chapter 7 cohesion
翻译研究笔记 重要
Chapter 1:Main issues of translation studies:1. Jacobson’s categories of translation:a. Intralingual;b. Interlingual;c. Intersemiotic (verbal- non-verbal).2.History of the discipline:a. From the late 18th to the 1960s – grammar-translation method (replaced by communicative approach in the 1960s and 1970s);b.The USA 1960s –translation workshop concept based on Richards’reading workshops and practical criticism approach that began in 1920s; running parallel to this approach was that of comparative literature;c.The USA 1930s-1960s/70s – contrastive analysis;d.More systematic, and mostly linguistic-oriented, approach 1950s-1960s:i.J.-P. Vinay and J. Darbelnet (French/English);ii. A. Malblanc (French/German);iii.G. Mounin (linguistic issues of translation);iv. E. Nida (based on Chomsky generative grammar).v.James S. Holmes’“The name and nature of translation studies”is considered to be the founding statement of a new discipline.vi.Hermans Manipulation Schoolvii.Vieira Brazilian cannibalist school Postcolonial theoryviii.Venuti cultural-studies-oriented analysisThe Holmes/Toury map of translation studies1:Chapter 2: Translation theory before the 20th century:Traduttore, traditore = the translator is a traitorChapter 3: Equivalence and equivalent effect:In the 1950s and 1960s the place of circular debates around literal and free translation took the new debate revolved around certain key linguistic issues, among them those of meaning and equivalence, discussed by R. Jakobson in 1959. Over the following 20 years many further attempts were made to define the nature of equivalence.Jakobson:1.Meaning: the signifier=the signal of the signified (the concept).2.There is no full equivalence between code-units of different languages.3.So, we should substitute not words, but messages.4.Only p oetry is considered ‘untranslatable’ and requires ‘creative transposition’.Nida’s ‘science of translating (subjective):1.Meaning:a.Linguistic;b.Referential (dictionary meaning);c.Emotive (connotative).2.Ways of determining meaning:a.Hierarchical structuring (animal dog, cow etc);ponential analysis (grandmother, mother, cousin etc);c.Semantic structure analysis (spirit can mean demon, angel, god, ghost, ethos, alcohol etc)meaning depending on context.3.3-stage system of translation (Chom sky’s influence: deep/surface structure of a language):SL1 (analysis) X (transfer) Y (restructuring) TL24.Equivalence:a.Formal (form and content);b.Dynamic (equivalent response of: t2 reader on t2 as t1 reader on t1) (closest naturalequivalent).5.Correspondence in meaning must have priority over correspondence in style.6.Reader-based orientation.主要理论1：对等和等效（1950s－1960s）1．代表人物（1）罗曼雅各布逊A．描写了翻译的三类型：语内翻译，语际翻译和符际翻译B．提出语际翻译指用一种语言替换另一种语言种的整个信息C．强调对等的差异性（2）尤金奈达A. 提出形式对等和动态对等B. 提出著名的读者反应理论C. 他的理论以乔姆斯基的转换生成语法为基础（3）皮特纽马克A．提出语义对等和交际对等（4）韦内科勒A．区分了对应和对等B．描写了五种对等：外延意义，隐含意义，文本规则，语用及形式对等Newmark’s semantic and communicative translation:1.Replaces Nida’s division with semantic (resembles formal equivalence) and communicative(resembles dynamic equivalence) translation.2.Nida’s division inoperant if the text is out of TL space and time.3.Dynamic equivalence: are readers ‘to be handed everything on a plate’?4.Semantic translation differs from literal in that it ‘respects context’, interp rets and explains(metaphors). Literal translation is to be the best approach in both semantic and communicative translation. If semantic translation would result in an ‘abnormal’ TT or would not secure equivalent effect in the TL, then communicative translation should win out.Tertium comparationis, an invariant against which 2 text segments can be measured to determine variation.Chapter 4: The translation shift approach:1.Vinay and Darbelnet’s taxonomy:a)Direct (=literal) translation:(1).Borrowing(2).Calque(3).literal translation (word-for-word)b).Oblique translation:(4).Transposition(5).modulation6(6)..equivalence(7).adaptationc)The 7 categories operate on 3 levels:1.the lexicon2. 2.syntactic structures3. 3.the message 9context)4. 4.word order and thematic structure5. 5.connectors [cohesive links, discourse markers, deixis (pronouns anddemonstrative pronouns) and punctuation]d)2 possibilities:1.servitude (obligatory 4 and 5)2. 2.option (non-obligatory)2.Catford’s linguis tic approach (shifts)a.Distinction between: formal correspondence (a particular ST-TT pair) and textualequivalence (a pair of lgs).b.When the 2 concepts diverge, a translation shift occurs –a departure from formalcorrespondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL. There are 2 kinds of shift:1. A level shift (sth is expressed by grammar in one lg and by lexis in another)2. A category shift:i.Structural shifts; ii.Class shifts (word category); iii.Unit/rank shifts (sentence, clause,group, word, morpheme);iv.Intra-system shifts (systems are similar, but not always corresponding).3. van Leuven-Zwart’s microlevel/macrolever translation shifts:a.The comparative model (a detailed comparison of ST and TT and classification of allthe microstructural shifts within sentences, clauses and phrases);b.The descriptive model (a macrostructural model, designed for the analysis oftranslated literature)Chapter 5: Functional theories of translation:K. Reiss’s text typesNord adds to 3 types of language function a fourth ‘phatic’ function, covering lg that establishes or maintains contact between parties involved in the communication (e.g. greetings).Holz-Manttari’s translational action model for non-literary translations with1.its roles and players:a The initiator;b b.The commissioner (contacts the translator);c.The ST producer;d.The TTproducer;e.The TT user;f.The TT receiver.2.Content:a Factual information; b.Overall communicative strategy.3.Form: a.Terminology; b.Cohesive elements.J. Vermeer’s skopos theory: knowing the purpose and the function of translation is crucial (adequacy over equivalence).Ch. Nord’s translation-oriented text analysis:1.2 kinds of translation: a.Documentary translation(a)reader knows that he’s reading a translation;(b)Instrumental translation (a reader doesn’t know that).2.3 aspects of functionalist approaches particularly useful in translator training:a)The importance of the translation commission;b)The role of ST analysis;c)The functional hierarchy of translation problemsChapter 6: Discourse and register approaches:Halliday’s model of language and discourse b ased on systemic functional grammar (lg=communication):Influence:House’s model of translation qu ality assessment:1.Scheme for analyzing and comparing original and translation texts:Translation: a.Overt;b.Covert.Baker’s text and pragmatic level analysis:1.Textual function2.Cohesion3.Pragmatics:a.Coherence (depends on receiver’s expectations and experience of theworld);b.Presupposition (what the speaker supposes a listener shouldknow);c.Implicature (what the speaker implies).Hatim and Mason’s semiotic level of context and discourse:Text elements:1.Stable (translated fairly literally);2.Dynamic (not).Chapter 7: Systems theories:脚注：1.What is being written about.2.Who is communicating and to whom.3.The form of communication e.g. writtenEven-Zohar’s polysystem theory: a literary work as apart of a literary system in the social, cultural, literary and historical framework. It’s important [for choosing the translation strategy] if translated literature has a primary or secondary position in given literature.Toury and descriptive translation studies (DTS):1.Situate the text within the target culture system, looking at its significance oracceptability;2. pare the ST and the TT for shifts, identifying relationships between ‘coupled pairs’of ST and TT segments, and attempting generalizations about the underlying concept of translation;3. 3.Draw implications for decision-making in future translating.Norms of translation behaviour can be reconstructed from:1.The examinations of texts;2. 2.The explicit statement made about norms by translators, publishers, reviewers and otherparticipants in the translation actNorms:1.Initial norm (general translator’s choice):a.Subjection to source culture norms adequate translation;b.Subjection to target culture norms acceptable translation.2.Preliminary norms:a.Translation policy (text selection);b.Directness of translation (ST TT; ST t2 TT).3.Operational norms (the presentation and linguistic matters of the TT):a.Matricial norms (completeness of TT);b.Textual-linguistic norms (TT linguistic material).‘Laws’ of translation:1.Of growing standardization (tending to TT common options);2.Of interference (ST options transferred to TT, negatively or positively).Chesterman’s translation norms:1.Product or expectancy norms;2. 2.Process or professional norms:a.The accountability norm (an ethical norm);b.The communication norm (a social norm);c.The‘relation’ norm (a linguistic norm).Other DTS models:1.Manipulation School (‘a continual interplay between theoretical models and practical casestudies’);mbert and van Gorp – the scheme for the comparison of the ST and TT literary systems andfor the description of relations within them:a.Preliminary data;b.Macro-level;c.Micro-level;d.Systemic context (data compared andnorms identified)Chapter 8 "Varieties of cultural studies" examines Lefevere (1992), who treats translation as "rewriting" and identifies ideological pressures on translated texts. This chapter also looks at the writing of Simon (1996) on gender in translation, and at postcolonial translation theories which stress the part that translation has played in the colonization process and the image of the colonized (cf. Bassnett and Trivedi 1999).Lefevere (1992) treats translation as "rewriting" and identifies ideological and poetological pressures on translated texts. Translation functions are controlled by the following factors:1.Professionals within the literary system;2.Patronage outside the literary system:a.The ideological component;b.The economic component;c.The status component.d.If a-c come from the same source – patronage is undifferentiated; if not – differentiated.3.The dominant poetics:a.Literary devices;b.The concept of the role of literature.Simon compares the status of translation throughout the centuries to that of women’s and presents pro-feminist methods in translation.Postcolonial translation theories:1.Spivak: ‘translationese’ eliminates the identity of politically less powerful individuals andcultures.2. 2.Spivak: compares the status of translation throughout the centuries to that of colonies.3.Power relations : trans lation as the colonizer’s device used against the colonized.4.S. Bassnett and H. Trivedi’s translational linked to transnatio nal (translation=battleground).Brazilian cannibalism: the colonizers and their lg are devoured, their life force invigorating the devourers, who transform it according to their needs.The Irish context: postcolonialism in Europe.Chapter 9: Translating the foreign:the (in)visibility of translation: A. Berman’s ‘negative analytic’ of translation that prevents the foreign coming thr ough. ‘Deforming tendencies’:1.Rationalization;2.Clarification;3.Expansion;4.Ennoblement;5.Qualitative impoverishment;6.Quantitative impoverishment;7.The destruction of rhythms;8.The destruction of underlying networks of signification;9.The destruction of linguistic patternings;10.The destruction of vernacular1 networks or their exoticization;11.The destruction of expressions and idioms;12.The effacement of the superimposition of languages.‘Positive analytic’ = literal translation.Venuti:1.The invisibility of the translator in contemporary Anglo-American culture.2. 2.Domestication (dominant in connection with the translator’s invisibility) –‘the authortowards the reader’.3. 3.Foreignization –‘the reader towards the writer’ – resistancy – minoritizing (desirable).4. 4.‘Call for action’ –‘visibility’ + ‘foreignization’.Chapter 10: Philosophical theories of translation:Steiner’s hermeneutic1 approach to translation as ‘the act of elicitation and appropriate transfer of meaning’. The parts of the hermeneutic moti on:1.Initiative trust;2. 2.Aggression (penetration);3. 3.Incorporation (embodiment);4. pensation (restitution)Ezra Pound’s energy of language: translation as a tool in the cultural struggle, and the revitalization of the past.W. Benjamin’s task of the translator: translation gives the original ‘continued life’; pure language = coexistence of SL and TL; literal rendering of the syntax.J. Derrida’s deconstruction: capturing the meaning? No stability in the signified-signifier (meaning-sign) relationship; the opposition between SL and TL.1.Letter=Judaism=justice;2.Spirit=Christianity=mercy.Chapter 11: Translation studies as an interdiscipline:M. Snell-Hornby’s integrated approach.Harvey’s combination of linguistic analysis and critical theory.。
Unit 7 Coherence, Unity and Cohesion
Unit7 Coherence, Unity and Cohesion连贯、一致与衔接
In this unit, we look at three other aspects of speech: coherence, unity and cohesion which have much to do with making connections between sentences and paragraphs so that the unity of the passage can be maintained. The reason to put these two words together is because coherence and unity are closely related——the former is discussed on the micro-level, i.e. between sentences, while the latter is discussed on the macro-level, i.e. between paragraphs. Both contribute to the coming together of a clear expression of the central idea in a speech. Cohesion functions as a link that bridges the gap between sentences so that coherence and unity could be achieved.
Synonyms and repetition are other methods for achieving the same effect. The following are examples.
英语文体学Chapter 7 Cohesion in Literary Discourse
Syntactic Devices
2) Cataphoric reference Cataphoric reference refers to something that is yet to come later in the text.
Syntactic Devices
Example They had grown up next door to each other, on the fringe of a city, near fields and woods and orchards, with sight of a lovely bell tower that belonged to a school for the blind. Now they were twenty, had not seen each other for nearly a year. There had always been playful, comfortable warmth between them, but never any talk of love. His name was Newt, her name was Catharine… (Vonnegut, Jr., Long Walk to Forever)
Syntactic Devices
1) Anaphoric reference Anaphoric reference refers to something that has already been mentioned in the text.
E.g. Mary went to see her cousin last week, she lives in New York.
cohesion
Types of Cohesion
Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction Lexical cohesion
Lexical cohesion
Synonymy: buy-purchase; Hyponymy: fruit-apple Collocation: semantic field Lexical repetition
2.
Eager to trust but determined to verify, many single women in an age of risky romance are hiring private detectives to check the background of their suitors. 父母们给孩子讲的故事都是好人与坏人对 立，好人最后必定成功，坏人必定受到惩 罚。 Parents tell their children stories in which the morally good is opposed against the bad, and in the end the good inevitably is successful and the bad inevitably punished.
now, at present, recently, after, afterwards, after that, after a while, in a few days, at first, in the beginning, to begin with, later, next, finally, immediately, soon, suddenly, all of a sudden, at that moment, as soon as, the moment form now on, from then on, at the same time, meanwhile, till, not…until, before, after, when, while, as during,
大学思辨英语教程 精读1Unit 3教师用书
Unit 3 Verbaland Non-verbal CommunicationUnit overviewBoth Units 1 and 2 mention a key word “communication”.As Thomas Payne points out in Text B of Unit 2, most of us, linguists or non-linguists, have the common-sense notion that “the main purpose of human language is communication”. Thus to develop a deeper understanding of the nature and function of language, we need to take a close at human communication. This unit examines this topic from a cross-cultural perspective, illustrating the similarities and differences in verbal and non-verbal communication between different cultures, which lays a foundation for further exploration into the interface between language and culture in the following units.Text APeople in different communities demonstrate different perceptions and rules of both verbal and non-verbal communication. The way they interact is culturally relative in almost every aspect, including when to talk, what to say, pacing and pausing, listenership, intonation and prosody, formulaicity, indirectness, and coherence and cohesion.Text BSome non-verbal behaviors are practically universal and have the same meaning wherever you are ., smiling and facial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness, and so on). But for cultural and historical reasons, there have also developed great differences and variations in such aspects as eye contact, touch, gestures, and territorial space, etc. Without an awareness of respect and accommodation for people from a different background, these differences are likely to cause misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication.The two texts supplement each other in that Text A illustrates cross-cultural differences in both verbal and non-verbal communication while Text B focuses on non-verbal behaviors and addressesbothdifferences and similarities.Teaching objectivesThis unit is designed to help students develop their reading skills, communicative competence, critical thinking, intercultural reflection and abilities of autonomous learning in the following aspects.Reading skills:Use context to understand a new wordIdentify cohesive devicesPredict the content of an upcoming sentence/paragraphCommunicative competence:Develop a coherent and cohesive oral/written discourseUse topic sentences, supporting sentences and concluding sentences in presentations/essaysCommunicate constructively in team workCritical thinking:Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of personal experience as evidence in argumentationOrganize the arguments using an outlineNote and reflect on the differences between academic writing and everyday writingIntercultural reflectionIdentify similarities and differences in non-verbal communication across culturesBe aware of multiple levels of differences on which cross-cultural communication can falterInterpret communication behaviors from cultural and historical perspectivesTeaching strategiesNon-verbal communication and cross-cultural communication are both interesting topics in linguistics. The teacher can introduce the two texts by quoting anecdotes or relating to students’own experiences(question 5 in Preparatory work, p. 59). For students who lack experience of cross-cultural communication, the topic can be led in by discussions about inter-subcultural communication.Text A is a research articlefrom an academic journaland its structure and writing style are quite clear. It is recommended to draw students’ attention to the author’s logic ., ways of arguing) and use of evidence in class. If well-planned, all the questions in Preparatory Work and Critical reading can be dealt with in some detail in class. The teacher can follow all the questions in Understanding the text to check students’ comprehension of the text, while the tasks in Evaluation and exploration can be divided and assigned to groups. For example, in Making an outline (p. 62), the teacher can divide the students into three groups, each responsible for one topic.For classical works in intercultural communication, please refer to:Hall, Edward T. (1955). The Anthropology of American,192: 85-89. Hall, Edward T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.For more updated information, please find the following journals:Cross-Cultural Communication published by Canadian Academy ofOriental and Occidental Culture (CAOOC)Across Languages and Cultures published by AkadémiaiKiadóLanguage and Intercultural Communication published byRoutledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd.Preparatory work(1)Academic interests: gender and language, interactionalsociolinguistics, conversational interaction, cross-cultural communication, frames theory, conversational vs. literary discourse, and new media discourse.Main publications:You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. New York: Morrow, 1990.That's Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Relationships. NY: William Morrow, 1986.Gender and Discourse. NY & Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Note: Outside the academic world Deborah Tannen is best known as the author of a number of books on the New York Times best seller and she is also a frequent guest on television and radio news and information shows.(2)Edward Sapir (1884–1939): an American anthropologist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the early development of modern linguistics. His main interests are in the ways in which language and culture influence each other, the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views. His most important contribution is what is known as the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis.John Joseph Gumperz(1922 –2013): an American linguist. His research interests include the languages of India, code-switching, and conversational interaction. Well-known for his contribution in interactional sociolinguistics and the "ethnography of communication", Gumperz’s research has benefitted such fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and linguistic anthropology.E. M. Forster (1879 –1970): an English novelist, short story writer, essayist and librettist. He is known best for his ironic and well-plotted novels examining class difference and hypocrisy in early 20th-century British society. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 13 different years.Robert Kaplan:An American applied linguist. His research area covers applied linguistics, discourse analysis, language policy, language planning, and ESL/EFL Teaching. He is most famous for his contribution in Contrastive Rhetoric, a term he first coined in 1966. Kaplan has authored or edited 32 books, more than 130 articles in scholarly journals and chapters in books, and more than 85 book reviews and other ephemeral pieces in various newsletters, as well as 9 special reports to the . government and to governments elsewhere.(3) is the systematic study of meaning dependent on language in use. Unlike semantics, which examines conventional meaning "coded" in a given language, pragmatics studies how the transmission of meaning depends not only on structural and linguistic knowledge ., grammar, lexicon, etc.) of the speaker and the hearer, but also on the context of the utterance, any pre-existing knowledge about those participants involved, the inferred intent of the speaker, and other factors. Central topics of p ragmatics include a speaker’s communicative intentions, the use of language that requires such intentions, context of use, the relation between the user of a linguistic form and the act of using the form, and the strategies an addressee employs to work out what the intentions and acts are.(4)Cohesion refers to the use of various phonological, grammatical, and/or lexical means to link sentences or utterances into a well-connected, larger linguistic unit such as a paragraph or a chapter. In other words, cohesion achieves well-connectedness by means of linguistic forms.Example: Mary is a secretary. She works in a law firm. Yan (2012)Coherence refers to the logical well-connectedness between different parts of a piece of spoken or written language, which distinguishes it from a random assemblage of sentences or utterances. Yan (2012)Formly incohesive discourse may be coherent through common se nse, cultural background, contextual information, imagination, logical assumption, etc.Husband: That’s the telephone.Wife: I’m in the bath.Husband: OK.(5)Pause is a temporary and brief break in the flow of speech, which is often classified into filled pause and unfilled or silent pause. The former is taken up or filled by a hesitation form like ah, er,and um. In contrast, the latter is not filled by a hesitation form. In other words, a silent pause is one where there is no vocalization.Critical readingI. Understanding the text(1) The main purpose of this article is to illustrate eight levels of cross-cultural differences in non-verbal aspects of communication.(2) We can understand the nature of language by observing it in communication and in contact with other systems of communication.(3) Pacing and pausing, listenership. In deciding when to talk and what to say, the speaker usually takes a conscious speech planning, yet in pacing and pausing and in showing listenership in a conversation, one does not need to stop and think for a decision.(4) Section starts with a direct thesis statement. Then the author explains it with an expert’s (Scollon) research findings and section the author raises a number of questions (in para 7, 9 and 11) and responds to them with relevant research findings (Goody’s as well as hers) and her own personal experience. Section is also organized in the order of “question-answer”. Section illustrates cross-cultural differences in listenership with two examples, gaze (paras 21 and 22) and loud responses (para 23), and then moves on to the conclusion (para 24). Section : example-discussion. Section : personal experience and a very brief interpretation. Section : the thesis (para 30 “how to be indirect is culturally relative”) and discussion about the cases of American-non-American differences (American men, women, Greek and Japanese). Section : definition and illustration.(5) The experience ina dinner party in paragraph 12 indicates that (1) people from different cultures not only differ in whether compliments should be accepted, rejected or deflected, but also in which compliments should be accepted/rejected/deflected; and (2) every culture has its own conventions about what to say on particular occasions, and without knowledge of these conventions, we can by no means appropriately interpret the messages in cross-cultural communication.In Para. 29, Tannenrefers to her first visit to Greece to exemplifythe cross-cultural difference in formulaicity, ., what is novel and what is conventional in different languages.(6)Generally speaking, the eight levels are arranged in the orderof importance, from the core of verbal communication to more peripheral factors. The first three levels and the fifth level belong to what is said while the last three center on how it is said. The fourth level, listenership, is the only level examined from the perspective of the hearer.(7)As has been illustrated in part II, verbal communicationinvolves many hidden rules and conventions that vary from culture to culture. Since every individual has his/her own unique experience, education background,and beliefs, etc., no two interactants would share exactly the same communicative rules and conventions. In this sense all communication is cross-cultural.Summary writingWays of communication are culturally diversified in almost every aspect, from what to say to how to say it. When to talk (and when not to) is culturally relative. People from one culture may find a particular silent moment unbearable while it is deemed appropriate in another to say also differs greatly across cultures. Many of us consider raising questions asa natural or even basic part of daily communication, but in some cultures questions are perceived imposing and hence rarely asked. A certain degree of indirectness in communication is universal in all languages, but how to be indirect varies from culture to culture. American men value “sticking to facts” while Japanese and Arab often insist on elaborate “small talks”. Cross-cultural differences can also be observed in the different ways of showing listenership, control of pace and pause, use of conventional and novel language, and variation of intonation. Even when peopleare asked to describe or write about the same thing, their organization of a discourse will very likely differ in ways of establishing coherence and cohesion as Kaplan illustrated.II. Evaluation and exploration1.Evaluating the text(1)Personal experiences and anecdotes help elucidate abstract anddifficult terms and add to the vividness of the text. Controlled use of personal experience may also shorten the distance between the author and the reader. But the overuse and misuse of personal stories can also damage the objectivity and credibility of the argumentation.(2)Beside personal experience, Tannen mentions a lot of academicresearches . in para 4, 7, 8, 10, 21, 23, 38 and 39), which all add weight to her arguments.(3)It is obviously not an exhaustive list. Cross-culturalcommunication can vary at many other levels, ., proxemics and turn taking in a multiparty context.2.Exploring beyond the text(1)Questions for exploration1)There are altogether 16 questions which help structure the textin part two and they are not equally important. The question in para 2, for example, is a global one that covers all the eight sections in the main body, while the question in para 20, “Nowhow many milliseconds shall I wait”, is just an example to illustrate why pacing and pausing is an automatic level.a. See above.b. The first question in para 7 is asked to introduce the topicof this section, what to say. It is a transition from section to section .c. This is a rhetorical question requiring no answer. It isasked simply to reinforce our conviction that questions are basic to the educational setting, which forms a sharp contrast with the case of Gonjans.2) In all the known languages there are strategies of makingindirect requests/apologies/invitations/, etc. In a strict sense, the use of language is an indirect means to achieve communicative ends. How to be indirect differs from culture to culture. For example, in English a request is often put forward as a question of ability (Can you pass me the salt).3) For example, introvert people may be more tolerant of silencein face-to-face verbal interaction while extroverts usually findsilence awkward and uncomfortable. This is primarily an interpersonal difference since in all cultures there are introvert and extrovert people.Gaze is another example. People with more aggressive personality usually hold longer and steadier gaze when they talk to others, while shy perpleare more likely to diverge in eye contact.Language enhancementI. Words and phrases1. Adverbs and prepositions(1) off; (2) out; (3) across; (4) away; (5) up; (6) between, for; (7) after; (8) out of, into; (9) off; (10) up; (11) out of2. Verbs(1) illustrate, vary, discussing, exemplifying, signaling, mean, say(2) vary(3) differ(4) illustrated(5) exemplifies(6) expounds(7) demonstrates(8) elucidate, interpret3.Words in contextOpen to discussion:To guess the meaning of a new word, one can first recognize its part of speech, analyze its word formation, identify its attitude if necessary, and then evaluate its meaning in the linguistic context. II. Sentences and discourse1.Paraphrasing(1)Athabaskan Indians consider that it is inappropriate to talk topeople they do not know. According to Scollon, this causes a strange effect when theAthabaskan Indians meet people from other cultures. The non-Athabaskans may want to make acquaintance with the Athabaskans by talking to them, but the Athabaskans will not talk to the non- Athabaskans before they become acquaintances. (2)Gonjans take it for granted that questions are always asked toachieve indirect functions, so they never ask questions for pure information.(3)The Americans usually take it for granted that in communicationpeople should be direct and say no more or less than needed, and that what people say is exactly what they mean. This is especially true in business and education and applies more to American men than to women.(4)No two people have just the same cultural background. Therefore,all communication is cross-cultural to someextent. In this sense, understanding cross-cultural communication can help us understand the nature of language and tackle problems in the world, especially those caused by and related to the use of language, .obstacles in foreign language teaching and learning.2.Translation(1)物理学家通过观察物质元素在不同环境中的表现及其与其他物质的相互作用来理解它们的本质。
英文作文cohesion
英文作文cohesionI love spending time with my friends. We always have a great time together, whether we're going out for dinner or just hanging out at someone's house. It's always fun to catch up and share stories with each other.I'm a big fan of traveling to new places. There's something so exciting about exploring a new city or country and experiencing different cultures. I love trying new foods and learning about the history and traditions of the places I visit.Music is a huge part of my life. I listen to all kinds of genres, from pop and rock to classical and jazz. I also enjoy going to concerts and music festivals whenever I can. There's just something about live music that really gets me energized and happy.I'm a bit of a bookworm. I love getting lost in a good story and I can spend hours in a bookstore or library. Ienjoy all kinds of genres, from mystery and fantasy to historical fiction and biographies. Reading is a great way for me to relax and unwind after a long day.I'm a bit of a foodie and love trying out newrestaurants and recipes. Cooking and baking are alsohobbies of mine, and I'm always looking for new dishes to try. I find that food has a way of bringing people together, and I love sharing a good meal with friends and family.。
chapter 6 (2)cohesion
The concept of cohesion, as defined by Halliday & Hasan (1985: 4), is a semantic one. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, which is realized by cohesive ties （衔接纽带）, which may be grammatical cohesive devices such as references （指称）, ellipsis （省略）, substitution （替代）, conjunction （连接） and lexical cohesion （词汇衔接）.
B. Every morning Tom’s mother got up early to prepare breakfast. But Tom preferred music to math at school. Last week there was a traffic jam due to a car accident, which was caused by the carelessness of the driver. However, the schoolmaster decided to keep the secret for Tom. Although he was not too rich, Tom’s father managed to buy a beautiful dress for his wife as a Christmas gift.
Take the following two passages for example. A. Throughout the long history of mathematics, men have always wished that they could calculate quickly. As each mathematical discovery was made and knowledge advanced a little the calculations facing mathematicians became more and more complicated and demanded an even greater time. There are some people who like doing long and difficult arithmetic, but most of us do not and are eager to finish our sums in the shortest and easiest way.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第一章-第六章重难点
名词解释Syntactic function/ predicate/ performance/ tone/ semi-vowels/ minimal pairs/ intonation/ competence/ proposition/ cognitionMinimal pair, semi vowels, tone, intonation, competence, performance, predicate, syntactic function, proposition, cognition, conceptual metaphors, image schemas, hyponymy, endocentric construction, inflection Minimal pair refers to a pair of words, as pin and bin, or sheep and ship, differing only by one sound in the same position in each wordSemi-vowels The segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories.Intonation the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Tone a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system ofrules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Cognition In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a view that argues that the mind has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing, especially when a lot of abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. In cognitive linguistics, cognition refers to the conceptualization of linguistic structures and patterns.A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Chapter 1Design feature of languageArbitrariness1.bowwow 汪汪2.Syntactic level 有句法顺序3.Convention 约定俗成为什么树叫树而不是别的Duality1.底层构建上层Creativity/productivity1.duality 不同地层结构可以组成很多上层结构2.Recursiveness 句子可以无限长Displacement1.不受限制，可以谈论过去/未来，真的/假的Functions of languageHalliday —— ideational，interpersonal，textual◆Informative function 语言用于表达一个概念或内容◆Interpersonal function◆Performative function （change social status如结婚词，定罪词，表达动作，我让你去关门）◆Emotive function 感叹词（damn it）◆Phatic communion 寒暄功能（问你吃了吗，并不真的问吃了没）◆Recreational function 写诗陶冶情操◆Metalingual function 用语言解释语言（词典中，一个词下很多释义）Important distinctions in linguistics◆Descriptive VS prescriptive尊重语言事实，客观描述约定俗成的现在更关注descriptive◆Langue & Parole （更倾向于parole）Saussure 提出（社会角度）Langue 语言（抽象）parole 从小生活在某个社区影响的语言◆Competence & performance （心理角度）Chomsky提出天生具备的语言能力依据参数规则转化出所说所写A knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic communicative competence --communicative competenceChapter 2Gesture -- movements of the tongue and the lipsVoiceless consonants-- air can pass through easilyvoiced consonants -- airstream causes them to vibrate against each otherConsonants and vowels 区别（obstruction of airstream）元音不受阻P32, 33 图（⚠）例如：voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless alveolar fricativeVoiceless velar stopGlottal, palatal, lateral, affricative, approximant例如：high front tense unrounded vowelHigh back lax rounded vowelPhonemes: refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast; the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.Allophones 音位变体「p」「ph」都是/p/的音位变体，且二者为互补分配（complementary distribution）Assimilation 同化（受周边影响）Nasalization （cap-can）Dentalization （tent-tenth）Velarization （since-sink）Regressive Assimilation （逆同化，后者受前者影响）progressive Assimilation （相反）Rule ordering冠词规则：The elsewhere conditionThe more specific rule supplies first （最特殊的规则最先用）SyllableNucleus 一般为元音Maximal onset principle (MOP) 最大节首原则如：telling /l/ 划分到节首(ling 的节首)Intonation and toneIntonation-- fall-rise tonesChinese is tone language.Tone sandhi 连续变调你好（你变三声）Obligatory contour principle (OCP) {identical adjacent elements are not allowed}Chapter3Morpheme◆Free Morpheme 可以独立存在◆Bound Morpheme 不可以Stem=root+（Bound Morpheme）如：cat 的stem和root都是catRoot：nature stem：naturalAffix - prefix，suffix，infix（-um-），circumfix（gr--t）Allomorphs同位异形体in-，ir-，im-都有表示否定，但因为phonological requirement 而区别开Lexeme 词位Walk - lexeme；walked，walking - word formContent words（open class words）and function words（closed class words）◆Derivation （lexeme+affix）◆Compounding （lexeme+lexeme）Attributive compound（windmill）wind修饰millCoordinative compound （teacher-student）并列Subordinative compound （truck-driver）左名词，右动词变形存在（drive变driver）即synthetic compound；不存在即root compoundInflection 曲折构词曲折词缀主要是表达不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如数、时、格等。
cohesion in english 读书笔记
cohesion in english 读书笔记Cohesion, as an important aspect of language, plays a crucial role in making English texts coherent and understandable. It refers to the grammatical and lexical relationships that hold sentences and paragraphs together. In this article, we will explore different types of cohesion and their applications in English writing.1. Referential CohesionReferential cohesion involves the use of pronouns, demonstratives, and nouns to refer back to previously mentioned elements. It helps readers understand the relationships between different parts of a text. For example, in the sentence "John bought a new car. He loves driving it," the pronoun "he" and the demonstrative "it" refer back to "John" and "car" respectively, creating cohesive ties.2. SubstitutionSubstitution is another way to achieve cohesion. It involves replacing a word or phrase with another element, often a pronoun or a nominal group. This technique allows writers to avoid repetition and make the text more concise. For instance, instead of saying "I went to the park. The park was beautiful," we can use substitution: "I went to the park. It was beautiful."3. EllipsisEllipsis refers to the omission of a word or phrase that can be inferred from the context. It is commonly used in conversation and informal writing. For example, instead of saying "I enjoy watching movies, and my sisterenjoys watching movies too," we can use ellipsis: "I enjoy watching movies, and my sister does too."4. ConjunctionConjunctions are essential for creating cohesion in both spoken and written English. They are used to link words, phrases, and clauses together, indicating logical relationships. Common conjunctions include "and," "but," "or," "however," and "although." They help clarify the connections between different ideas and maintain coherence within a text.5. Lexical CohesionLexical cohesion relies on the use of words that are related in meaning. Techniques such as repetition, synonymy, hyponymy, and collocation contribute to lexical cohesion. By using these devices, writers can create a strong connection between different parts of a text. For example, in the sentence "She wore a beautiful dress. The dress was made of silk," the repetition of the word "dress" establishes lexical cohesion.6. ParallelismParallelism, also known as parallel structure, involves using similar grammatical structures to express related ideas. It adds rhythm and clarity to the text, making it more cohesive. For instance, in the sentence "I like swimming, running, and hiking," the parallel structure of verb + -ing form enhances cohesion.7. Semantic CohesionSemantic cohesion focuses on the relationship between the meanings of words and phrases in a text. This can be achieved through the use of synonyms, antonyms, hypernyms, and hyponyms. By using words with related meanings, writers can ensure that their text flows smoothly. For example, instead of repeating the word "clean," one might use the synonym "tidy" or the antonym "dirty" to maintain semantic cohesion.In conclusion, cohesion is crucial for effective English writing. By employing techniques such as referential cohesion, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, lexical cohesion, parallelism, and semantic cohesion, writers can create texts that are cohesive, coherent, and easy to understand. Understanding these principles of cohesion will greatly enhance one's ability to produce well-structured and engaging English writing.。
Cohesion语言学衔接教学课件讲议
Reference
We can illustrate reference with the following diagram:
Reference
[situational] exophora
[textual] endophora
[to preceding text] [to following text]
a) This is the house that Jack built. b) Algy met a bear. The bear was bulgy. The bulge was Algy.
Demonstrative Reference
In a) we know which ‘house’ is being referred to, because we are told-it is the one built by Jack; and notice that the information comes after the occurrence of the the. In b) we know which bearthe one that Algy met; and we know which bulgethe one displayed by the bear; but in this case the information had already been given before the the occurred.
植物生理学手册
植物生理学手册-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 11、胞间连丝（plasmodesma）：指从一个细胞的细胞膜连接到另一个细胞的细胞膜，贯穿细胞壁、胞间层，连接两细胞原生质的管状通道。
结构上存在三种状态：a.封闭态、b.可控态、c.开放态。
2、共质体（symplast）：植物体活细胞的原生质体通过胞间连丝形成的一个连续的整体，也叫内植物空间。
3、质外体（ayoplast）：质膜以外的胞间层、细胞壁以及细胞间隙彼此连接形成的一个连接的整体。
Plant间的通道：（1）胞间连丝；（2）自由空间——共质体、质外体。
4、自由水（free water）：细胞质主要由蛋白质组成，其水溶液具有胶体性质，故细胞质是一个胶体系统。
细胞质胶体微料具有显著的亲水性，其表面吸附有很多水分子，形成一层很厚的水层。
距离胶料较远而可以自由流动的水分，称自由水。
5、束缚水（bound water）：靠近细胞质胶体微料而被胶料吸附束缚不易自由流动的水分称束缚水。
6、自由水存在意义：参与各种代谢作用，它的含量制约着植物的代谢程度。
如光合、呼吸及生长速率。
自由水占总含量的百分比越大，则植物代谢越旺盛。
7、束缚水存在意义：不参与代谢作用，但植物需要通过低微的代谢强度去度过不良的外界条件，因而束缚水含量与植物抗性大小有密切关系。
8、植物对水分的吸收方式：a.吸涨吸水、b.渗透性吸水、c.代谢性吸水。
9、植物根系吸水的途径：a.质外体途径、b.跨膜途径、c.共质体途径。
10、植物根系吸水方式及动力：a.被动吸水：蒸腾作用、b.主动吸水：根压。
11、水分进入细胞的途径：（1）单个水分子通过膜脂双分子层的间隙扩散进入细胞，较慢；（2）水集流通过质膜上水孔蛋白中的水通道进入，比较快。
12、气孔运动（stomatal movement）：大多数plant的气孔白天张开，晚上关闭的现象。
Chapter 7 课后答案
Chapter 7 答案Discourse Analysis1.Define the following terms briefly.(1)discourse: a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language producedas the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units oflanguage such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.(2)discourse analysis: the study of how sentences in written and spoken languageform larger meaning units such as paragraphs, conversations and interviews.(3)given information: the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee.(4)new information: the information that the addresser believes is not knownto the addressee.(5)topic: the main center of attention in a sentence.(6)cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the differentelements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sentencesor different parts of a sentence.(7)coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances ina discourseor of the sentences in a text.(8)discourse marker: the technical term for all the items that are used to helpconstruct discourse, such as signifying the beginning or ending of a paragraphor a turn in conversation. They are commonly used in the initial positionof an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence, such aswell, I mean, now, then, first, second, finally.(9)adjacency pair: a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that “go together” in aconversation, such as sequences of question/answer, greeting/greeting, invitation/acceptance, criticism/denial.(10) preference structure: in the conversations there can be several second partsrelated to one first part, but they are not of equal status. The structural likelihoodis called preference, and this likely structure is the preference structurethat divides second parts into preferred and dispreferred. The former is thestructurally expected and the latter unexpected. In answering the question“Have you got a light?”, the reply “Here you are” is preferred and “Sorry, no, I don’t smoke” is dispr eferred.(11 presequence: the opening sequences that are used to set up some special potentialactions, such as greetings before formal conversations. “What are youdoing tonight?” can be used as a presequence if it is followed by “If nothingspecial, come over and have dinner with us please.”(12) critical discourse analysis: the analysis of language use directed at, and committedto, discovering the concealed ideological bias, injustice, inequality in the power relations among speakers and hearers.2.In the study of discourse, cohesion refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationshipsbetween the different parts of a text. This may be the relationship betweendifferent sentences or different parts of a sentence. It concerns the questionof how sentences are explicitly linked together in a discourse by different kinds ofovert devices. Such cohesive devices include reference, substitution, ellipses, conjunction and lexical cohesion.3.one→the look-out4.them (line 4)→plant and animal species (line 3)that (line 7)→“Every ecosystem everywhere can’t be preserved intact.”it (line 7)→“Every ecosystem everywhere can’t be preserved intact.”it (1st one, line 8)→how can it be made consistent with the earlier objective?it (2nd one, line 8)→to deprive some people in some parts of the world of a pieceof their ecosystem but not others.5.It is not a coherent discourse. Although it has connection words such as a Ford–– a car and black –– Black, which look like cohesive devices, they refer to entirelydifferent things. There is a total lack of internal relation among the sentences. Atext can’t be only based on superficial connections between the words to pursuecoherence; there must be some relationship that links the meanings of the sentencesin a text, too. This text is not in line with our real experience of the way theworld is. Thus, we can’t make sense of it directly unless we are laborious to createmeaningful connections which are not actually expressed by the words and sentences.So it’s not a coheren t discourse.6.Coherence is the relationship that links the meanings of utterances ina discourse or of the sentences in a text. This extract is coherent. All the sentences (questions in fact) are organized around the topic “interview”, and they are arrang ed from the general to the more specific in a logical order so that the text is easy to follow.。
cohesion名词解释
cohesion名词解释
嘿，你知道 cohesion 吗？这可不是个一般的词儿啊！它就像是把各种小碎片黏在一起变成一个整体的神奇胶水。
比如说，一个团队里的大家，各自有着不同的性格、能力和想法，但因为有了 cohesion，就能紧紧地团结在一起，朝着一个目标努力前进，这不就像用胶水把那些零散的小部件粘成了一个坚固的结构体嘛！（就像乐高积木，单个的积木没那么厉害，但组合起来就能创造出各种奇妙的东西。
）再想想，在一个家庭里，成员之间的那种亲情、关爱和相互支持，也是一种 cohesion呀！大家会为了家庭的幸福一起奋斗，相互照顾，这多棒啊！（这不就跟用线把珠子串起来成了漂亮的项链一样嘛！）在学校里，同学们之间的友谊和合作也是一种 cohesion呢。
一起学习、一起玩耍、互相帮助，这样才能让校园生活变得丰富多彩呀！（就好像拼图的各个小块，只有凑在一起才能呈现出完整美丽的画面。
）
cohesion 真的无处不在啊！它让不同的元素能够凝聚在一起，发挥出更大的力量。
无论是在社会组织中，还是在自然界里，都有着cohesion的身影。
它可以让小小的水滴汇聚成江河湖海，可以让一群蜜蜂形成有秩序的蜂群。
（这不就跟魔法一样神奇嘛！）
所以啊，cohesion 真的太重要啦！它是让一切变得有序、强大和美好的关键。
没有 cohesion，很多事情都没法顺利进行，就像散沙一样，
风一吹就散了。
我们应该珍惜和培养各种关系中的 cohesion，让我们的生活、工作和学习都能因为它而更加精彩，不是吗？
总之，cohesion 就是那种能把不同的部分紧密连接在一起的力量，是让整体大于部分之和的神奇存在！。
语言学提纲笔记
Chapter 1 Invitation to LinguisticsLanguage The Definition(语言的定义)The Design Features Arbitrariness（本质特征）DualityCreativityDisplacement语言先天反射理论The Origin Of Language The bow-bow theory(语言的起源) The pooh-pooh theoryThe “yo-he-yo”theoryJacobos（与The Prague School一致）Referential Functions Of Language Ideational PoeticEmotiveHalliday Interpersonal ConativePhaticTextual MetalingualThe Basic Functions InformativeInterpersonalPerformativeEmotive functionPhatic communion(B.Malinowski 提出)Recreation functionMetalingual function Linguistics The DefinitionThe Main Branches of Linguistics Phonetics(微观语言学) PhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsMacrolinguistics Psycholinguistics(宏观语言学）SociolinguisticsAnthropological LinguisticsComputaioanl LinguisticsDescriptive &PrescriptiveSynchronic&DiachronicImportant Distinctions Langue&ParoleCompetence&PerformanceChapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学)语音学Auditory Phonetics(听觉语言学)Articulatory Phonetics(发声语音学)Speech Organs/Vocal organs(lungs ,trachea,throat,nose.mouth)IPA/Diacritics(变音符)Consonants The definitionThe manner of articulationArticulatory Phonetics The place of articulation(发声语音学)Vowels The definitionThe sound of English:RP/GACardinal vowelsThe requirements of descriptionCoarticulation Anticipatory CoarticulationPerseverative CoarticulationPhonetics transcription Narrow transcriptionBroad transcriptionPhonology 音位理论Minimal Pairs（c ut&p ut）Phone&Phonemes&Allophone(音素&音位&音位变体)音系学C omplementary DistributionFree variants(自由变体)/variation(自由变体现象)Phonological contrasts or opposition(音位对立)Distinctive Features(First developed by Jacobson as a meansof working out a set of phonological contrasts or opposition toCapture particular aspect of language sounds)progressive assimilationPhonological Process音系过程Assimilation Progressive assimilation音素是语音学研究的单位。
基坑规范英文版
基坑规范英文版篇一：行业标准中英对照44项工程建设标准（英文版）目录123篇二：地下室设计深基坑中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Deep ExcavationsABSTRACT ：All major topics in the design of in-situ retaining systems for deep excavations in urban areas are outlined. Type of wall, water related problems and water pressures, lateral earth pressures, type of support, solution to earth retaining walls, types of failure, internal and external stability problems.KEYWORDS: deep excavation; retaining wall; earth pressure;INTRODUCTIONNumbers of deep excavation pits in city centers are increasing every year. Buildings, streets surroundingexcavation locations and design of very deep basements make excavations formidable projects. This chapter has been organized in such a way that subjects related to deep excavation projects are summarized in several sections in the order of design routine. These are types of in-situ walls, water pressures and water related problems. Earth pressures in cohesionless and cohesive soils are presented in two different categories. Ground anchors, struts and nails as supporting elements are explained. Anchors are given more emphasis pared to others due to widespread use observed in the recent years. Stability of retaining systems are discussed as internal and external stability. Solution of walls for shears, moments, displacements and support reactions under earth and water pressures are obtained making use of different methods of analysis. A pile wall supported by anchors is solved by three methods and the results are pared. Type of wall failures, observed wall movements and instrumentation of deep excavation projects are summarized.1. TYPES OF EARTH RETAINING WALLS1.1 IntroductionMore than several types of in-situ walls are used to support excavations. The criteria for the selection of type of wall are size of excavation, ground conditions, groundwater level, vertical and horizontal displacements of adjacent ground and limitations of various structures, availability of construction, cost,speed of work and others. One of the main decisions is the water-tightness of wall. The following types ofin-situ walls will be summarized below;1. Braced walls, soldier pile and lagging walls2. Sheet-piling or sheet pile walls3. Pile walls (contiguous, secant)4. Diaphragm walls or slurry trench walls5. Reinforced concrete (cast-in-situ or prefabricated) retaining walls6. Soil nail walls7. Cofferdams8. Jet-grout and deep mixed walls9. Top-down construction10. Partial excavation or island method1.1.1 Braced WallsExcavation proceeds step by step after placement of soldier piles or so called king posts around the excavation at about 2 to 3 m intervals. These may be steel H, I or WF sections. Rail sections and timber are also used. At each level horizontal waling beams and supporting elements (struts, anchors,nails) are constructed. Soldier piles are driven or monly placed in bored holes in urban areas, and timberlagging is placed between soldier piles during the excavation. Various details of placement of lagging are available, however(来自: 小龙文档网:基坑规范英文版), precast units, in-situ concrete or shotcrete may also be used as alternative to timber. Depending on ground conditions no lagging may be provided in relatively shallow pits.Historically braced walls are strut supported. They had been used extensively before the ground anchor technology was developed in 1970?s. Soils with some cohesion and without water table are usually suitable for this type of construction or dewatering is acpanied if required and allowed. Strut support is monly preferred in narrow excavations for pipe laying or similar works but also used in deep and large excavations (See Fig 1.1). Ground anchor support is increasingly used and preferred due to access for construction works and machinery. Waling beams may be used or anchors may be placed directly on soldierpiles without any beams.1.1.2 Sheet-piling or Sheet Pile WallsSheet pile is a thin steel section (7-30 mm thick)400-500 mm wide. It is manufactured in different lengths and shapes like U, Z and straight line sections (Fig. 1.2). There are interlocking watertight grooves at the sides, and they are driven into soil by hammering or vibrating. Their use is often restricted in urbanized areas due to environmental problems likenoise and vibrations. New generation hammers generate minimum vibration anddisturbance, and static pushing of sections have been recently possible. In soft ground several sections may be driven using a template. The end product is a watertight steel wall in soil. One side (inner) of wall is excavated step by step and support is given by struts or anchor. Waling beams (walers) are frequently used. They are usually constructed in water bearing soils.Steel sheet piles are the most mon but sometimes reinforced concrete precast sheet pile sections are preferred in soft soils if driving difficulties are not expected. Steel piles may also encounter driving difficulties in very dense, stiff soils or in soils with boulders. Jetting may be acpanied during the process to ease penetration. Steel sheet pile sections used in such difficult driving conditions are selected according to the driving resistance rather than the design moments in the project. Another frequently faced problem is the flaws in interlocking during driving which result in leakages under water table. Sheet pile walls are monly used for temporary purposes but permanent cases are also abundant. In temporary works sections are extracted after their service is over, and they are reused after maintenance. This process may not be suitable in dense urban environment.1.1.3 Pile WallsIn-situ pile retaining walls are very popular due to their availability and practicability. There are different types of pile walls (Fig. 1.3). In contiguous (intermittent) bored pile construction, spacing between the piles is greater篇三：基坑开挖换填施工方案英文版Sokoto Cement Factory Project of the 17 Bureau, Chinese Railway ConstructionCompanythConstruction Schemes for Foundation pit ExcavationAnd ReplacementComposed by：Editor：Chief editor：Fifth division of 17th Bureau of CRCC, manager department of theSokoto Cement Factory Project, Nigeria23th November 2104Contents1Introduction ......................................... ...................................................... ............................. １1.1 Basis for theposition ............................................. ............................................... １1.2 Principles for theposition ............................................. ........................................ １2.1Location ............................................. ...................................................... .................... １2.2 Geographicreport ............................................... ...................................................... ... ２2.3 Ground water and undergroundwater. ............................................... ......................... ２ Construction techniques andmethods .............................................. ...................................... ２3.1 Excavation of the foundationpit .................................................. ................................ ２3.1.13.1.23.1.33.1.43.1.53.1.63.23.2.13.2.23.2.33.2.44 Gradient of the foundationpit .................................................. ......................... ３ The stability of the side slope ................................................ ............................ ３ The form ofexcavation ........................................... .......................................... ４Preparation for theexcavation ........................................... ................................ ５ Construction procedures ........................................... ......................................... ６Methods .............................................. ...................................................... ......... ６ Constructionmaterial ............................................. ........................................... ７Constructionpreparation .......................................... ......................................... ８Techniques and constructionalprocedure. ........................................... ............. ８Methods .............................................. ...................................................... ......... ９ 3 Gravelreplacement .......................................... ...................................................... ...... ７ Organization of construction and logistic work ................................................. ................ １１4.1 The managing system for construction organization. ........................................ ...... １１4.2 Human resources for theconstruction ......................................... ............................ １１4.3 Logisticwork ................................................. ...................................................... .... １２4.4 Technicalguarantee ............................................ ..................................................... １２4.5 Quality and techniques standard andregulation ........................................... ........... １２4.5.14.5.24.5.34.5.44.64.6.14.6.24.6.34.74.8 Qualitystandard ............................................. ............................................... １２Quality monitoringorganization ......................................... .......................... １３ Raising awareness for the importance of quality and professional skills. .... １３ Establishing quality managementcode. ................................................ ........ １３ Safety regulations for mechanical construction ......................................... ... １４ Trafficregulations ......................................................................................... １５Safety regulations for fillingconstruction. ........................................ ............ １５ Safety techniquesmeasures ............................................. ........................................ １４Environment protectionmeasures ............................................. .............................. １６ Construction during the rainseason ............................................... ......................... １６4.8.14.8.2 Collecting weatherdata ................................................. ................................ １６ Technical measures fordrainage ............................................. ...................... １６4.9 Technical measures for sandstorm ................................................ .......................... １７4.10 Contingencyplan ................................................. .................................................... １７Construction Schemes for Foundation pitExcavation And Replacement1 Introduction1.1 Basis for the position1.1.1 1.1.21.1.3 Drawings submitted by the Owner (GB50300-2001）。
语言学discourse-analysis
▪ Given information can be something closely
related to the mentioned information (e.g. meronymy) （部分-整体关系）
➢ Kent returned my car last night after borrowing
discourse context:
➢ Oh, look!
.
15
2.2 Topic and comment
▪ Topic-comment vs. given-new information
➢ Given-new information: the point of view of the listener.
▪
×.
6
1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis
▪ Pick up a handful of soil in your garden. Ordinary, unexciting earth. Yet it is one of Nature’s miracles, and one of her most complex products. Your success as a gardener will largely depend upon its condition, so take the first bold step in gardening --- get to know your soil.
more stress, and they are commonly more elaborated, e.g. with a full nБайду номын сангаасun phrase, relative clause or adjectival modifier(s).
构造地质学专业词汇
构造地质学专业词汇Chapter 1 Basic Conceptgeometry 几何学incline 倾斜,斜坡,斜面undeformed 无形变的portray 描绘reconstruct 重建,改造,推想interpretation 解释, 阐明, 口译, 通译stratigraphic 地层学的bed 岩层stratum (pl. strata) 岩层bedded 成层的bedding 层理bedding planes 层面formation 组deposit 存放,堆积,沉淀isopachytes 等厚线surface 表面,外表,水面diastem 沉积暂停期sedimentation 沉淀,沉降non-sequence 间断不连续faunaltilt .(使)倾斜, (使)翘起discordance 不调和,不和volcanogenic 火山(生成)的synonymous 同义的- 2 -构造地质学专业词汇cessation 停止,终止paraconformity 似整合,沉积间断outcrop 露出地面的岩层disconformity 假整合,平行不整合cross bedding 交错层理graded bedding 粒级层理unconformity 角度不整合overstep 踏过,逾越,超出...的限度basal 基础的,基本的,基部的truncate 截去尖端,修剪overstep 超覆nonconformity 非整合onlap 上超,超覆transgression 海侵,海进offlap 退覆regression 海退toplap 顶超downlap 下超strike 走向dip 倾角true dip 真倾角foliation 面理compass bearing 罗盘方位azimuth 方位,方位角apparent dip 视倾角given 特定的,假设的- 3 -构造地质学专业词汇stereogram 极射(赤面投影)图plunge 倾伏角orthogonal 直角的,直交的pitch 侧倾角clinometer 测斜仪structure contour 构造等高线form lines 形态线form line contour 形态等高线isopachyte 等厚线borehole 钻孔,地上凿洞feather edge 尖灭subcrop 隐伏露头intersection 交叉点outliers 外露层topographic 地形上的inliers 内露层down plunge projection 俯瞰倾伏投影diagrammatic 图表的,概略的palinspastic 复原再造balanced section 平衡剖面- 4 -构造地质学专业词汇Chapter 2 Faults and Fracture fracture 破裂fault 断层joint 节理hanging wall 上盘cohesion 结合,凝聚foot wall 下盘dilationalcalcite 方解石aqueous 水的, 水成的hade 断层倾斜余角nomenclature 命名法,术语strike-slip fault 走滑断层dip-slip fault 倾滑断层wrench fault 平推断层tear fault 平推断层transcurrent fault 横推断层heave 平错throw 落差normal fault 正断层reverse 逆断层dyke 沟,渠,堤坝thrust 冲断层lay fault 滞后断层sinistral 左旋- 5 -构造地质学专业词汇dextral 右旋left-lateral 左行ritht-lateral 右行fault brecci 断层角砾brittle 易碎的, 脆弱的ductile 易延展的, 易教导的, 柔软的fault gouge 断层泥flinty 坚硬的,强硬的plateystreaky 有斑点的, 有条纹的, 容易变的striate 有条纹的, 有细槽的crush breccia 压碎角砾岩cataclasite 碎裂岩cataclasis 碎裂作用mylonite 糜棱岩blastomylonite 变余糜棱岩ultramylonite 超糜棱岩pseudotachylite 假玄武玻璃slickensides 擦痕面slickenside striation 擦痕groove 擦槽,凹槽flexure 屈曲,弯曲部分,打褶slickenline 擦线slickenfibre 擦痕纤维normal drag 正牵引nappe- 6 -构造地质学专业词汇reverse drag 逆牵引synthetic faults 次级同向断层,同级断层antithetic faults 次级反向断层,相反断层graben 地堑horst 都垒splay fault 入字形,八字形,人字形断层系transfer fault 转换断层transform fault 转换断层staircase fault 阶状断层ramp 断坡flat 断坪detachment 拆离imbricate 边缘重叠成瓦状decollement 滑脱convergent 会聚性的, 收敛的piggyback sequence 背驮式逆冲顺序overstep sequence 超覆式逆冲顺序imbricate zone 叠瓦带roof thrust 顶板逆冲断层floor thrust 底板逆冲断层duplex 双层结构horses 断片sole thrust 基底逆冲断层,冲断层基底活动面fold plunge 褶皱倾伏角back thrust 背冲,反冲pop-up 冲起- 7 -构造地质学专业词汇triangle zone 三角带listric fault 犁式断层rollever anticline 滚动背斜listric fan 犁式扇extensional duplex 伸展双层构造half-graben 半地堑pull-apart basin 拉分盆地rift 裂缝, 裂口, 断裂divergent 分歧的tabular 扁平的, 表格式的, 平坦的perpendicular 垂直的,正交的transtension 转换拉伸扭张作用transpression 转换压缩扭压作用flower structure 花状构造inversion 反转positive inversion 正反转negative inversion 负反转sheet joint (顺)层节理席状节理- 8 -构造地质学专业词汇Chapter 3 Foldsfold 褶曲hinge 枢纽limb 翼hinge line 枢纽线cylindrical fold 圆柱状褶皱axial plane 轴平面fold axis 褶轴axial surface 轴(曲)面inter-limb angle 翼间角neutral fold 中性褶皱fold angle 褶角wavelength 波长inflexion point 拐点amplitude 波幅fold axial trace 褶皱轴迹antiform 背形synform 向形neutral fold 中性褶曲anticline 背斜syncline 向斜upright folds 直立褶皱inclined folds 倾斜褶皱overfolds 倒立褶皱crest 脊- 9 -构造地质学专业词汇trough 槽gentle fold 平缓褶皱open fold 开阔褶皱close fold 中常褶皱tight fold 紧闭褶皱isoclined fold 同斜褶皱fold profile 褶曲剖面parallel fold 平行褶皱ovthogonal thickness 垂直层面厚度concentric fold 同心褶皱centre fo curvature 曲率中心similar fold 相似褶皱chevron fold 尖棱褶皱accordion fold 棱角褶皱kink band 膝折带dip isogon 等斜线symmetric fold 对称褶皱asymmetruc fold 不对称褶皱nonocline 等斜vergence 倒向parasiteic folds 寄生褶皱enveloping surface 包络面harmonic folds 协调褶皱disharmonic folds 不协调褶皱conjugate folds 共轭褶皱box fold 箱状褶皱- 10 -构造地质学专业词汇polyclinal fold 多斜褶皱cylindroidal fold 圆柱状褶皱non-cylindrol fold 非圆柱状褶皱pericline 围斜构造brachyanticline 短轴背斜brachysyncline] 短轴向斜dome 穹窿basin 盆地culmination 轴隆区depression 轴陷区凹陷interference 干涉superimpose fold 叠加褶皱interferene structure 干涉构造dome and basin 穹盆(相间)crescent and mushroom 新月形,蘑菇形double zigzag 双之字buckling 纵弯作用bending 横弯作用flexural slip 弯滑kinking 膝折shear zone 剪切带slide 滑动,滑移- 11 -构造地质学专业词汇Chapter 4 Foliation,Lineation and Fabric folliation 面理beddign folliation 顺层面理lineation 线理fabric 组构cleavage 劈理schistosity 片理slaty cleavage 板劈理fracture cleavage 破劈理crenulation cleavage 褶劈理solution cleavage 溶解劈理penetrative 透入性non-pentrative 非透入性spaced cleavage 间隔劈理gneisose banding 片麻状条带gneissosity 片麻理tetrahedron [晶]四面体conglomerate 聚结mica 云母hornblende 角闪石mudstone 泥岩specimen 标本,样品,样本muscovite 白云母clay 粘土,泥土- 12 -构造地质学专业词汇lensoid 透镜状的,透镜状结构aggregate 集合体,集合的,聚合的slate 板岩slab 厚平板,厚片microlithou 微劈石hydraulic fracturing 水压破裂作用pressure solution 压溶stylolite 缝合线metamorphic segregation 变质析离作用meamorphic defferentiation 变质分异作用augen gniss 眼球状片麻岩shape fabric 形态组构intrafolial fold 面理内褶皱rootless intrafolial fold 面理内无根褶皱lamination 迭片结构elongation lineation 伸长线理symmetric 相称性的, 均衡的asymmetric 不均匀的, 不对称的nullion structure 窗棂构造fissility 易裂性,分裂性lithology 岩石学, 岩性shale 页岩, 泥板岩limestone 石灰石schist 片岩augen 眼球状体paragneiss 副片麻岩- 13 -构造地质学专业词汇orthogneiss 正片麻岩Intrafolial folds 面理褶皱crenulation cleavage 细褶皱劈理mullion 竖框, 直棂, 放射状框Cuspate-lobate folds 尖圆褶皱Mineral lineations 矿物线理growth anisotropy 生长各向异性boudin 石香肠boudinage 石香肠构造pinch-and-swell 肿缩石香肠chocolate-table structure 巧克力方盘构造fabric 组构homogeneous 均匀heterogeneous 非均匀stacking fault 堆垛层错sub-grain boundary 亚颗粒边界undulose extinction 波状消光deformation band 变形带lattice 格子deformation lamellae 变形纹deformation twinning 变形双晶- 14 -构造地质学专业词汇Chapter 5 Stressdeformation 变形geometrical 几何学的, 几何的force 力Confining pressure 围压stress 应力newton 牛顿pascal 帕斯卡bar 巴kilbar 千巴normal stress 正应力shear stress 剪应力principal stress planes 主应力面principal stress axes 主应力轴stress axial cross 应力轴十字hydrostatic stress 静水应力deviatoric stress 偏斜应力lithostatic stress 静岩压力trajectory 轨道,轨线stress field 应力场stress fragectories 应力迹线- 15 -构造地质学专业词汇Chapter 6 Strainstrain 应变dilation 体变膨胀度distortion 畸变形变homogeneous strain 均匀应变inhomogeneous strain 非均匀应变extension 伸长应变shear strain 剪应变elongation 伸长度shortening 缩短率infinitesimal 无限小stretch 长度比factor 系数strain ellipse 应变椭圆principal strain 主应变strain ellipsoid 应变椭球coaxial strain 共轴应变pure shear 纯剪切simple shear 简单剪切prolate ellipsoid 长椭球体Constrictional strainFlattening strainablate ellipsid 扁椭球体progressive deformation 渐进变形- 16 -构造地质学专业词汇Prolate ellipsoid 扁长椭球体Oblate ellipsoid 扁平椭球体coaxial 共轴的finite strain 有限应变infinitesimal strain 无穷小应变growth fibre 生长纤维crack-seal mechanism 裂隙焊封机制Chapter 7 Stress and Strain in Materialselastic strain 弹性应变Hooke's law 虎克定律young,s modulus 杨氏模量elasticityy 弹性compressibility 压缩率viscous strain 粘度性应变elastoviscons 弹粘性plastic 塑性yield stress 屈服应力viscoelastic 粘弹性- 17 -构造地质学专业词汇delayed recovery 迟滞回复brittle 脆性ductile 韧性yield strength 屈服强度failure strength 破坏强度ultimate strength 极限强度confining pressure 围压extrapolate 外推,推断marble 大理石feldspar 长石creep 蠕变primary creep 初期蠕变secondary creep 二期蠕变tertiary creep 三期蠕变cataclasis 碎裂作用grain boundary sliding 颗粒边界活动intracrystalling plasticity 晶内塑性dislocation glide 位错滑移dislocation creep 位错蠕变strain hardening 应变硬化diffusive mass transfer 扩散质量迁移solution creep 溶解蠕变pressure solution 压溶crystal plasticity 晶质塑性superplasticity 超塑性coble creep 柯勃尔蠕变- 18 -构造地质学专业词汇nabareo-herring creep 纳巴罗-赫林蠕变deformation map 变形图coldworking 冷加工hotworking polygonization 热加工多边形化annealing 退火Chapter 8 Determination of Strain in Rocksmorphology 形态学determination of strain 应变测量quantitative evaluation 定量估算total strain 全应变bulk strain 总应变strain trajectory 应变迹线strain marker 应变标志shaly 页岩的ooids 鲕粒oolitic limestone 鲕粒灰岩- 19 -构造地质学专业词汇spherulite 球粒vesicle 气泡volcanic rock 火山岩reduction spot 退色斑spherulite 球粒fossil 化石recrystallization spot 重结晶斑点hornfels 角岩concretion 结核thin section 薄片centre-to-centre method 心对心法atypical 非典型的deformed conglomerate 变形砾石bilaterally symmetrical fossil 两侧对称化石strain determination in threedimensions三维应变测量superimposition of strain 应变叠加- 20 -构造地质学专业词汇Chapter 9 faulting and stressbrittle failure 脆性破坏stress criteria of brittlestrength脆性强度应力准则angle of internal friction 内摩擦角Mohr failure envelope 莫尔破坏包络线coulomb failure 库伦破坏准则diabase 辉绿岩dolerite 辉绿岩,粗粒玄武岩Griffith failure criterion 格里菲斯破坏准则Griffith-murrell failurecriterion格里菲斯-穆雷尔破坏准则slip 滑动seismic fault 发震断层aseismic fault 无震断层stick-slip 粘滑focal-plane solution 震源面解fault-plane solution 断层面解auxiliary plane 辅助面- 21 -构造地质学专业词汇Chapter 10 strain in folds and shear zonebuckling 纵弯作用tangential longitudinal strain 切面纵应变cleavage refraction 劈里折射Card-decksheath fold 等鞘褶皱disharmonic fold 不谐和褶曲S-C structure S-C 构造σ-structure σ构造δ-structure δ构造Stereographic projectionSterographic projection 极射赤平投影Orientation 方位Projection sphere 投影球Great circle 大圆Primitive circle 基圆Lower-hemisphere projection 下半球投影Cyclographic trace 圆弧Sterographic net 赤平投影网Equatorial plane 赤平面Wulff net 吴氏网Schmidt net 施密特网- 22 -构造地质学专业词汇Equal angual projection 等角度投影Equal area projection 等面积投影Longitude great circle 经线大圆Latitude small circle 纬线小圆Diameter 直径Pole 极点Normal 法线Sterogram 极射赤平投影图Density distribution 密度分布Contour diagram 等密图Preferred orientation 优选方位Plotted points 投点Center counter 中心密度计Peripheral counter 边缘密度计Pole diagram 极点图Point diagram (投)点图。
换言之 翻译教程 第七章 笔记
Chapter 7 Pragmatic equivalenceWe need to get away form the linguistic organization and look at reality, precisely because that reality is encoded in situations and texts for the translator and not in languages.The text cannot be considered as a static specimen of language, but essentially as the verbalized expression of an author's intention as understood by the translator as reader, who when recreates this whole for another readership in another culture.In this chapter we conclude our discussion of language and translation with a brief look at how a given text comes to make sense to a given readership. Here, we will be concerned with the way utterances are used in communicative situations and the way we interpret them in context, known as pragmatics.Pragmatics is the study of meaning, not as generated by the linguistic system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a communicative situation.Coherence and implicature explore the question of making sense and in highlighting areas of difficulty in cross-cultural communication.7.1. Coherence7.1.1. Coherence VS cohesionLike cohesion, coherence is a network of relations which organize and create a text:.cohesion is the network of surface relations which links words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text, and coherence is the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text.In the case of cohesion, stretches of language are connected to each other. In the case of coherence, they are connected by virtue of conceptual or meaning depdendencies as perceived by language users.Hoey sums up the differences between them as follows:We will assume that cohesion is a property of the text and that coherence is a facet of the reader's evaluation of a text. In other words,cohesion is objective,capable in principle of automatic recognition, while coherence is subjective and judgements concerning it may vary from reader to reader.We could say that cohesion is the surface expression of coherence relations, that it is a device for making conceptual relations explicit.Generally speaking, the mere presence of cohesive markers cannot create a coherent text; cohesive markers have to reflect conceptual relations which make sense.What actually gives texture to a stretch of language is not the presence of cohesive markers but our ability to recognize underlying semantic relations which establishing continuity of sense.The main value of cohesive markers seems to be that they can be used to facilitate and possibly control the interpretation of underlying semantic relations.7.1.2. Is coherence a feature of text or situation?No text is inherently coherent or incoherent. In the end, it all depends on the receiver, and on his ability on interpret the indications present in the discourse so that, finally ,he manages to understand it in a way which seems coherent to him.The ability to make sense of a stretch of language depends on the hearer's of reader's expectations and experience of the world.The coherence of a text is a result of the interaction between knowledge presented in the text and the reader's own knowledge and experience of the world.Even a simple cohesive relation of co-reference cannot be recognized, and therefore cannot be said to contribute to the coherence of a text.Blum-Kulka's definition of coherence as a covert potential meaning relationship among parts of a text, made overt by the reader or listener through processes of interpretation implies that she sees meaning , or coherence as a property of a ext, even though it is only accessible through processes of interpretation.Sinclair(personal communication) similarly states that processes such as the recall of past experience and knowledge of the world...are not part of the meaning of a text, but part of the human apparatus for working out the meaning of a text, which again suggests that meaning exists in texts but can only be accessed through various processes of interpretation on the part of the reader.Firth asserts that meaning is a property of the mutually relevant people, things, events in the situation.Kirsten Malmkjaer(personal communication) does not accept the view that meaning is in text and suggests instead that meaning arise in situation involving language.A reader's cultural and intellectual background determine how much sense she or he gets out of a text.Regardless of whether meaning is a property of text or situation, coherence is not a feature of text as such but of the judgement made by a reader on a text.A translator has to take account of the range of knowledge available to his or her target readers and of the expectations they are likely to have about.We can only make sense of new information in terms of our own knowledge, beliefs, and previous experience of both linguistic and non-linguistic events.7.2. Coherence and processes of interpretation: implicatureThe difference between supplemental interpretations and explanatory interpretations is that the former never lead to the explication of a thematic continuity, whereas the latter justify this continuity.One of the most important notions which have emerged in text studies in recent years is that of implicature, which refers to what the speaker means or implies rather than what she or he literally says.Grice suggests that a speaker can signal an implied meaning conventionally and non-conventionally. To signal an implied meaning conventionally, a speaker uses the textual resources which are conventionally understood to signal certain relationships between propositions. Grammatical structure is another.Grice suggests that discourse has certain important features：for instance, it is connected; it has a purpose; and it is a co-operative effort. These features give rise to a general principle of communication, the Co-operative Principle(CP).Implied meaning which is not signalled conventionally derives from the Co-operative Principle and a number of maxims associated with it: quantity, quality, relevance and manner.Grice's maxims provide a point of orientation for participants even when they are flouted, so that flouting them is recognized as a way os exploiting the convention in order to convey anintended meaning.Apart from observing the maxims, a language user can deliberately flout a maxim and in doing so produce what Grice called a conversational implicature.例证：do you know what time it is?分析：it may means"I don's know the time""I wish to know the time. Levinson calls this type of meaning a standard implicature. It could convey a meaning such as "you are very late", this is what Grice would call a conversational implicature.Conversational implicature can be conveyed by flouting any or several of the maxims.7.3. Coherence, implicature, and translation strategies7.3.1. The conventional meanings of words and structures and the identity of references7.3.1.1. The conventional meanings of words and structuresAs well as the conventional meaning of words, each language also employs conventionalized expressions and patterns of conveying implicatures. In other words, in every language there will be conventional associations between certain linguistic patterns and certain inferable meanings.Typographic features also play a role in conveying certain implicatures.7.3.1.2. The identity of any references that may be involvedThe English translator attempts to bridge the gap between the textual world and the world of the target reader by explaining the unfamiliar in terms of the familiar.Identifying reference is not just a question of identifying roughly who or what the referent is but, crucially, of knowing enough about the referent to interpret the particular associations it is meant to trigger in our minds in a given context.It is the ability to interpret the significance of a given reference and the way it links with other features of the context and co-text that contributes to the continuity of sense or coherence of a text and enables us to draw any intended implicatures.The ability to identify a referent may also be influenced by one's perspective.7.3.2. The Co-operative Principle and its maximsGrice suggests that the CP and its maxims are not arbitrary but are a feature of any rational behaviour, be it linguistic or non-linguistic.CP and its maxims are universal, on the assumption that linguistic behaviour is just one type of rational behaviour and that all human beings are rational.A certain type of implicature, say quality implicature, is never used by the speakers of a particular language, or that the contexts in which a type of implicature will be used will differ from one language community to the next.Even within the same cultural and linguistic community, there are sometimes special contexts in which one or more of the maxims do not apply.The four maxims do not represent an exhaustive list and suggested that other maxims such as "be polite" may be added. It would suggest that the maxim of quality and manner are easily overrien by considerations of politeness in some cultures.Hatim and Mason's comment on quantity that what is required for any given communicative purpose within a TL cultural environment is...a matter for the translator's judgement.An important factor which seems to override Grice's maxims and support the possibility that they are both language- and culture-specific relates to norms of discourse organization and rhetorical functions in different languages.Weakness of definition aside, it is interesting that Grice's maxims seem to reflect directly notions which are known to be valued in the English-speaking world, for instance sincerity, brevity, and relevance. These do not necessarily have the same value in other cultures, nor should they be expected to represent any ideal basis for communication.A more plausible suggestion would be that all discourse, in any language, is essentially co-operative and that the phenomenon of implicature(rather than the specific maxims suggested by Grice) is universal. In other words, the interpretation of a maxim or the maxims themselves may differ from one linguistic community to anther, but the process of conveying intended meaning by means of exploiting whatever maxims are in operation in that community will be the same.7.3.3. The context, linguistic or otherwise, of the utteranceThe context in which an utterance occurs determines the range of implicatures that may sensibly be derived from it.Sperber and Wilson suggest that the context does much more than filter out inappropriate interpretations; it provides premises without which the implicature cannot be inferred at all.The inability to relate a piece of information to his or her own context can lead the reader to draw the wrong inferences from a text.When a person describe something, recounts an event, or lists a number of items, she or he will normally follow a preferred sequence rather than a random one.Levinson relates the question of normal ordering of events in the real world to the sub-maxim of manner, “be orderly”. He suggests that it is because we expect participants in a discourse to respect the maxim"Be orderly" that we expect them to recount events in the order in which they happened.T emporal order may be a widespread or universal ordering strategy, but there are other types of preferences for ordering strategies which tend to be language- and culture-specific.The "sense of apropriateness" could provide the context for interpreting the additional maxim 'Be polite' posited earlier.7.3.4.. Other items of background knowledgeThere is a great deal of overlap between identifying reference and accessing relevant background information.The study of implicature may provide a practical solution to the well known problem of deciding what parts of the original shared context should be built into the text of the translation and what should be provided separately, for example in footnotes. Information essential to the success of conversational implicatures should be included in the text if the translation is to be coherent and sensible. It is unrealistic and working against the pragmatic nature of language to put such information into footnotes.As well as expanding a text to provide the necessary background information, a translator may decide to delete information that the target readership can be assumed to be familiar with .In any act of communication, a text does not necessarily have to conform to the expectations of its readership. Readers' versions of reality, their expectations, and their preferences can be challenged without affecting the coherence of a text, provided the challenge is motivated and the reader is prepared for it.7.3.5. The availability of all relevant items falling under the previous headingsIn order to convey an intended meaning, the speaker or writer must be able to assume that the hearer or reader has access to all the necessary background information, features of the context...The less the writer assumes that the reader has access to the more she or he will provide in the way of explanation and detail.In translation, anything that is likely to violate the target reader's expectations must be carefully examined and, if necessary, adjusted in order to avoid conveying the wrong implicatures or even failing to make sense altogether.Unless motivated, a deviant configuration at any linguistic level may block a participant's access to the conventional meaning of the words and structures used and can directly affect the coherence of a text.Any disturbance to the normal organizational patterns of language must therefore be motivated, otherwise the reader will not be able to make sense of it.Most professional translators appreciate the need to fulfil a reader's expectations about the organization of the target language in order to maintain the coherence of a text and avoid giving rise to unwanted implicatures.Reader's expectation do not necessarily have to be fulfilled.We are normally prepared to accept a great deal of unusual and even bizarre linguistic behaviour provided it can be justified, for instance on the basis of poetic creativity or humour.The suggestion that deviations form normal patterning have to be motivated implies that they have to occur in a context that is interpretable by the hearer or reader.Blackmore suggests that a speaker or writer who wants his or her utterance to be interpreted in a certain way must expect it to be interpreted in a context that yields that interpretation.in order to maintain coherence translators often have to minimize discrepancies between the model of the world presented in the source text and that with which the target reader is likely to be familiar. The extent of intervention varies considerably and depends in the final analysis on 2 main factor:①The first is the translator 's ability to access the knowledge and expectations of the target reader--the more the target reader is assumed to know, the less likely that the translator will be inclined to intervene with lengthy explanations likewise, the more harmony is assumed to exist between the model of the world presented in the source text and the target culture's version os the world, the more inclined the translator will be to remain invisible, i.e.refrain from direct intervention.②The second factor is the translator's own view of his or her role and of the whole question of where his or her loyalties ought to lie--whether they ought to lie with the source text or with the target reader.The main difficulties seem to be concerned with the ability to assess the target reader's range of knowledge and assumptions about various aspects of the world, and to strike a reasonable balance between, on the one hand, fulfilling their expectations and, on the other hand, maintaining their interest in the communication by offering them new or alternative insights.Brown and Y ule suggest that the principle of analogy and local basis of the assumption of coherence in our experience of life in general, hence in our experience of discourse as well.In attempting to fill gaps in their reader's knowledge and fulfil their expectations of what is normal or acceptable, translator should be careful not to 'overdo' things by explaining too much and leaving the reader with nothing to do.。
week 7 Cohesion
Cohesion
It is the linking up of words; the way of linking up all parts of discourse. It may exist inter-paragraph or intersentence, and may exist within a sentence between different parts. It is the tangible network of a text.
The reference may be to something that has gone before, anaphoric (an), or something that is coming later in the text, cataphoric (ca) There is also reference to what is outside the text, exophoric (ex), （语外照应，外 指）endophoric (en) (语内照应，内指）
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by saving every penny he could. That car would be-worth a fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my college education. Sometimes I think I'd rather have the convertible
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它们联系在一起。
This is a tree. It is very tall.
Opposite example
• The pensioner sat in a chair in his son‟s large
outer office, waiting for him to be free for a
Personal reference
Personal reference contains: • personal pronouns ( it, he she, I, we, they, you) • possessive determiners (its, my, your, his, her, their) • possessive pronouns( his, hers, ours, theirs, yours, its).
few minutes. Stanley was so inspired by
Livingston‟s character and career that he
returned to Africa to solve some of the
problems left by “the Good Doctor”. Soon
Nominal ellipsis
• Nominal ellipsis means that some element is
omitted within the nominal group. The
structure of the nominal group is that of a
Head with optional modifications; the
Text
• A passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. • A text is a unit of language in use.
• It is not a grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence.
便条，一本文稿，一封书信；还可以是一首小诗，
一篇散文，一部小说。
Example
1. No smoking. 2. Wonders never cease! 3. Read The herald every day.
4. Mr. And Mrs. John Smith request the pleasure of the company of Mr. Richard Wilson at a drink party on Saturday, 20 November at 17:30—19:00.
Demonstrative reference
A: We went to the opera last night. That was our first outing for months. B: We are going to the opera tonight. This will be our first outing for months.
afterwards the poor women died.
Means of cohesion
Reference Grammatical means
Substitution
Ellipsis Conjunction Collocation
Cohesion
Lexical means Reiteration
Ellipsis
• In the above section, substitution is interpreted as the replacement of one item by another. Essentially, both substitution and ellipsis are the same process, ellipsis can be interpreted as that form of substitution in which the item is replaced by nothing.
• Some people have more talent for thinking than others, and some learn more quickly. As a result, over the years one person may develop his or her thinking ability to a greater extent than another.
• In this case that is related to a past-time referent whereas this for one in the present or future.
Husband: I liked the hotel very much. Wife: We are going there again this year.
Concept of cohesion
Cohesion refers to the grammatical and /or lexical relationships between different units of a text. 构成语篇的句子必须是相关的，不仅意义上相关， 在同一个语义场，而且结构上相关，由照应手段把
Demonstrative reference
Demonstrative reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity. Generally, this, these and here indicate proximity to the speaker, while that, those and there indicate distance from the speaker.
Verbal Ellipsis
1. Have you been swimming?---Yes, I have. 2. What have you been doing?---Swimming. 3. We don‟t retreat, we never have and never will. 4. Histories make men wise; poems witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.
• A text is best regarded as a semantic unit, a unit not of form but of meaning.
语 篇
语篇是指任何不完全受句子语法约束的，在一定语
境下表示完整语义的自然单位，它是由一系列连续
的话段或句子构成的语言整体，既包话语 （discourse），也包括篇章（text）。语篇可以是一 个词，短语或词组，也可以是一个小句，还可以是 一句口号，一支歌曲，一次对话，一幅对联，一张
Hyponymy
Antonymy
Synonymy
Repetition
Reference
参照关系 有些语言单位本身不能做出语义解释，必须参照另外一 些单位才能明确它们的意义，这些单位之间就构成参照 关系。这种关系可以把两个句子有机联系起来。
参照关系
1. 人称性的(personal):用人称范畴（人称代词，物主代词 等）来表示功能的参照叫人称参照。 2. 指示性的(demonstrative)：表示处所远近的叫指示参照。 3. 比较性的(comparative)：表示相同或相近的叫比较参照。
Nominal substitution
A: Have you any knives? I need a sharp one. B: I can get you several very sharp ones, this is the best (one) I have.
A: Can I have a cup of black coffee with sugar, please?
Comparative reference
• Comparative
reference similarity. • 比较照应指的是通过形容词或副词的比 较级以及其他一些有比较意义的词语所 表达的照应关系。
reference
is
indirect
by means of identity or
Example
modifying elements consist of premodifier and postmodifier.
Nominal ellipsis
A: “I think I have heard you say, that their uncle is an attorney in Meryton.” B: “Yes, and they have another, who lives somewhere near Cheapside.” Black was the first person to come here. I was the second.
Substitution
• Substitution is the replacement of one item by another. • In terms of the linguistic system, reference is a relation on the semantic level, whereas substitution is a relation on the lexicogrammatical level, the level of grammar and vocabulary or usal substitution