ribbon cable. The Main Board had all other components required to complete the DUT Computer, including some which nominally are not necessary in some designs (such as external RAM, external ROM and address latch). The DUT Computer and the Test Control Computer were connected via a serial cable and communications were established between the two by the Controller (that runs custom designed serial interface software). This Controller software allowed for commanding of the DUT, downloading DUT Code to the DUT, and real-time error collection from the DUT during and post irradiation. A 1 Hz signal source provided an external watchdog timing signal to the DUT, whose watchdog output was monitored via an oscilloscope. The power supply was monitored to provide indication of latchup.VI. TEST SOFTWAREThe 8051 test software concept is straightforward. It was designed to be a modular series of small test programs each exercising a specific part of the DUT. Since each test was stand alone, they were loaded independently of each other for execution on the DUT. This ensured that only the desired portion of the 8051 DUT was exercised during the test and helped pinpoint location of errors that occur during testing. All test programs resided on the controller PC until loaded via the serial interface to the DUT computer. In this way, individual tests could have been modified at any time without the necessity of burning PROMs. Additional tests could have also been developed and added without impacting the overall test design. The only permanent code, which was resident on the DUT, was the boot code and serial code loader routines that established communications between the controller PC and the DUT.All test programs implemented:• An external Universal Asynchronous Receive and Transmit device (UART) for transmission of error information and communication to controller computer.• An external real-time clock for data error tag.•A watchdog routine designed to provide visual verification of 8051 health and restart test code if necessary.• A "foul-up" routine to reset program counter if it wanders out of code space.• An external telemetry data storage memory to provide backup of data in the event of an interruption in data transmission.The brief description of each of the software tests used is given below. It should be noted that for each test, the returned telemetry (including time tag) was sent to both the test controller and the telemetry memory, giving the highest reliability that all data is captured.Interrupt –This test used 4 of 6 available interrupt vectors (Serial, External, Timer0 Overflow, and Timer1 Overflow) to trigger routines that sequentially modified a value in the accumulator which was periodically compared to a known value. Unexpected values were transmitted with register information.Logic –This test performed a series of logic and math computations and provided three types of error identifications: 1) addition/subtraction, 2) logic and 3) multiplication/division. All miscompares of computations and expected results were transmitted with other relevant register information.Memory – This test loaded internal data memory at locations D:0x20 through D:0xff (or D:0x20 through D:0x080 for the CULPRiT DUT), indirectly, with an 0x55 pattern. Compares were performed continuously and miscompares were corrected while error information and register values were transmitted.Program Counter -The program counter was used to continuously fetch constants at various offsets in the code. Constants were compared with known values and miscompares were transmitted along with relevant register information. Registers – This test loaded each of four (0,1,2,3) banks of general-purpose registers with either 0xAA (for banks 0 and 2) or 0x55 (for banks 1 and 3). The pattern was alternated in order to test the Program Status Word (PSW) special function register, which controls general-purpose register bank selection. General-purpose register banks were then compared with their expected values. All miscompares were corrected and error information was transmitted.Special Function Registers (SFR) – This test used learned static values of 12 out 21 available SFRs and then constantly compared the learned value with the current one. Miscompares were reloaded with learned value and error information was transmitted.Stack – This test performed arithmetic by pushing and popping operands on the stack. Unexpected results were attributed to errors on the stack or to the stack pointer itself and were transmitted with relevant register information.VII. TEST METHODOLOGYThe DUT Computer booted by executing the instruction code located at address 0x0000. Initially, the device at this location was an EPROM previously loaded with "Boot/Serial Loader" code. This code initialized the DUT Computer and interface through a serial connection to the controlling computer, the "Test Controller". The DUT Computer downloaded Test Code and put it into Program Code RAM (located on the Main Board of the DUT Computer). It then activated a circuit which simultaneously performed two functions: held the DUT reset line active for some time (~10 ms); and, remapped the Test Code residing in the Program Code RAM to locate it to address 0x0000 (the EPROM will no longer be accessible in the DUT Computer's memory space). Upon awaking from the reset, the DUT computer again booted by executing the instruction code at address 0x0000, except this time that code was not be the Boot/Serial Loader code but the Test Code.The Test Control Computer always retained the ability to force the reset/remap function, regardless of the DUT Computer's functionality. Thus, if the test ran without a Single Event Functional Interrupt (SEFI) either the DUT Computer itselfor the Test Controller could have terminated the test and allowed the post-test functions to be executed. If a SEFI occurred, the Test Controller forced a reboot into Boot/Serial Loader code and then executed the post-test functions. During any test of the DUT, the DUT exercised a portion of its functionality (e.g., Register operations or Internal RAM check, or Timer operations) at the highest utilization possible, while making a minimal periodic report to the Test Control Computer to convey that the DUT Computer was still functional. If this reportceased, the Test Controller knew that a SEFI had occurred. This periodic data was called "telemetry". If the DUT encountered an error that was not interrupting the functionality (e.g., a data register miscompare) it sent a more lengthy report through the serial port describing that error, and continued with the test.VIII.DISCUSSIONA. Single Event LatchupThe main argument for why latchup is not an issue for the CULPRiT devices is that the operating voltage of 0.5 volts should be below the holding voltage required for latchup to occur. In addition to this, the cell library used also incorporates the heavy dual guard-barring scheme [4]. This scheme has been demonstrated multiple times to be very effective in rendering CMOS circuits completely immune to SEL up to test limits of 120 MeV-cm2/mg. This is true in circuits operating at 5, 3.3, and 2.5 Volts, as well as the 0.5 Volt CULPRiT circuits. In one case, a 5 Volt circuit fabricated on noncircuits wafers even exhibited such SEL immunity.B. Single Event UpsetThe primary structure of the storage unit used in the CULPRiT devices is the Single Event Resistant Topology (SERT) [5]. Given the SERT cell topology and a single upset node assumption, it is expected that the SERT cell will be completely immune to SEUs occurring internal to the memory cell itself. Obviously there are other things going on. The CULPRiT 8051 results reported here are quite similar to some resultsobtained with a CULPRiT CCSDS lossless compression chip (USES) [6]. The CULPRiT USES was synthesized using exactly the same tools and library as the CULPRiT 8051.With the CULPRiT USES, the SEU cross section data [7] was taken as a function of frequency at two LET values, 37.6 and 58.5 MeV-cm2/mg. In both cases the data fit well to a linear model where cross section is proportional to clock. In the LET 37.6 case, the zero frequency intercept occurred essentially at the zero cross section point, indicating that virtually all of these SEUs are captured SETs from the combinational logic. The LET 58.5 data indicated that the SET (frequency dependent) component is sitting on top of a "dc-bias" component –presumably a second upset mechanism is occurring internal to the SERT cells only at a second, higher LET threshold.The SET mitigation scheme used in the CULPRiT devices is based on the SERT cell's fault tolerant input property when redundant input data is provided to separate storage nodes. The idea is that the redundant input data is provided through a total duplication of combinational logic (referred to as “dual rail design”) such that a simple SET on one rail cannot produce an upset. Therefore, some other upset mechanism must be happening. It is possible that a single particle strike is placing an SET on both halves of the logic streams, allowing an SET to produce an upset. Care was taken to separate the dual sensitive nodes in the SERT cell layouts but the automated place-and-route of the combinatorial logic paths may have placed dual sensitive nodes close enough.At this point, the theory for the CULPRiT SEU response is that at about an LET of 20, the energy deposition is sufficiently wide enough (and in the right locations) to produce an SET in both halves of the combinatorial logic streams. Increasing LET allows for more regions to be sensitive to this effect, yielding a larger cross section. Further, the second SEU mechanism that starts at an LET of about 40-60 has to do with when the charge collection disturbance cloud gets large enough to effectively upset multiples of the redundant storage nodes within the SERT cell itself. In this 0.35 μm library, the node separation is several microns. However, since it takes less charge to upset a node operating at 0.5 Volts, with transistors having effective thresholds around 70 mV, this is likely the effect being observed. Also the fact that the per-bit memory upset cross section for the CULPRiT devices and the commercial technologies are approximately equal, as shown in Figure 9, indicates that the cell itself has become sensitive to upset.IX. SUMMARYA detailed comparison of the SEE sensitivity of a HBD technology (CULPRiT) utilizing the 8051 microcontroller as a test vehicle has been completed. This paper discusses the test methodology used and presents a comparison of the commercial versus CULPRiT technologies based on the data taken. The CULPRiT devices consistently show significantly higher threshold LETs and an immunity to latchup. In all but the memory test at the highest LETs, the cross section curves for all upset events is one to two orders of magnitude lower than the commercial devices. Additionally, theory is presented, based on the CULPRiT technology, that explain these results.This paper also demonstrates the test methodology for quantifying the level of hardness designed into a HBD technology. By using the HBD technology in a real-world device structure (i.e., not just a test chip), and comparing results to equivalent commercial devices, one can have confidence in the level of hardness that would be available from that HBD technology in any circuit application.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors of this paper would like to acknowledge the sponsors of this work. These are the NASA Electronic Parts and Packaging Program (NEPP), NASA Flight Programs, and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA).。
单片机英文参考文献
单片机英文参考文献篇一：5-单片机+外文文献+英文文献+外文翻译中英对照AT89C51的介绍（原文出处：http：///resource/）描述AT89C51是一个低电压，高性能CMOS8位单片机带有4K字节的可反复擦写的程序存储器（PENROM）。
和128字节的存取数据存储器（RAM），这种器件采用ATMEL公司的高密度、不容易丢失存储技术生产，并且能够与MCS-51系列的单片机兼容。
片内含有8位中央处理器和闪烁存储单元，有较强的功能的AT89C51单片机能够被应用到控制领域中。
功能特性AT89C51提供以下的功能标准：4K字节闪烁存储器，128字节随机存取数据存储器，32个I/O口，2个16位定时/计数器，1个5向量两级中断结构，1个串行通信口，片内震荡器和时钟电路。
另外，AT89C51还可以进行0HZ的静态逻辑操作，并支持两种软件的节电模式。
闲散方式停止中央处理器的工作，能够允许随机存取数据存储器、定时/计数器、串行通信口及中断系统继续工作。
掉电方式保存随机存取数据存储器中的内容，但震荡器停止工作并禁止其它所有部件的工作直到下一个复位。
引脚描述VCC：电源电压 GND：地 P0口：P0口是一组8位漏极开路双向I/O口，即地址/数据总线复用口。
作为输出口时，每一个管脚都能够驱动8个TTL电路。
当“1”被写入P0口时，每个管脚都能够作为高阻抗输入端。
P0口还能够在访问外部数据存储器或程序存储器时，转换地址和数据总线复用，并在这时激活内部的上拉电阻。
P0口在闪烁编程时，P0口接收指令，在程序校验时，输出指令，需要接电阻。
沈阳航空工业学院电子工程系毕业设计（外文翻译）P1口：P1口一个带内部上拉电阻的8位双向I/O口，P1的输出缓冲级可驱动4个TTL电路。
对端口写“1”，通过内部的电阻把端口拉到高电平，此时可作为输入口。
因为内部有电阻，某个引脚被外部信号拉低时输出一个电流。
闪烁编程时和程序校验时，P1口接收低8位地址。
单片机课程设计英文参考文献
ABOUT SCMIt can be said across the twentieth century, the three "electric" era, that is, electrical era, the electronic age, and has now entered the computer age. However, such a computer, usually refers to the personal computer, referred to as PC. It consists of the host, keyboard, monitor etc.. Another type of computer, most people do not know how. This computer is to smart to give a variety of mechanical microcontroller (also known as micro-controller). As the name suggests, this computer system only used the smallest one IC, you can perform simple operations and control. Because of its small size, usually hidden in a charged mechanical "stomach" Lane. It is the entire device, like the human brain plays a role, it goes wrong, the whole device was paralyzed.Now, this MCU has a very wide field of use, such as smart meters, real-time industrial control, communications equipment, navigation systems, home appliances and so on. Once the microcontroller were using a variety of products, you can serve to upgrade the effectiveness of the product, often in the product name is preceded by the adjective - "smart", such as washing machines and so intelligent. At present, some technical personnel of factories or other amateur electronics developers to engage in out of certain products, not the circuit is too complex, that is, functions are too simple and easy to be copied. The reason may be stuck in the product without the use of a microcontroller or other programmable logic device.SCM basic component is a central processing unit (CPU in the computing device and controller), read-only memory (usually expressed as a ROM), read-write memory (also known as Random Access Memory MRAM is usually expressed as a RAM) , input / output port (also divided into parallel port and serial port, expressed as I / O port), and so composed. In fact there is also a clock circuit microcontroller, so that during operation and control of the microcontroller, can rhythmic manner. In addition, there are so-called "break system", the system is a "janitor" role, when the microcontroller control object parameters that need to be intervention to reach a particular state, can after this "janitor" communicated to the CPU, so that CPU priorities of the external events to take appropriate counter-measures.Electric boiler temperature system1.MCUA microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer-on-a-chip. It is a type of microprocessor emphasizing self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast to a general-purpose microprocessor (the kind used in a PC).The majority of computer systems in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as telephones, clocks, appliances, vehicles, and infrastructure. An embedded system usually has minimal requirements for memory and program length and may require simple but unusual input/output systems. For example, most embedded systems lack keyboards, screens, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer. They may control electric motors, relays or voltages, and read switches, variable resistors or other electronic devices. Often, the only I/O device readable by a human is a single light-emitting diode, and severe cost or power constraints can even eliminate that.In contrast to general-purpose CPUs, microcontrollers do not have an address bus or a data bus, because they integrate all the RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Because they need fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system as a whole. (Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated peripherals is slightly more than the cost of a CPU + external peripherals, having fewer chips typically allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board, and reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit board). This trend leads to design.A microcontroller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features: central processing unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to sophisticated32- or 64-bit processorsinput/output interfaces such as serial ports (UARTs)other serial communications interfaces like I²C, Serial Peripheral Interface and Controller Area Network for system interconnect peripherals such as timers and watchdog RAM for data storage ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program storage clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit many include analog-to-digital converters .This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring and PCB space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate chips and have proved to be highly popular in embedded systems since their introduction in the 1970s.Some microcontrollers can afford to use a Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for instructions and data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently.The decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult. The Microcontroller vendors often trade operating frequencies and system design flexibility against time-to-market requirements from their customers and overall lower system cost. Manufacturers have to balance the need to minimize the chip size against additional functionality.Microcontroller architectures are available from many different vendors in so many varieties that each instruction set architecture could rightly belong to a category of their own. Chief among these are the 8051, Z80 and ARM derivatives.[citation needed]A microcontroller (also MCU or µC) is a functional computer system-on-a-chip. It contains a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Microcontrollers include an integrated CPU, memory (a small amount of RAM, program memory, or both) and peripherals capable of input and output.It emphasizes high integration, in contrast to a microprocessor which only contains a CPU (the kind used in a PC). In addition to the usual arithmetic and logic elements of a general purpose microprocessor, the microcontroller integrates additional elements such as read-write memory for data storage, read-only memory for program storage, Flash memory for permanent data storage, peripherals, and input/output interfaces. At clock speeds of as little as 32KHz, microcontrollers often operate at very low speed compared to microprocessors, but this is adequate for typical applications. They consume relatively little power (milliwatts or even microwatts), and will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or interrupt. Power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and peripherals disabled) may be just nanowatts, making them ideal for low power and long lasting battery applications.Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size, cost, and power consumption compared to a design using a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to electronically control many more processes.The majority of computer systems in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. These are called embedded systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, small or custom LCD displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack human interaction devices of any kind.It is mandatory that microcontrollers provide real time response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and tobegin an interrupt service routine (ISR). The ISR will perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required to do something by a peripheral event.Microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and assembly language are used to turn high-level language programs into a compact machine code for storage in the microcontroller's memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory.Since embedded processors are usually used to control devices, they sometimes need to accept input from the device they are controlling. This is the purpose of the analog to digital converter. Since processors are built to interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they won't be able to do anything with the analog signals that may be being sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. There is also a digital to analog converter that allows the processor to send data to the device it is controlling.In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer, or PIT for short. A PIT just counts down from some value to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the temperature aroundthem to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc.Time Processing Unit or TPU for short. Is essentially just another timer, but more sophisticated. In addition to counting down, the TPU can detect input events, generate output events, and other useful operations.Dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight timer loops.Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU.For those wanting ethernet one can use an external chip like Crystal Semiconductor CS8900A, Realtek RTL8019, or Microchip ENC 28J60. All of them allow easy interfacing with low pin count.中文翻译：可以说，二十世纪跨越了三个“电”的时代，即电气时代、电子时代和现已进入的电脑时代。
单片机模拟电梯开关参考文献
单片机模拟电梯开关参考文献对于单片机模拟电梯开关的参考文献，以下是一些推荐的文献资源：1. "Microcontroller-Based Elevator Control System" by S. Kamalakannan,A. Meyyappan, and R. Sivakumar. 这篇论文详细介绍了基于单片机的电梯控制系统的设计和实现。
它包括对电梯各种状态和输入输出的描述，并提供了用于控制电梯的算法和电路图。
2. "Design and Implementation of an Elevator Control System using Microcontroller" by M. A. Mekky. 这篇论文描述了使用单片机设计和实现电梯控制系统的方法。
它详细讨论了电梯控制系统的硬件和软件设计，并提供了实验结果和性能评估。
3. "Design and Simulation of a Microcontroller Based Elevator Control System" by G. D. Bhat and A. J. Dandekar. 这篇论文介绍了基于单片机的电梯控制系统的设计和仿真。
它提供了电梯控制系统的数学模型和仿真结果，并讨论了系统的性能和稳定性。
4. "Microcontroller Based Elevator Control System" by P. R. Chowdhury, S. R. Ahmed, and S. A. S. Hossain. 这篇论文详细介绍了基于单片机的电梯控制系统的设计和实现。
它包括电梯的各种状态和输入输出的描述，并提供了用于控制电梯运行的算法和电路设计。
5. "Design and Implementation of a Microcontroller Based Elevator Control System" by S. A. Elshafei and S. M. ElRabaie. 这篇论文描述了使用单片机设计和实现电梯控制系统的方法。
单片机英文参考文献
Progress in ComputersPrestige Lecture delivered to IEE, Cambridge, on 5 February 2004Maurice WilkesComputer LaboratoryUniversity of CambridgeThe first stored program computers began to work around 1950. The one we built in Cambridge, the EDSAC was first used in the summer of 1949.These early experimental computers were built by people like myself with varying backgrounds. We all had extensive experience in electronic engineering and were confident that that experience would stand us in good stead. This proved true, although we had some new things to learn. The most important of these was that transients must be treated correctly; what would cause a harmless flash on the screen of a television set could lead to a serious error in a computer.As far as computing circuits were concerned, we found ourselves with an embarass de richess. For example, we could use vacuum tube diodes for gates as we did in the EDSAC or pentodes with control signals on both grids, a system widely used elsewhere. This sort of choice persisted and the term families of logic came into use. Those who have worked in the computer field will remember TTL, ECL and CMOS. Of these, CMOS has now become dominant.In those early years, the IEE was still dominated by power engineering and w e had to fight a number of major battles in order to get radio engineering along with the rapidly developing subject of electronics.dubbed in the IEE light current electrical engineering.properly recognised as an activity in its own right. I remember that we had some difficulty in organising a conference because the power engineers’ ways of doing things were not our ways. A minor source of irritation was that all IEE published papers were expected to start with a lengthy statement of earlier practice, something difficult to do when there was no earlier practiceConsolidation in the 1960sBy the late 50s or early 1960s, the heroic pioneering stage was over and the computer field was starting up in real earnest. The number of computers in the world had increased and they were much more reliable than the very early ones . To those years we can ascribe the first steps in high level languages and the first operating systems. Experimental time-sharing was beginning, and ultimately computer graphics was to come along.Above all, transistors began to replace vacuum tubes. This change presented a formidable challenge to the engineers of the day. They had to forget what they knew about circuits and start again. It can only be said that they measured up superbly well to the challenge and that the change could not have gone more smoothly.Soon it was found possible to put more than one transistor on the same bit of silicon, and this was the beginning of integrated circuits. As time went on, a sufficient level ofintegration was reached for one chip to accommodate enough transistors for a small number of gates or flip flops. This led to a range of chips known as the 7400 series. The gates and flip flops were independent of one another and each had its own pins. They could be connected by off-chip wiring to make a computer or anything else.These chips made a new kind of computer possible. It was called a minicomputer. It was something less that a mainframe, but still very powerful, and much more affordable. Instead of having one expensive mainframe for the whole organisation, a business or a university was able to have a minicomputer for each major department.Before long minicomputers began to spread and become more powerful. The world was hungry for computing power and it had been very frustrating for industry not to be able to supply it on the scale required and at a reasonable cost. Minicomputers transformed the situation.The fall in the cost of computing did not start with the minicomputer; it had always been that way. This was what I meant when I referred in my abstract to inflation in the computer industry ‘going the other way’. As time goes on people get more for their money, not less.Research in Computer Hardware.The time that I am describing was a wonderful one for research in computer hardware. The user of the 7400 series could work at the gate and flip-flop level and yet the overall level of integration was sufficient to give a degree of reliability far above that of discreet transistors. The researcher, in a university or elsewhere, could build any digital device that a fertile imagination could conjure up. In the Computer Laboratory we built the Cambridge CAP, a full-scale minicomputer with fancy capability logic.The 7400 series was still going strong in the mid 1970s and was used for the Cambridge Ring, a pioneering wide-band local area network. Publication of the design study for the Ring came just before the announcement of the Ethernet. Until these two systems appeared, users had mostly been content with teletype-based local area networks.Rings need high reliability because, as the pulses go repeatedly round the ring, they must be continually amplified and regenerated. It was the high reliability provided by the 7400 series of chips that gave us the courage needed to embark on the project for the Cambridge Ring.The RISC Movement and Its AftermathEarly computers had simple instruction sets. As time went on designers of commercially available machines added additional features which they thought would improve performance. Few comparative measurements were done and on the whole the choice of features depended upon the designer’s intuition.In 1980, the RISC movement that was to change all this broke on the world. The movement opened with a paper by Patterson and Ditzel entitled The Case for the Reduced Instructions Set Computer.Apart from leading to a striking acronym, this title conveys little of the insights into instruction set design which went with the RISC movement, in particular the way it facilitated pipelining, a system whereby several instructions may be in different stages of execution within the processor at the same time. Pipelining was not new, but it was new for small computersThe RISC movement benefited greatly from methods which had rec ently become available for estimating the performance to be expected from a computer design without actually implementing it. I refer to the use of a powerful existing computer to simulate the new design. By the use of simulation, RISC advocates were able to predict with some confidence that a good RISC design would be able to out-perform the best conventionalcomputers using the same circuit technology. This prediction was ultimately born out in practice.Simulation made rapid progress and soon came into universal use by computer designers. In consequence, computer design has become more of a science and less of an art. Today, designers expect to have a roomful of, computers available to do their simulations, not just one. They refer to such a roomful by the attractive name of computer farm.The x86 Instruction SetLittle is now heard of pre-RISC instruction sets with one major exception, namely that of the Intel 8086 and its progeny, collectively referred to as x86. This has become the dominant instruction set and the RISC instruction sets that originally had a considerable measure of success are having to put up a hard fight for survival.This dominance of x86 disappoints people like myself who come from the research wings.both academic and industrial.of the computer field. No doubt, business considerations have a lot to do with the survival of x86, but there are other reasons as well. However much we research oriented people would like to think otherwise. high level languages have not yet eliminated the use of machine code altogether. We need to keep reminding ourselves that there is much to be said for strict binary compatibility with previous usage when that can be attained. Nevertheless, things might have been different if Intel’s major attempt to produ ce a good RISC chip had been more successful. I am referring to the i860 (not the i960, which was something different). In many ways the i860 was an excellent chip, but its software interface did not fit it to be used in a workstation.There is an interesting sting in the tail of this apparently easy triumph of the x86 instruction set. It proved impossible to match the steadily increasing speed of RISC processors by direct implementation of the x86 instruction set as had been done in the past. Instead, designers took a leaf out of the RISC book; although it is not obvious, on the surface, a modern x86 processor chip contains hidden within it a RISC-style processor with its own internal RISC coding. The incoming x86 code is, after suitable massaging, converted into this internal code and handed over to the RISC processor where the critical execution is performed.In this summing up of the RISC movement, I rely heavily on the latest edition of Hennessy and Patterson’s books on computer design as my supporting authority; see in particular Computer Architecture, third edition, 2003, pp 146, 151-4, 157-8.The IA-64 instruction set.Some time ago, Intel and Hewlett-Packard introduced the IA-64 instruction set. This was primarily intended to meet a generally recognised need for a 64 bit address space. In this, it followed the lead of the designers of the MIPS R4000 and Alpha. However one would have thought that Intel would have stressed compatibility with the x86; the puzzle is that they did the exact opposite.Moreover, built into the design of IA-64 is a feature known as predication which makes it incompatible in a major way with all other instruction sets. In particular, it needs 6 extra bits with each instruction. This upsets the traditional balance between instruction word length and information content, and it changes significantly the brief of the compiler writer.In spite of having an entirely new instruction set, Intel made the puzzling claim that chips based on IA-64 would be compatible with earlier x86 chips. It was hard to see exactly what was meant.Chips for the latest IA-64 processor, namely, the Itanium, appear to have special hardware for compatibility. Even so, x86 code runs very slowly.Because of the above complications, implementation of IA-64 requires a larger chipthan is required for more conventional instruction sets. This in turn implies a higher cost. Such at any rate, is the received wisdom, and, as a general principle, it was repeated as such by Gordon Moore when he visited Cambridge recently to open the Betty and Gordon Moore Library. I have, however, heard it said that the matter appears differently from within Intel. This I do not understand. But I am very ready to admit that I am completely out of my depth as regards the economics of the semiconductor industry.AMD have defined a 64 bit instruction set that is more compatible with x86 and they appear to be making headway with it. The chip is not a particularly large one. Some people think that this is what Intel should have done. [Since the lecture was delivered, Intel have announced that they will market a range of chips essentially compatible with those offered by AMD.]The Relentless Drive towards Smaller TransistorsThe scale of integration continued to increase. This was achieved by shrinking the original transistors so that more could be put on a chip. Moreover, the laws of physics were on the side of the manufacturers. The transistors also got faster, simply by getting smaller. It was therefore possible to have, at the same time, both high density and high speed.There was a further advantage. Chips are made on discs of silicon, known as wafers. Each wafer has on it a large number of individual chips, which are processed together and later separated. Since shrinkage makes it possible to get more chips on a wafer, the cost per chip goes down.Falling unit cost was important to the industry because, if the latest chips are cheaper to make as well as faster, there is no reason to go on offering the old ones, at least not indefinitely. There can thus be one product for the entire market.However, detailed cost calculations showed that, in order to maintain this advantage as shrinkage proceeded beyond a certain point, it would be necessary to move to larger wafers. The increase in the size of wafers was no small matter. Originally, wafers were one or two inches in diameter, and by 2000 they were as much as twelve inches. At first, it puzzled me that, when shrinkage presented so many other problems, the industry should make things harder for itself by going to larger wafers. I now see that reducing unit cost was just as important to the industry as increasing the number of transistors on a chip, and that this justified the additional investment in foundries and the increased risk.The degree of integration is measured by the feature size, which, for a given technology, is best defined as the half the distance between wires in the densest chips made in that technology. At the present time, production of 90 nm chips is still building up Suspension of LawIn March 1997, Gordon Moore was a guest speaker at the celebrations of the centenary of the discovery of the electron held at the Cavendish Laboratory. It was during the course of his lecture that I first heard the fact that you can have silicon chips that are both fast and low in cost described as a violation of Murphy’s law.or Sod’s law as it is usually called in the UK. Moore said that experience in other fields would lead you to expect to have to choose between speed and cost, or to compromise between them. In fact, in the case of silicon chips, it is possible to have both.In a reference book available on the web, Murphy is identified as an engineer working on human acceleration tests for the US Air Force in 1949. However, we were perfectly familiar with the law in my student days, when we called it by a much more prosaic name than either of those mentioned above, namely, the Law of General Cussedness. We even had a mock examination question in which the law featured. It was the type of question in which the first part asks for a definition of some law or principle and the second part contains aproblem to be solved with the aid of it. In our case the first part was to define the Law of General Cussedness and the second was the problem;A cyclist sets out on a circular cycling tour. Derive an equation giving the direction of the wind at any time.The single-chip computerAt each shrinkage the number of chips was reduced and there were fewer wires going from one chip to another. This led to an additional increment in overall speed, since the transmission of signals from one chip to another takes a long time.Eventually, shrinkage proceeded to the point at which the whole processor except for the caches could be put on one chip. This enabled a workstation to be built that out-performed the fastest minicomputer of the day, and the result was to kill the minicomputer stone dead. As we all know, this had severe consequences for the computer industry and for the people working in it.From the above time the high density CMOS silicon chip was Cock of the Roost. Shrinkage went on until millions of transistors could be put on a single chip and the speed went up in proportion.Processor designers began to experiment with new architectural features designed to give extra speed. One very successful experiment concerned methods for predicting the way program branches would go. It was a surprise to me how successful this was. It led to a significant speeding up of program execution and other forms of prediction followed Equally surprising is what it has been found possible to put on a single chip computer by way of advanced features. For example, features that had been developed for the IBM Model 91.the giant computer at the top of the System 360 range.are now to be found on microcomputersMurphy’s Law remained in a state of suspension. No longer did it make sense to build experimental computers out of chips with a small scale of integration, such as that provided by the 7400 series. People who wanted to do hardware research at the circuit level had no option but to design chips and seek for ways to get them made. For a time, this was possible, if not easyUnfortunately, there has since been a dramatic increase in the cost of making chips, mainly because of the increased cost of making masks for lithography, a photographic process used in the manufacture of chips. It has, in consequence, again become very difficult to finance the making of research chips, and this is a currently cause for some concern.The Semiconductor Road MapThe extensive research and development work underlying the above advances has been made possible by a remarkable cooperative effort on the part of the international semiconductor industry.At one time US monopoly laws would probably have made it illegal for US companies to participate in such an effort. However about 1980 significant and far reaching changes took place in the laws. The concept of pre-competitive research was introduced. Companies can now collaborate at the pre-competitive stage and later go on to develop products of their own in the regular competitive manner.The agent by which the pre-competitive research in the semi-conductor industry is managed is known as the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA). This has been active as a US organisation since 1992 and it became international in 1998. Membership is open to any organisation that can contribute to the research effort.Every two years SIA produces a new version of a document known as the International Technological Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), with an update in the intermediate years. The first volume bearing the title ‘Roadmap’ was issued in 1994 but two reports, written in1992 and distributed in 1993, are regarded as the true beginning of the series.Successive roadmaps aim at providing the best available industrial consensus on the way that the industry should move forward. They set out in great detail.over a 15 year horizon. the targets that must be achieved if the number of components on a chip is to be doubled every eighteen months.that is, if Moore’s law is to be maintained.-and if the cost per chip is to fall.In the case of some items, the way ahead is clear. In others, manufacturing problems are foreseen and solutions to them are known, although not yet fully worked out; these areas are coloured yellow in the tables. Areas for which problems are foreseen, but for which no manufacturable solutions are known, are coloured red. Red areas are referred to as Red Brick Walls.The targets set out in the Roadmaps have proved realistic as well as challenging, and the progress of the industry as a whole has followed the Roadmaps closely. This is a remarkable achievement and it may be said that the merits of cooperation and competition have been combined in an admirable manner.It is to be noted that the major strategic decisions affecting the progress of the industry have been taken at the pre-competitive level in relative openness, rather than behind closed doors. These include the progression to larger wafers.By 1995, I had begun to wonder exactly what would happen when the inevitable point was reached at which it became impossible to make transistors any smaller. My enquiries led me to visit ARPA headquarters in Washington DC, where I was given a copy of the recently produced Roadmap for 1994. This made it plain that serious problems would arise when a feature size of 100 nm was reached, an event projected to happen in 2007, with 70 nm following in 2010. The year for which the coming of 100 nm (or rather 90 nm) was projected was in later Roadmaps moved forward to 2004 and in the event the industry got there a little sooner.I presented the above information from the 1994 Roadmap, along with such other information that I could obtain, in a lecture to the IEE in London, entitled The CMOS end-point and related topics in Computing and delivered on 8 February 1996.The idea that I then had was that the end would be a direct consequence of the number of electrons available to represent a one being reduced from thousands to a few hundred. At this point statistical fluctuations would become troublesome, and thereafter the circuits would either fail to work, or if they did work would not be any faster. In fact the physical limitations that are now beginning to make themselves felt do not arise through shortage of electrons, but because the insulating layers on the chip have become so thin that leakage due to quantum mechanical tunnelling has become troublesome.There are many problems facing the chip manufacturer other than those that arise from fundamental physics, especially problems with lithography. In an update to the 2001 Roadmap published in 2002, it was stated that the continuation of progress at present rate will be at risk as we approach 2005 when the roadmap projects that progress will stall without research break-throughs in most technical areas “. This was the most specific statement about the Red Brick Wall, that had so far come from the SIA and it was a strong one. The 2003 Roadmap reinforces this statement by showing many areas marked red, indicating the existence of problems for which no manufacturable solutions are known.It is satisfactory to report that, so far, timely solutions have been found to all the problems encountered. The Roadmap is a remarkable document and, for all its frankness about the problems looming above, it radiates immense confidence. Prevailing opinion reflects that confidence and there is a general expectation that, by one means or another,shrinkage will continue, perhaps down to 45 nm or even less.However, costs will rise steeply and at an increasing rate. It is cost that will ultimately be seen as the reason for calling a halt. The exact point at which an industrial consensus is reached that the escalating costs can no longer be met will depend on the general economic climate as well as on the financial strength of the semiconductor industry itself.。
单片机英文参考文献(精选120个)
我国的单片机起步虽然较晚，但经过几十年的发展，也取得了巨大的成就。
不论是工业生产还是社会生活的各个方面都离不开单片机的使用。
下面是搜素整理的单片机英文参考文献的分享，以供参考。
单片机英文参考文献一： [1]Hui Wang. Optimal Design of Single Chip Microcomputer Multi-machine Serial Communication based on Signal VerificationTechnology[J]. International Journal of Intelligent Information and Management Science,2020,9（1）。
[2]Philip J. Basford,Steven J. Johnston,Colin S. Perkins,Tony Garnock-Jones,Fung Po Tso,Dimitrios Pezaros,Robert D. Mullins,Eiko Yoneki,Jeremy Singer,Simon J. Cox. Performance analysis of single board computer clusters[J]. Future Generation ComputerSystems,2020,102. [3]. Computers; Reports from University of Southampton Describe Recent Advances in Computers （Performance Analysis of Single Board Computer Clusters）[J]. Computers, Networks & Communications,2020. [4]Yunyu Cao,Jinjin Dang,Chenxu Cao. Design of Automobile Digital Tire Pressure Detector[J]. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports,2019. [5]Sudad J. Ashaj,Ergun Er?elebi. Reduce Cost Smart Power Management System by Utilize Single Board Computer Artificial Neural Networks for Smart Systems[J]. International Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems,2019. [6]Hanhong Tan*, Yanfei Teng. Design of PWM Lighting brightness Control based on LAN QIAO Cup single Chip Microcomputer[J]. International Journal of Computational and Engineering,2019,4（3）。
单片机英文文献
INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLERSWhat are microcontrollers? They are what their name suggests. Today they can be found in almost any complex electronic device - from portable music devices to washing machines to your car. They are programmable, cheap, small, can handle abuse, require almost zero power, and there are so many variaties to suit every need. This is what makes them so useful for robotics - they are like tiny affordable computers that you can put right onto your robot.Augmented Microcontrollers and Development Boards In a pure sense, a microcontroller is just an IC (integrated circuit, or a black chip thing with pins coming out of it>. However it is very common to add additional external components, such as a voltage regulator, capacitors, LEDs, motor driver, timing crystals, rs232, etc to the basic IC. Formally, this is called an augmented microcontroller. But in reality, most people just say 'microcontroller' even if it has augmentation. Other abbreviations would be uncontroller and MicroController Unit (MCU>. Usually when I say 'microcontroller' what I really mean to say is 'augmented microcontroller.'As a beginner it is probably best to buy an augmented microcontroller. Why? Well because they have tons of goodies built onto them that are all assembled and debugged for you. They also often come with tech support, sample code, and a community of people to help you with them. My microcontroller parts list shows the more popular types that you can buy. They tend to cost from $30 to $150 depending on the features. This will give you a good introductory to microcontroller programming without having to be concerned with all the technical stuff.In the long term however you should build your own augmented microcontroller so that you may understand them better. Theadvantage to making your own is that it will probably cost you from $10-$30.Between getting a full augmented board and doing it yourself is something called a development board. These boards come pre-augmented with just the bare basics to get you started. They are designed for prototyping and testing of new ideas very quickly. They typically cost between $15 and $40.What comes with the IC?There is a huge variety of microcontrollers out on the market, but I will go over a few common features that you will find useful for your robotics project.For robots, ore important than any other feature on a microcontroller, is the I/O ports. Input ports are used for taking in sensor data, while output is used for sending commands to external hardware such as servos. There are two types of I/O ports, analog and digital.Analog Input Ports Analog Ports are necessary to connect sensors to your robot. Also known as an analog to digital converter (ADC>, they recieve analog signals and convert them to adigital number within a certain numerical range.So what is analog? Analog is a continuous voltage range and is typically found with sensors. However computers can only operate in the digital realm with 0's and 1's. So how does a microcontroller convert an analog signal to a digital signal?First, the analog is measured after a predefined period of time passes. At each time period, the voltage is recorded as a number. This number then defines a signal of 0's and 1's as shown:The advantage of digital over analog is that digital is much better at eliminating background noise. Cell phones are all digital today, and although the digital signal is lessrepresentative than an analog signal, it is much less likely to degrade since computers can restore damaged digital signals. This allows for a clearer output signal to talk to your mom or whoever. MP3's are all digital too, usually encoded at 128 kbps. Higher bit rates obviously mean higher quality because they better represent the analog signal. But higher bit rates also require more memory and processing power.Most microcontrollers today are 8 bit, meaning they have arange of 256 (2^8=256>. There are a few that are 10 bit, 12 bit, and even 32 bit, but as you increase precision you also need a much faster processor.What does this bit stuff mean for ADC? For example, suppose a sensor reads 0V to an 8 bit ADC. This would give you a digital ouput of 0. 5V would be 255. Now suppose a sensor gave anoutput of 2.9V, what would the ADC output be?Doing the math:2.9V/5V = X/255 X = 2.9*255/5 = 148So how do you use an analog port? First make sure your sensor output does not exceed your digital logic voltage (usually 0V -> 5V>. Then plug that output directly to the analog port.This bit range could also be seen as a resolution. Higher resolutions mean higher accuracy, but occasionally can mean slower processing and more succeptability to noise. For example, suppose you had a 3 bit controller which has a range of 2^3=8. Then you have a distance sensor that outputed a number 0->7 (a total of 8> that represents the distance between your robot and the wall. If your sensor can see only 8 feet, then you get a resolution of 1 bit per foot (8 resolution / 8 feet = 1>. But then suppose you have an 8 bit controller, you would get256/8=32 ~ 1 bit per centimeter - way more accurate and useful! With the 3 bit controller, you could not tell the difference between 1 inch and 11 inches.Digital I/O Ports Digital ports are like analog ports, but with only 1 bit (2^1=2> hence a resolution of 2 - on and off.Digital ports obviously for that reason are rarely used for sensors, except for maybe on/off switches . . . What they are mostly used for is signal output. You can use them to control motors or led's or just about anything. Send a high 5V signal to turn something on, or a low 0V to turn something off. Or if you want to have an LED at only half brightness, or a motor at half speed, send a square wave. Square waves are like turning something on and off so fast that its almost like sending out an analog voltage of your choice. Neat, huh?This is an example of a square wave for PWM:These squarewaves are called PWM, short for pulse width modulation. They are most often used for controlling servos or DC motor H-Bridges.Also a quick side note, analog ports can be used as digital ports.Serial Communication, RS232, UART A serial connection on your microcontroller is very useful for communication. You can useit to program your controller from a computer, use it to output data from your controller to your computer (great for debugging>, or even use it to operate other electronics such as digital video cameras. Usually the microcontroller would require an external IC to handle everything, such as an RS232.Timers A timer is the method by which the microcontroller measures the passing of time - such as for a clock, sonar, a pause/wait command, timer interrupts, etc.Motor Driver To run a DC motor you need to either have an H-Bridge or a Motor Driver IC. The IC is great for small robots that do not exceed 1 or 2 amps per motor and the rated motor voltage is not higher than about 12V. The homemade H-Bridge would need to be used if you wanted to exceed those specs. There are a few H-Bridge controllers commercially available to buy, but usually they are way too expensive and are designedfor battlebot type robots. The IC is small, very cheap, and can usually handle two motors. I highly recommend opting for the IC. Also, do not forget to put a heatsink onto the motordriver. Motordrivers give off pretty fireworks when they explode from overheating =>Another interesting note, you can stack IC's in parallel to double the allowable current and heat dissipation.Theoretically you can stack as many as you want, as long as the current is high enough to still operate the logic of the IC. This works for voltage regulators too.Output Indicators Im referring to anything that can be used for debugging by communicating information to you. LED's, buzzers, LCD screens, anything that gives output. The better the indicator, the easier the debugging. The best indicator is to have your robot tethered and print or data log sensor andaction data to your computer, but it isn't always possible to have your robot tethered.Programming Languages The lowest form of programming languagesis the machine language. Microcontrollers need to be programmed with this.These higher languages would then be compiled automaticallyinto a machine language, which then you can upload into your robot. Probably the easiest language to learn would be BASIC, with a name true to itself. The BASIC Stamp microcontrolleruses that language. But BASIC has its limitations, so if you have any programming experience at all, I recommend you program in C. This language was the precurser to C++, so if you can already program in C++, it should be really simple for you to learn. What complicates this is that there is no standard to programming microcontrollers. Each has its own features, its own language, its own compiler, and its own uploading to the controller method.This is why I do not go into too much detail because there are too many options out there to talk about. The support documents that come with the controllers should answer your specificquestions. Also, if you decide to use a PIC, understand that the compiler program (at least the good ones> can cost hundred of dollars. Most microcontrollers also require a special interface device between your computer and the chip for programming which could also cost from $10-$40.Costs With possibly the exception of DC motors, the microcontroller is the most expensive part of your robot. There is just no escaping the costs, especially for the beginner. But remember, after buying all this for your first robot, you do not need to buy any of it again as you can reuse everything. So here is the breakdown of costs. The chip itself, without augmentation, would only cost dollars. But understand the chip is useless without the augmentation, so you would need to do it yourself if you do not buy it already augmented. This could potentially cost just as much with the augmentation, and could cause you many frustrations.If however you are more experienced (and for some odd reason still reading this>, you can customize your own circuit to do exactly what you want. Why have a motordriver when you are only using servos anyway? If you decide to buy an augmented MCU, the cost will range from about $50-$150. To compile your program, you would need to get special compiling software. Atmel and BASIC Stamps have free compilers. PIC's however have fairly expensive compilers. There are some free ones available online, but they are of poor quality in my opinion. CCSC PIC C compiler is about $125, but I think it is worth getting if you are going to use PIC's.You will also need an uploader to transfer the program from your computer to the chip. This generally requires more special software and a special interface device. The Cerebellum PIC based controller has this built in which is really nice and convienent, but for any others expect to spend from $10-$40. People often opt to just make their own as the circuit isnt too complicated.As a prototyper, what you probably want most is a MCU development board. These augmented microcontrollers are designed for the prototyper in mind. To find these augmented MCU's, do a search for 'pic development board,' 'atmel development board,' 'stamp development board,' etc.。
单片机设计体参考文献
单片机设计体参考文献近年来，单片机在各个领域的应用越来越广泛，其设计和开发也日益受到重视。
本文将通过参考文献的方式，介绍一些关于单片机设计的经典文献，以帮助读者更好地了解单片机设计的基础知识和最新发展。
《The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems》是一本经典的单片机设计教材，作者为Muhammad Ali Mazidi、Janice Mazidi和Rolin D. McKinlay。
该书系统介绍了8051单片机的基本原理、结构和应用，深入浅出地解释了单片机的工作原理和编程技巧。
这本书通俗易懂，适合初学者入门，也适合进阶学习者深入理解单片机设计的原理和应用。
另一本经典的单片机设计书籍是《Embedded Systems: Introduction to Arm Cortex-M Microcontrollers》。
这本书由Jonathan Valvano撰写，详细介绍了Arm Cortex-M系列微控制器的设计原理和应用。
作者结合实际案例，生动形象地展示了如何利用Arm Cortex-M微控制器设计嵌入式系统，包括硬件设计、软件开发和调试技巧。
这本书内容丰富，适合有一定单片机基础的读者深入学习。
除了书籍外，一些经典的期刊论文也对单片机设计有重要的贡献。
例如《Design and Implementation of Automatic Solar Tracking System Using Single Axis Solar Panel》这篇论文，详细介绍了利用单片机设计自动太阳能跟踪系统的原理和方法。
通过该论文，读者可以了解到单片机在太阳能应用中的设计思路和实现技巧，对于研究太阳能利用技术的读者具有重要参考价值。
还有一些开源项目和实践经验也可以作为单片机设计的参考文献。
比如《Arduino Project Handbook: 25 Practical Projects to Get You Started》这本书，介绍了25个基于Arduino单片机的实用项目，涵盖了物联网、机器人、传感器等多个领域。
单片机英文参考文献 带页码
单片机英文参考文献带页码单片机作为一种重要的电子设备，广泛应用于工业控制、智能仪表、数据采集等领域。
随着科技的发展，单片机技术也在不断进步，因此，了解单片机的发展历程、技术特点和应用领域等方面的参考文献对于学习和研究单片机技术是非常重要的。
一、单片机的发展历程单片机的发展可以追溯到20世纪70年代，当时计算机技术刚刚进入微型化阶段，一些工程师开始尝试将计算机技术应用到工业控制领域，从而发明了单片机。
随着技术的不断进步，单片机的种类和性能也在不断改进，目前已经形成了多种不同的系列和型号。
二、单片机的技术特点单片机是一种集成度非常高的芯片，它集成了中央处理器（CPU）、内存、输入输出接口等重要部件，因此具有很高的灵活性和可定制性。
同时，单片机也具有很高的可靠性和稳定性，因此广泛应用于各种需要高精度控制和数据采集的场合。
此外，单片机还可以通过编程和调试等方式进行二次开发，从而满足不同用户的需求。
三、单片机的主要应用领域1. 工业控制领域：单片机在工业控制领域中的应用最为广泛，它可以实现对生产线的自动化控制、机器人的运动控制等。
2. 智能仪表领域：单片机可以用于智能仪表的控制系统，可以实现自动化测量、数据采集、显示等功能。
3. 数据采集领域：单片机可以通过接口与各种传感器相连，实现对各种数据的采集和处理，广泛应用于各种需要大量数据处理的场合。
4. 消费电子领域：单片机也可以用于一些简单的智能设备，如智能家居、智能门锁等。
四、参考文献[1] 王洪伟. 单片机技术的发展与应用[J]. 信息技术, 2019,43(2): 34-37.[2] 张涛. 单片机的技术特点及应用领域[J]. 电子技术与软件工程, 2020(10): 108-110.[3] 李晓明. 单片机在智能仪表中的应用[J]. 自动化仪表, 2018, 39(5): 56-59.[4] 王伟. 单片机的可靠性设计[J]. 电子技术应用, 2021,47(6): 55-58.[5] 刘洋. 单片机的二次开发与应用[J]. 自动化技术与应用, 2017, 36(3): 69-72.以上参考文献均为英文文献，其中第一篇文献提供了单片机技术的发展历程和应用领域的详细介绍；第二篇文献介绍了单片机的主要技术特点；第三篇文献介绍了单片机在智能仪表中的应用；第四篇文献从可靠性设计角度介绍了单片机的重要特点；第五篇文献则从二次开发的角度介绍了单片机的重要应用。
（完整版）51单片机外文文献
（完整版）51单⽚机外⽂⽂献The Introduction of AT89C51DescriptionThe AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel 'hsigh-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.Function characteristicThe AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, one 5 vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, one-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.Pin DescriptionVCC：Supply voltage.GND：Ground.Port 0Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexedaddress/data bus during accessesto external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal Pull-up resistor . Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during Program verification . External Pull-up resistors are required during Program verification .Port 1Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal Pull-up resistors. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal Pull-up resistors and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal Pull-up resistors. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.Port 2Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal Pull-up resistor . The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal Pull-up resistor and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current, because of the internal Pull-up resistor . Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses. In this application, it uses strong internal Pull-up resistor when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses, Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verificati on.Port 3Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal Pull-up resistor. The Port 3 output buffers can sin k/source four TTL in puts. When 1s are writte n to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal Pull-up resistor and can be used as in puts. As in puts, Port 3 pins that are exter nally being pulled low will source curre nt (IIL) because of the Pull-up resistor. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed below:Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.RSTReset in put. A high on this pin for two mach ine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device.ALE/PROGAddress Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. Withthe bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.PSENProgram Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C51is executing code from external program memory, PSENis activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.EA/VPPExternal Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require12-volt VPP.XTAL1Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.XTAL2Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.Oscillator CharacteristicsXTAL1 and XTAL2 are the in put and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be con figured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as show n in Figure 1.Either a quartz crystal or ceramic reson ator may be used. To drive the device from an exter nal clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconn ected while XTAL1 is drive n asshow n in Figure 2.There are no requireme nts on the duty cycle of the exter nal clock sig nal, since the in put to the internal clock ing circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.Con figurati onC2T ⼘C1NG EXTERNALOSCILLATOR SIGNALftNDXTAL2XTAL1GNDFigure 1. Oscillator Connections Figure 2. External Clock DriveXTAL2X1AL1Idle ModeIn idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on chip peripherals rema in active. The mode is inv oked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special fun cti ons registers rema in un cha nged duri ng this mode. The idle mode can be term in ated by any en abled in terrupt or by a hardware reset. It should be no ted that whe n idle is termi nated by a hard ware reset, the device no rmally resumes program execution, from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this eve nt, but access to the port pins is not in hibited. To elimi nate the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated by reset, the instruction following the one that invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin or to exter nal memory.Power-dow n ModeIn the power-dow n mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the in struct ion that invokes power-down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their values until the power-down mode is terminated. The only exit from power-down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated before VCC is restored to its no rmal operat ing level and must be held active long eno ugh to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.Program Memory Lock BitsOn the chip are three lock bits which can be left unprogrammed (U) or can be programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the table below.Whe n lock bit 1 is programmed, the logic level at the EA pin is sampled and latched during reset. If the device is powered up without a reset, the latch initializes to a ran dom value, and holds that value un til reset is activated. It is n ecessary that the latched value of EA be in agreement with the current logic level at that pin in order for the device to function properly.译⽂:AT89C51的介绍描述AT89C51是⼀个低电压，⾼性能CMOS 8位单⽚机带有4K字节的可反复擦写的程序存储器（PENROM。
基于单片机的出租车计费系统英文参考文献
基于单片机的出租车计费系统英文参考文献1. Wang, Y., Cui, P. (2014). Design of taxi meter based on single chip micrputer. Computer Measurement Control, 22(2), 404-406.- This paper introduces the design and implementation of a taxi meter based on a single chip micrputer. The system includes real-time clock, GPS and GSM modules, and uses the embedded C language for programming. The taxi meter is designed to accurately calculate the fare based on distance and time, and also includes features such as automatic fare adjustment based on traffic conditions and support for multiple payment methods.2. Feng, L., Chen, S. (2015). Research and implementation of taxi meter system based on single-chip micrputer. Micrputer Information, 31(5), 104-106.- This paper presents the research and implementation of a taxi meter system based on a single-chip micrputer. The system uses the AT89C51 microcontroller as the core, and integrates various sensors and modules such as GPS, GSM, and RFID. The system is able to accurately calculate taxi fares, provide real-time positioning andmunication, and support remotemonitoring and management.3. Li, H., Liu, J. (2016). Design and implementation of intelligent taxi meter based on single-chip micrputer. Microcontrollers Embedded Systems, 32(8), 212-214.- This paper discusses the design and implementation of an intelligent taxi meter based on a single-chip micrputer. The system uses the STM32 microcontroller, and integrates various technologies such as GPS, GPRS, and Bluetooth. The system is able to accurately calculate fares, provide real-time positioning andmunication, support wireless payment, and has features such as automatic route optimization and intelligent dispatching.4. Zhu, Q., Zhang, M. (2017). Development of taxi meter system based on single-chip micrputer. Electronic Technology, 28(6), 107-109.- This paper describes the development of a taxi meter system based on a single-chip micrputer. The system uses the PIC microcontroller as the core, and integrates various sensors and modules such as GPS and GSM. The system is able to accurately calculate taxi fares, provide real-time positioning andmunication, and supports features such as voice broadcast of fares andautomatic recording of operation data.5. Jiang, L., Wang, Z. (2018). Design and implementation of taxi meter system based on single-chip micrputer. Modern Electronics, 35(4), 123-125.- This paper presents the design and implementation of a taxi meter system based on a single-chip micrputer. The system uses the ARM microcontroller, and integrates various technologies such as GPS, 4G, and NFC. The system is able to accurately calculate fares, provide real-time positioning andmunication, support mobile payment and electronic billing, and has features such as intelligent data analysis and feedback for improving service quality.6. Yang, K., Hu, W. (2019). Research and development of taxi meter system based on single-chip micrputer. Information Technology, 41(3), 87-89.- This paper investigates the research and development of a taxi meter system based on a single-chip micrputer. The system uses the MSP430 microcontroller, and integrates various sensors and modules such as GPS and Bluetooth. The system is able to accurately calculate taxi fares, provide real-time positioning andmunication, and supports features such as dataencryption and securemunication for protecting passenger privacy.。
有关单片机原理的外文文献
Foundation and Application ofMicrocontrollerThe single slice machine is also called tiny controller, is because it was used in the industry to control realm at the earliest stage Single slice machine from inside chip have CPU appropriation processor to develop only since then. At the earliest stage of design the principle is to pass to integrate a great deal of peripherals and CPU in a chip, making calculator system smaller, integrating more easily into complicated of but to mention to request a strict control equipments in the middle. The INTEL Z80 is the processor which designed according to this kind of thought at the earliest stage, from now on, single slice the development of the machine and appropriation processor went by different roads then.The single slice of the earlier period all of machines are 8 or 4.Among them, the INTEL is most successful of 8031, because of in brief dependable but the function was quite good to acquire very big good opinion. Henceforth at 8031 up developed MCS51 series a single slice machine system. According to the single slice of this system machine system is still in the extensive usage till now. Because the industry controls the exaltation of[with] realm request, starting appearing16 single slice machine, but because sex price wanted to don't get a very extensive application than the disregard. Develop greatly along with the consumption electronics product after 90's, the single slice machine technique got a huge exaltation. Along with the extensive application of INTEL I 960 series especially later ARM series, the 32 single slice machine replaces 16 single slice the high level position of the machine quickly, and gets into an essential market. And traditional of 8 single slice the function of the machine also got to fly to raise soon, handling an ability to compare with to raise few a hundred folds in 80's.Currently, 32 single slice of the high level with main machine already over 300 MHZ, the function keeps appropriation processor of making track for the mid 90's, and the common model number factory price drop into to USD 1, tallest carry of model number also only USD 10.The contemporary and single slice machine system has already no longer developed and used just under the naked machine environment, the in great quantities appropriative built-in operate system is applied extensively in the whole stresses of the single slice is on board. But Be rising the high level of handheld PC and cellular phone core processing single slice the machine even can use appropriative Windows and the Linux operatesystem directly.Single slice the machine ratio appropriation processor is the most suitable to match to apply in the built-in system, so it got the most applications. In fact the single slice machine is an amount the most calculators are in the world. The modern mankind are living medium use of assemble in almost each electronics and machine product have a single slice machine. All have 1-2 single slice machine in the computer accessoriness such as cellular phone, telephone, calculator, home appliances, electronics toy, handheld PC and mouse etc. And personal computer in would also capable number not a few single slice the machine be working. Provide with more than 40 departments a single slice machine generally on the car, complicated industry's controlling the top of the system even may has single several hundred pedestals slices machine to work in the meantime! Single slice the amount of the machine not only far above the PC machine and other calculations of comprehensive, even than the mankind's amount still want have another.Single-chip, also known as single-chip microcontroller, it is not the completion of a logic function of the chip, but a computer system integrated into a chip. Speaking in general terms: a single chip has become a computer. Its small size, lightweight, cheap, for the learning, application and development of facilities provided. At the same time, learning to use the principle of single-chip computer to understand and structure the best choice. Single-chip and computer use is also similar to the module, such as CPU, memory, parallel bus, as well as the role and the same hard disk memory, is it different from the performance of these components are relatively weak in our home computer a lot, but the price is low, there is generally no more than 10 Yuan ...... can use it to make some control for a class of electrical work is not very complex is sufficient. We are using automatic drum washing machines, smoke hood; VCD and so on inside the home appliances can see its shadow! ...... It is mainly as part of the core components of the control. It is an online real-time control computer, control-line is at the scene, we need to have a stronger anti-interference ability, low cost, and this is off-line computer (such as home PC) the main difference. By single-chip process, and can be amended. Through different procedures to achieve different functions, in particular the special unique features, this is the need to charge other devices can do a great effort; some of it is also difficult to make great efforts to do so. A function is not very complicated if the United States the development of the 50's series of 74 or 60during the CD4000 series to get these pure hardware, the circuit must be a big PCB board! However, if the United States if the successful 70's series of single-chip market, the result will be different! Simply because the adoption of single-chip preparation process you can achieve high intelligence, high efficiency and high reliability! Because of the cost of single-chip is sensitive, so the dominant software or the lowest level assembly language, which is in addition to the lowest level for more than binary machine code of the language, since such a low-level so why should we use? Many of the senior's language has reached a level of visual programming Why is it not in use? The reason is simple, that is, single-chip computer as there is no home of CPU, also not as hard as the mass storage device. A visualization of small high-level language program, even if there is only one button which will reach the size of dozens of K! For the home PC's hard drive is nothing, but in terms of the single-chip microcomputer is unacceptable. Single-chip in the utilization of hardware resources have to do very high, so the compilation of the original while still in heavy use. The same token, if the computer giant's operating system and applications run up to get the home PC, home PC can not afford to sustain the same. It can be said that the twentieth century across thethree "power" of the times, that is, the electrical era, the electronic age and has now entered the computer age. However, such a computer usually refers to a personal computer, or PC. It consists of the host, keyboards, displays and other components. There is also a type of computer, not how most people are familiar with. This computer is smart to give a variety of mechanical single-chip (also known as micro-controller). As the name suggests, these computer systems use only the minimum of an integrated circuit to make a simple calculation and control. Because of its small size, are usually charged with possession of machine in the "belly" in. It in the device, like the human mind plays a role, it is wrong, the entire device was paralyzed. Now, this single chip has a very wide field of use, such as smart meters, real-time industrial control, communications equipment, navigation systems, and household appliances. Once a variety of products with the use of the single-chip, will be able to play so that the effectiveness of product upgrading, product names often adjective before the word - "intelligent," such as washing machines and so intelligent. At present, some technical personnel of factories or other amateur electronics developers from engaging in certain products, not the circuit is too complex, that is functional and easy to be too simple imitation. The reasonmay be the product not on the cards or the use of single-chip programmable logic device on the other.Electrical machinery and electronics, also known as the integration of science, English as Mechatronics, it is by English mechanics of the first half of Mechanics and Electronics of the latter part of a combination of Electronics. Mechatronics 1971 first appeared in Japanese magazine, "Machine Design" on the supplement, with the mechanical-electrical integration of the rapid development of technology, electromechanical integration, the concept was widely accepted and we have universal application. With the rapid development of computer technology and extensive application of mechatronics technology unprecedented development. Mechatronics present technology, mechanical and micro-electronics technology is closely a set of technologies, the development of his machine has been cold humane, intelligent.Specific mechanical and electrical integration technologies, including the following:(1) mechanical engineering machinery and technology is the basis of mechatronics, mechanical technology, focused on how to adapt to mechanical and electrical integration technologies, the use of other high and new technology toupdate the concept, the realization of the structure, materials, the performance changes to meet the needs to reduce weight, reduce the size and improve accuracy, increase the stiffness and improving the performance requirements. Mechatronic systems in the manufacturing process, the classical theory and technology of mechanical computer-aided technology should help, while the use of artificial intelligence and expert systems, the formation of a new generation of mechanical manufacturing technology.(2) Computer and Information TechnologyWhich information exchange, access, computing, judge and decision-making, artificial intelligence techniques, expert system technology, neural networks are computer information processing technology.(3) System TechnologySystem technology that is the concept of the overall application of related technology organizations, from the perspective of the overall objectives and systems will be interconnected into the overall number of functional units, system interface technology is an important aspect of technology, it is an organic part of the realization of system guarantee connectivity.(4) Automatic Control TechnologyIts scope is broad, under the guidance of the control theory for system design, design of system simulation, live debugging, control technology include, for example, high-precision positioning control, speed control, adaptive control, self-diagnosis calibration, compensation, reproduction, retrieval, etc. .(5) Sensor detection technologySensor detection technology is the feeling of organ systems, is to achieve automatic control, the key to automatic adjustment. The stronger its functions, the system the higher the automation process. Engineering requirements of modern sensors can be fast and accurate access to information and are able to withstand the harsh environment of the test; it is the mechanical-electrical integration systems to achieve a high level of assurance.(6) Servo-drive technology, including electric, pneumatic, hydraulic and other types of actuators, servo system is a signal to the mechanical action to achieve the conversion devices and components, the dynamic performance of the system, control the quality and features have a decisive impact.Mechatronics system1. Machinery ontology ontology including mechanical rack,mechanical connections, such as mechanical transmission, which is the basis of mechanical-electrical integration, play a support system of other functional units, transmission of the role of movement and power. And compared to purely mechanical products, electrical and mechanical systems integration technology to improve performance, enhanced functionality, which requires mechanical ontology in the mechanical structure, materials, processing technology, as well as the areas of geometry to adapt, with high efficiency, multi-functional, reliable and energy-saving, small, lightweight, aesthetically pleasing characteristics.2. Detection sensor detecting sensor part includes a variety of sensors and signal detection circuit, and its function is to detect the process of mechatronic systems in the work itself and the external environment changes in the relevant parameters and information to the electronic control unit, electronic control unit checks the information in accordance with the actuator to the corresponding control issue.3. Electronic Control Unit, also known as electronic control unit ECU (Electrical Control Unit), is the core of Mechatronic Systems, responsible for testing the sensor from the external input signal and centralized command, storage, computing,analysis, information processing based on the results of according to a certain extent and pace of the instructions issued to control the destination for the entire system.4. Executor's role in the implementation of electronic control unit in accordance with the order-driven movement of mechanical components. Implementation is moving parts, usually electric, pneumatic and hydraulic drive, such as drivinga number of ways.5. The power source power source is a mechanical-electrical integration products part of the energy supply, the role of system control in accordance with the requirements of mechanical systems to provide energy and power system normal operation. Way to provide energy, including electricity, gas, energy and hydraulic energy, mainly electricity.。
单片机的外文文献及中文翻译
单片机的外文文献及中文翻译一、外文文献Title: The Application and Development of SingleChip Microcontrollers in Modern ElectronicsSinglechip microcontrollers have become an indispensable part of modern electronic systems They are small, yet powerful integrated circuits that combine a microprocessor core, memory, and input/output peripherals on a single chip These devices offer significant advantages in terms of cost, size, and power consumption, making them ideal for a wide range of applicationsThe history of singlechip microcontrollers can be traced back to the 1970s when the first microcontrollers were developed Since then, they have undergone significant advancements in technology and performance Today, singlechip microcontrollers are available in a wide variety of architectures and capabilities, ranging from simple 8-bit devices to complex 32-bit and 64-bit systemsOne of the key features of singlechip microcontrollers is their programmability They can be programmed using various languages such as C, Assembly, and Python This flexibility allows developers to customize the functionality of the microcontroller to meet the specific requirements of their applications For example, in embedded systems for automotive, industrial control, and consumer electronics, singlechip microcontrollers can be programmed to control sensors, actuators, and communication interfacesAnother important aspect of singlechip microcontrollers is their low power consumption This is crucial in batterypowered devices and portable electronics where energy efficiency is of paramount importance Modern singlechip microcontrollers incorporate advanced power management techniques to minimize power consumption while maintaining optimal performanceIn addition to their use in traditional electronics, singlechip microcontrollers are also playing a significant role in the emerging fields of the Internet of Things （IoT) and wearable technology In IoT applications, they can be used to collect and process data from various sensors and communicate it wirelessly to a central server Wearable devices such as smartwatches and fitness trackers rely on singlechip microcontrollers to monitor vital signs and perform other functionsHowever, the design and development of systems using singlechip microcontrollers also present certain challenges Issues such as realtime performance, memory management, and software reliability need to be carefully addressed to ensure the successful implementation of the applications Moreover, the rapid evolution of technology requires developers to constantly update their knowledge and skills to keep up with the latest advancements in singlechip microcontroller technologyIn conclusion, singlechip microcontrollers have revolutionized the field of electronics and continue to play a vital role in driving technological innovation Their versatility, low cost, and small form factor make them an attractive choice for a wide range of applications, and their importance is expected to grow further in the years to come二、中文翻译标题：单片机在现代电子领域的应用与发展单片机已成为现代电子系统中不可或缺的一部分。
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微机发展简史I EEE的论文剑桥大学，2004/2/5莫里斯威尔克斯计算机实验室剑桥大学第一台存储程序的计算开始出现于1950前后，它就是1949年夏天在剑桥大学，我们创造的延迟存储自动电子计算机（EDSAC）。
最初实验用的计算机是由象我一样有着广博知识的人构造的。
我们在电子工程方面都有着丰富的经验，并且我们深信这些经验对我们大有裨益。
后来，被证明是正确的，尽管我们也要学习很多新东西。
最重要的是瞬态一定要小心应付，虽然它只会在电视机的荧幕上一起一个无害的闪光，但是在计算机上这将导致一系列的错误。
在电路的设计过程中，我们经常陷入两难的境地。
举例来说，我可以使用真空二级管做为门电路，就象在EDSAC中一样，或者在两个栅格之间用带控制信号的五级管，这被广泛用于其他系统设计，这类的选择一直在持续着直到逻辑门电路开始应用。
在计算机领域工作的人都应该记得TTL，ECL和CMOS，到目前为止，CMOS已经占据了主导地位。
在最初的几年，IEE（电子工程师协会）仍然由动力工程占据主导地位。
为了让IEE 认识到无线工程和快速发展的电子工程并行发展是它自己的一项权利，我们不得不面对一些障碍。
由于动力工程师们做事的方式与我们不同，我们也遇到了许多困难。
让人有些愤怒的是，所有的IEE出版的论文都被期望以冗长的早期研究的陈述开头，无非是些在早期阶段由于没有太多经验而遇到的困难之类的陈述。
60年代的巩固阶段60年代初，个人英雄时代结束了，计算机真正引起了重视。
世界上的计算机数量已经增加了许多，并且性能比以前更加可靠。
这些我认为归因与高级语言的起步和第一个操作系统的诞生。
分时系统开始起步，并且计算机图形学随之而来。
综上所述，晶体管开始代替正空管。
这个变化对当时的工程师们是个不可回避的挑战。
他们必须忘记他们熟悉的电路重新开始。
只能说他们鼓起勇气接受了挑战，尽管这个转变并不会一帆风顺。
小规模集成电路和小型机很快，在一个硅片上可以放不止一个晶体管，由此集成电路诞生了。
随着时间的推移，一个片子能够容纳的最大数量的晶体管或稍微少些的逻辑门和翻转门集成度达到了一个最大限度。
由此出现了我们所知道7400系列微机。
每个门电路或翻转电路是相互独立的并且有自己的引脚。
他们可通过导线连接在一起，作成一个计算机或其他的东西。
这些芯片为制造一种新的计算机提供了可能。
它被称为小型机。
他比大型机稍逊，但功能强大，并且更能让人负担的起。
一个商业部门或大学有能力拥有一台小型机而不是得到一台大型组织所需昂贵的大型机。
随着微机的开始流行并且功能的完善，世界急切获得它的计算能力但总是由于工业上不能规模供应和它可观的价格而受到挫折。
微机的出现解决了这个局面。
计算消耗的下降并非起源与微机，它本来就应该是那个样子。
这就是我在概要中提到的“通货膨胀”在计算机工业中走上了歧途之说。
随着时间的推移，人们比他们付出的金钱得到的更多。
硬件的研究我所描述的时代对于从事计算机硬件研究的人们是令人惊奇的时代。
7400系列的用户能够工作在逻辑门和开关级别并且芯片的集成度可靠性比单独晶体管高很多。
大学或各地的研究者，可以充分发挥他们的想象力构造任何微机可以连接的数字设备。
在剑桥大学实验室力，我们构造了CAP，一个有令人惊奇逻辑能力的微机。
7400在70年代中期还不断发展壮大，并且被宽带局域网的先驱组织Cambridge Ring所采用。
令牌环设计研究的发表先于以太网。
在这两种系统出现之前，人们大多满足于基于电报交换机的本地局域网。
令牌环网需要高可靠性，由于脉冲在令牌环中传递，他们必须不断的被放大并且再生。
是7400的高可靠性给了我们勇气，使得我们着手Cambridge Ring.项目。
精简指令计算机的诞生早期的计算机有简单的指令集，随着时间的推移，商业用微机的设计者增加了另外的他们认为可以微机性能的特性。
很少的测试方法被建立，总的来说特性的选取很大程度上依赖于设计者的直觉。
1980年，RISC运动改变了微机世界。
该运动是由Patterson 和Ditzel发表了一篇命名为精简指令计算机的情况论文而引起的。
除了RISC这个引人注目缩略词外，这个标题传达了一些指令集合设计的见解，随之引发了RISC运动。
从某种意义上说，它推动了线程的发展，在处理器中，同一时间有几个指令在不同的执行阶段称为线程。
线程不是个新概念，但是它对微机来说是从未有过的。
RISC受益于一个最近的可用的方法的诞生，该方法使估计计算机性能成为可能而不去真正实现该微机的设计。
我的意思是说利用目前存在的功能强大的计算机去模拟新的设计。
通过模拟该设计，RISC的提倡者能够有信心的预言，一台使用和传统计算机相同电路的RISC计算机可以和传统的最好的计算机有同样的性能。
模拟仿真加快了开发进度并且被计算机设计者广泛采用。
随后，计算机设计者变的多些可理性少了一些艺术性。
今天，设计者们希望有满屋可用计算机做他们的仿真，而不只是一台，X86指令集除非出现很大意外，要不很少听到有计算机使用早期的RISC指令集了。
INTEL 8086及其后裔都与x86密切相关。
X86构架已经占据了计算机核心指令集的主导地位。
被认为是相当成功的RISC指令集现在的生存空间越来越小了。
对于我们这些从事计算机学术研究的人，X86的统治地位让我们感到失望。
毫无疑问，商业上对于x86的生存会有更多的考虑，但是这里还有很多原因，尽管我们多么希望人们考虑其他的方面。
高级语言并没有完全消除对机器原始编码的的使用。
我们仍需要不断提醒我们自己：我们应该严格的与先前的应用在机器层面上保持兼容。
然而，情况也许有所不同，如果Intel的主要目的是为是生产一个好的RISC芯片。
有一个已经取得了更大的成功，我所说的i860(不是i960,它们有一些不同)。
从许多方面来说，i860是个卓越的芯片，但是它的软件借口不适合在工作站上应用。
对于x86取得胜利的最后有一件有意思的事情。
直接应用先前x86的实现方式对于满足RISC处理器的持续增长的速度要求，是不可能的。
因此，设计者们没有完全实现RISC指令集，尽管这不是很明显。
表面上，一片现代的x86芯片包含了隐藏实现的部分，好象和实现RISC指令集的芯片一样。
当致命的异常发生时，X86引入的代码是，经过适当的篡改后，被转化为它的内部代码并且被RISC芯片处理。
对于以上RISC运动的总结，我非常信赖最新版本的哈里斯和培生出版社的有关计算机设计的书籍。
请参考特殊计算机体系构造，第三版，2003，P146，151-4，157-8IA-64指令集很久以前，Intel 和Hewlett-Packard引进了IA-64指令集。
这最初主要是为了满足通常的64位地址空间问题。
在这种情况下，随后出现了MIPS R4000和Alpha。
然而，人们普遍认为Intel应该与x86构架保持兼容，可令人疑惑的是恰恰相反。
进一步说，IA-64的设计与其他所有的指令集在主要实现方式上有所不同。
特别的，每条指令它需要附加的6位。
这打乱了传统的在指令字长和信息内容的平衡，并且它改变了编译器作者的原先的大纲。
尽管IA-64是个全新的指令集，但Intel发表了一个令人困惑的声明：基于IA-64的芯片将与早期的x86芯片保持兼容。
很难弄懂它所指的是什么。
最新的称为Itaninu IA-64处理器显然需要特殊的兼容性的硬件，尽管如此，x86编码运行的相当慢。
由于以上的复杂因素，IA-64的实现需要更大的体积相对与传统的指令集，这暗示着更大的消耗。
因此，在任何情况下，作为常识和一般性的标准，Gordon Moore在访问剑桥最近开放的Betty and Gordon Moore 图书馆时所反复强调。
在听到他说问题出现在Intel内部也许有所不同，我很不理解。
但是我已经作好了准备，去接受这样的事实，我已经完全不了解半导体经济学了。
AMD已经定义了一种64位的与x86更加兼容的指令集，并且他们已经取得了进展。
这种片子并不是很大。
很多人认为这才是Intel应该做的。
（在这篇演讲稿被提交之前，Intel表示他们将销售一系列本质上与AMD兼容的芯片）更小晶体管的出现集成度还在不断增加，这是通过缩小原始晶体管以致可以更容易放在一个片子上。
进一步说，物理学的定律占在了制造商的一方。
晶体管变的更快，更简单，更小。
因此，同时导致了更高的集成度和速度。
这有个更明显的优势。
芯片被放在硅片上，称为晶片。
每一个晶片拥有很大数量的独立芯片，他们被同时加工然后分离。
因为缩小以致在每块晶片上有了更多的芯片，所以每块芯片的价格下降了。
单元价格下降对于计算机工业是重要的，因为，如果最新的芯片性能和以前一样但价格更便宜，就没有理由继续提供老产品，至少不应该无限期提供。
对于整个市场只需一种产品。
附录2Progress in ComputersPrestige Lecture delivered to IEE, Cambridge, on 5 February 2004Maurice WilkesComputer LaboratoryUniversity of CambridgeThe first stored program computers began to work around 1950. The one we built in Cambridge, the EDSAC was first used in the summer of 1949.These early experimental computers were built by people like myself with varying backgrounds. We all had extensive experience in electronic engineering andwere confident that that experience would stand us in good stead. This proved true, although we had some new things to learn. The most important of these was that transients must be treated correctly; what would cause a harmless flash on the screen of a television set could lead to a serious error in a computer.As far as computing circuits were concerned, we found ourselves with an embarass de richess. For example, we could use vacuum tube diodes for gates as we did in the EDSAC or pentodes with control signals on both grids, a system widely used elsewhere. This sort of choice persisted and the term families of logic came into use. Those who have worked in the computer field will remember TTL, ECL and CMOS. Of these, CMOS has now become dominant.In those early years, the IEE was still dominated by power engineering and we had to fight a number of major battles in order to get radio engineering along with the rapidly developing subject of electronics.dubbed in the IEE light current electrical engineering.properly recognised as an activity in its own right. I remember that we had some difficulty in organising a conference because the power engineers’ ways of doing things were not our ways. A minor source of irritation was that all IEE published papers were expected to start with a lengthy statement of earlier practice, something difficult to do when there was no earlier practiceConsolidation in the 1960sBy the late 50s or early 1960s, the heroic pioneering stage was over and the computer field was starting up in real earnest. The number of computers in the world had increased and they were much more reliable than the very early ones . To those years we can ascribe the first steps in high level languages and the first operating systems. Experimental time-sharing was beginning, and ultimately computer graphics was to come along.Above all, transistors began to replace vacuum tubes. This change presented a formidable challenge to the engineers of the day. They had to forget what they knew about circuits and start again. It can only be said that they measured up superbly well to the challenge and that the change could not have gone more smoothly.Soon it was found possible to put more than one transistor on the same bit of silicon, and this was the beginning of integrated circuits. As time went on, a sufficient level of integration was reached for one chip to accommodate enough transistors for a small number of gates or flip flops. This led to a range of chipsknown as the 7400 series. The gates and flip flops were independent of one another and each had its own pins. They could be connected by off-chip wiring to make a computer or anything else.These chips made a new kind of computer possible. It was called a minicomputer. It was something less that a mainframe, but still very powerful, and much more affordable. Instead of having one expensive mainframe for the whole organisation, a business or a university was able to have a minicomputer for each major department.Before long minicomputers began to spread and become more powerful. The world was hungry for computing power and it had been very frustrating for industry not to be able to supply it on the scale required and at a reasonable cost. Minicomputers transformed the situation.The fall in the cost of computing did not start with the minicomputer; it had always been that way. This was what I meant when I referred in my abstract to inflation in the computer industry ‘going the other way’. As time goes on people get more for their money, not less.Research in Computer Hardware.The time that I am describing was a wonderful one for research in computer hardware. The user of the 7400 series could work at the gate and flip-flop level and yet the overall level of integration was sufficient to give a degree of reliability far above that of discreet transistors. The researcher, in a university or elsewhere, could build any digital device that a fertile imagination could conjure up. In the Computer Laboratory we built the Cambridge CAP, a full-scale minicomputer with fancy capability logic.The 7400 series was still going strong in the mid 1970s and was used for the Cambridge Ring, a pioneering wide-band local area network. Publication of the design study for the Ring came just before the announcement of the Ethernet. Until these two systems appeared, users had mostly been content with teletype-based local area networks.Rings need high reliability because, as the pulses go repeatedly round the ring, they must be continually amplified and regenerated. It was the high reliability provided by the 7400 series of chips that gave us the courage needed to embark on the project for the Cambridge Ring.The RISC Movement and Its AftermathEarly computers had simple instruction sets. As time went on designers of commercially available machines added additional features which they thought would improve performance. Few comparative measurements were done and on the whole the choice of features depended upon the designer’s intuition.In 1980, the RISC movement that was to change all this broke on the world. The movement opened with a paper by Patterson and Ditzel entitled The Case for the Reduced Instructions Set Computer.Apart from leading to a striking acronym, this title conveys little of the insights into instruction set design which went with the RISC movement, in particular the way it facilitated pipelining, a system whereby several instructions may be in different stages of execution within the processor at the same time. Pipelining was not new, but it was new for small computersThe RISC movement benefited greatly from methods which had recently become available for estimating the performance to be expected from a computer design without actually implementing it. I refer to the use of a powerful existing computer to simulate the new design. By the use of simulation, RISC advocates were able to predict with some confidence that a good RISC design would be able toout-perform the best conventional computers using the same circuit technology. This prediction was ultimately born out in practice.Simulation made rapid progress and soon came into universal use by computer designers. In consequence, computer design has become more of a science and less of an art. Today, designers expect to have a roomful of, computers available to do their simulations, not just one. They refer to such a roomful by the attractive name of computer farm.The x86 Instruction SetLittle is now heard of pre-RISC instruction sets with one major exception, namely that of the Intel 8086 and its progeny, collectively referred to as x86. This has become the dominant instruction set and the RISC instruction sets that originally had a considerable measure of success are having to put up a hard fight for survival.This dominance of x86 disappoints people like myself who come from the research wings.both academic and industrial.of the computer field. No doubt, business considerations have a lot to do with the survival of x86, but there are other reasons as well. However much we research oriented people would like to think otherwise. high level languages have not yet eliminated the use of machine codealtogether. We need to keep reminding ourselves that there is much to be said for strict binary compatibility with previous usage when that can be attained. Nevertheless, things might have been different if Intel’s major attempt to produce a good RISC chip had been more successful. I am referring to the i860 (not the i960, which was something different). In many ways the i860 was an excellent chip, but its software interface did not fit it to be used in a workstation.There is an interesting sting in the tail of this apparently easy triumph of the x86 instruction set. It proved impossible to match the steadily increasing speed of RISC processors by direct implementation of the x86 instruction set as had been done in the past. Instead, designers took a leaf out of the RISC book; although it is not obvious, on the surface, a modern x86 processor chip contains hidden within it a RISC-style processor with its own internal RISC coding. The incoming x86 code is, after suitable massaging, converted into this internal code and handed over to the RISC processor where the critical execution is performed.In this summing up of the RISC movement, I rely heavily on the latest edition of Hennessy and Patterson’s books on computer design as my supporting authority; see in particular Computer Architecture, third edition, 2003, pp 146, 151-4, 157-8.The IA-64 instruction set.Some time ago, Intel and Hewlett-Packard introduced the IA-64 instruction set. This was primarily intended to meet a generally recognised need for a 64 bit address space. In this, it followed the lead of the designers of the MIPS R4000 and Alpha. However one would have thought that Intel would have stressed compatibility with the x86; the puzzle is that they did the exact opposite.Moreover, built into the design of IA-64 is a feature known as predication which makes it incompatible in a major way with all other instruction sets. In particular, it needs 6 extra bits with each instruction. This upsets the traditional balance between instruction word length and information content, and it changes significantly the brief of the compiler writer.In spite of having an entirely new instruction set, Intel made the puzzling claim that chips based on IA-64 would be compatible with earlier x86 chips. It was hard to see exactly what was meant.Chips for the latest IA-64 processor, namely, the Itanium, appear to have special hardware for compatibility. Even so, x86 code runs very slowly.Because of the above complications, implementation of IA-64 requires a largerchip than is required for more conventional instruction sets. This in turn implies a higher cost. Such at any rate, is the received wisdom, and, as a general principle, it was repeated as such by Gordon Moore when he visited Cambridge recently to open the Betty and Gordon Moore Library. I have, however, heard it said that the matter appears differently from within Intel. This I do not understand. But I am very ready to admit that I am completely out of my depth as regards the economics of the semiconductor industry.AMD have defined a 64 bit instruction set that is more compatible with x86 and they appear to be making headway with it. The chip is not a particularly large one. Some people think that this is what Intel should have done. [Since the lecture was delivered, Intel have announced that they will market a range of chips essentially compatible with those offered by AMD.]The Relentless Drive towards Smaller TransistorsThe scale of integration continued to increase. This was achieved by shrinking the original transistors so that more could be put on a chip. Moreover, the laws of physics were on the side of the manufacturers. The transistors also got faster, simply by getting smaller. It was therefore possible to have, at the same time, both high density and high speed.There was a further advantage. Chips are made on discs of silicon, known as wafers. Each wafer has on it a large number of individual chips, which are processed together and later separated. Since shrinkage makes it possible to get more chips on a wafer, the cost per chip goes down.Falling unit cost was important to the industry because, if the latest chips are cheaper to make as well as faster, there is no reason to go on offering the old ones, at least not indefinitely. There can thus be one product for the entire market.。