history of English 英国历史简介
The history of English
The history of English英语发展史可以追溯到公元前500年左右。
在大不列颠岛上史料记载的最早的语言是公元前500年左右的凯尔特语。
公元前55年，罗马人入侵大不列颠，并一直占领了大约500多年，拉丁语进入了该地区，并成为官方语言，凯尔特语的地位下降。
约公元449年，居住于丹麦与德国北部的3个日耳曼人部族趁罗马帝国衰落入侵到大不列颠岛上。
他们分别是盎格鲁人、萨克逊人和朱特人。
在语言上，他们取代了当时该地所使用的凯尔特语。
这三个日耳曼部族方言随着社会发展，逐渐融合为一种新的语言，即盎格鲁一萨克逊语，这就是后来形成的英语的基础。
到公元700年，人们把大不列颠岛上三部族混合形成的语言称为Englisc。
到公元1000年，岛上整个国家被称作Englaland。
这两个词后来就演变成English 和England这就是English和England两个词的历史由来。
8世纪末，丹麦人大批入侵英国，在其东北部建立丹麦区，持续了近300年，当时所带来的斯堪的那维亚语对英语的发展有很大影响。
公元1066年，法国的诺曼蒂公爵侵人英国，并加冕为英国国王，建立了诺曼蒂王朝，一直延续到1154年。
在诺曼蒂王朝统治期间，英国实际上存在着三种语言，法语是官方语言；拉丁语是宗教语言，用于阅读圣经、教堂宗教活动；英语则是下层社会劳动者用的世俗语言。
法语在英国的特殊地位一直延续到14世纪，法院、学校、宫廷分别于1362年、1385年、1399年才停止使用法语。
1382年用英语书写的圣经出现，才结束了拉丁语的宗教语言地位。
这时英语才成为英国的全民语言。
因此英语中保留着大量的法语词汇（如age，air，brush，cry，bourgeoisie）和拉丁语词汇（angel，candle，moke，pope）。
在“文艺复兴”时期（14世纪-16世纪），由于人们对古希腊、古罗马文化表现出浓厚的研究兴趣，英语又吸收了大量古代社会及当时欧洲大陆文化精华，词汇大增。
The History of English
The History of English英语的历史可以追溯到几个世纪前，它的发展和演变与人类的历史紧密相连。
从最初的盎格鲁-撒克逊语到现代英语，这门语言经历了许多变革和影响。
本文将探讨英语的历史，并介绍一些关键时期和事件，以及它对全球的影响。
英语的起源可以追溯到公元5世纪的英国。
当时，盎格鲁-撒克逊人从欧洲大陆迁徙到不列颠群岛，带来了他们的语言。
这种语言最初被称为盎格鲁-撒克逊语，它是日耳曼语系的一种。
随着时间的推移，盎格鲁-撒克逊语开始与其他语言相融合，包括日尔曼语、拉丁语和凯尔特语。
在公元11世纪，诺曼底公爵威廉一世征服了英国，引入了法语。
这导致了盎格鲁-撒克逊语和法语的混合，形成了一种新的语言，称为中古英语。
中古英语是英语历史上的一个重要时期，它对英语的词汇和语法产生了深远的影响。
在中世纪，英国发生了许多社会和政治变革，这对英语产生了重要影响。
在这个时期，英语开始成为官方语言，取代了拉丁语。
这使得英语在教育、政府和文化领域得到广泛应用。
同时，由于英国与其他国家的贸易和文化交流增加，英语受到了来自法语、拉丁语和其他欧洲语言的影响。
这导致了英语词汇的丰富和多样性。
到了16世纪，英国发生了宗教改革，这对英语的发展产生了深远的影响。
亨利八世宣布英国脱离罗马天主教会，建立了英国国教，这使得英语成为宗教和教育的主要语言。
同时，由于印刷术的发明和文化复兴的影响，英语的书写和阅读能力得到了推广，这促进了英语的标准化和规范化。
17世纪是英语历史上的一个重要时期，被称为“近代英语”的起点。
在这个时期，英国殖民地的扩张和贸易活动使得英语传播到全球各地。
随着英国的殖民地化，英语逐渐成为世界上最重要的语言之一。
这导致了英语的进一步演变和多样化，各地区的英语发展出了不同的方言和口音。
到了18世纪和19世纪，英国的工业革命和科学进步对英语的发展产生了巨大影响。
科学、技术和工业术语的出现丰富了英语的词汇。
同时，英国的文学和艺术繁荣，众多作家和诗人的作品使得英语的文学价值得到了全球的认可。
The history of English language(英汉双语)
英语属于西日耳曼语支，起源于盎格鲁-弗里西亚方言，是在日耳曼人入侵时被引入不列颠的。
English is a West Germanic language that originated from theAnglo-Frisian dialects, broughtto Britain by Germanic invaders最初的古英语由多种方言组成，晚期西撒克逊语最终成为了统一英语的语言。
现代人所认识的英语，很大程度上和公元1400年的书面中古英语相似。
这种转变是由历史上两的入侵，他们在公元八、九世纪征服并使部分不列颠岛成为他们的殖民地。
第二次是十一世纪时来自诺曼人的入侵，他们讲的古诺曼语最终发展为英语的一种变体，称为盎格鲁-诺曼语。
Middle English differed from Old English because of two invasions which occurred during the Middle Ages. The 1st invasion was by peoples who spoke North Germanic languages. They conquered and colonized parts of Britain during the 8th and 9th centuries A.D. The 2nd invasion was by the Normans of the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and eventually developed an English form thereofcalled Anglo-Norman.Proto-English英语诞生于日耳曼人的语言，主要包括盎格鲁语，撒克逊语，弗里西语，朱特语。
这其中还可能含有法兰克语，之后又融合了拉丁语。
The languages of Germanic peoples gave rise to the English language( the best known are the Angles, Saxons, Frisii, Jutes and possibly some Franks,) . Latin loan wordsentered the vocabulary.Old English – from the mid-5th century to the mid-11th century人们现在所讲的古英语是长期以来多个殖民部落的方言融合而形成的。
英国历史简介
英国历史简介古代不列颠在不列颠群岛上很早就有人类活动。
约公元前30世纪，伊比利亚人从欧洲大陆来到大不列颠岛东南部定居。
约公元前700年以后，居住在欧洲西部的凯尔特人不断移入不列颠群岛，其中有一支称为不列吞人，不列颠这一名称可能来源于此。
克尔特人已知使用铁器，耕犁在技术上不断进步，并已使用货币。
生产力发展促使克尔特社会逐渐分化。
公元前55和前54年，G.J.凯撒两度率罗马军团入侵不列颠，均被不列颠人击退。
公元43年，罗马皇帝克劳狄一世率军入侵不列颠。
征服不列颠后变其为罗马帝国的行省。
罗马人以位于泰晤士河口的伦敦为中心，向四面八方修起大道，连接各地的城市，使伦敦成为罗马不列颠统治和对外联系的中心。
为阻止北方克尔特人南下，公元1世纪20年代罗马皇帝P.A.哈德良在位时期，罗马人在大不列颠岛北部修建了一条横贯东西、全长118公里的长城，史称哈德良长城见彩图。
在罗马人统治的东南地区，罗马人和克尔特人上层抢占部落的公有土地，建立起奴隶制大田庄，变克尔特人或战俘为奴隶。
罗马人强迫奴隶从事耕种、采矿，奴隶贩子还把奴隶远销到欧洲大陆。
3～4世纪，随着奴隶反抗斗争的加剧，罗马帝国逐渐衰落。
4世纪中叶前后，不列颠反抗罗马统治的斗争也渐趋激化。
到407年，罗马驻军被迫全部撤离不列颠，罗马对不列颠的统治即告结束。
日耳曼入侵从5～6世纪日耳曼人入侵，到17世纪中叶资产阶级革命爆发，是英国封建生产方式形成、发展和衰落的时期;学术界亦有把诺曼征服视为英国中古史开端的观点。
盎格鲁-撒克逊人入驻不列颠罗马人撤离后，居住在易北河口附近和丹麦南部的盎格鲁-撒克逊人以及来自莱茵河下游的朱特人等日耳曼部落，从5世纪中叶起陆续侵入不列颠。
入侵过程延续约一个半世纪。
入侵者洗劫城镇和乡村，不列颠人被杀戮或沦为奴隶，有的被驱赶到西部、西北部山区，大部分人同入侵者融合，形成后来的英格兰人，或称英吉利人。
到7世纪初，入侵者先后建立起7个强国：东部和东北部盎格鲁人的麦西亚、诺森伯利亚和东盎格利亚，南部撒克逊人的威塞克斯、埃塞克斯和苏塞克斯，东南部朱特人的肯特。
英国简史
英国简史（一）罗马人占领时期：公元前55年~公元410年公元前55年：朱利叶斯·凯撒(Julius Caesar)首次率军入侵不列颠公43年：罗马皇帝克劳迪厄斯(Claudius)率军征服不列颠（二）盎格鲁-撒克逊时期与丹麦统治时期：公元449年~1066年公元597年：圣·奥古斯丁到达不列颠，使当地人昄依基督教公元832~860：肯尼斯·麦克阿尔平统一皮克特人和苏格兰人亚瑟王(King Arthur)是5世纪英国最富有传奇色彩的国王。
亚瑟王（英语：KingArthur、全：瑟·潘德拉根）是英格兰传说中的国王，也是凯尔特英雄谱中最受欢迎的圆桌骑士团的骑士领，一位近乎神话般的传奇人物。
中世纪作家，特别是法国作家，对亚瑟王的出生、他的骑们的奇遇，以及他的骑士兰斯洛和亚瑟的王后格尼薇儿的奸情，都有不同的描述。
他在罗马国瓦解之后，率领圆桌骑士团统一了不列颠群岛，被后人尊称为亚瑟王。
后世认为，亚瑟王不是以某一位特定历史人物作为基础所塑造出来人物，而是一位架空的虚构角色，因此历史载上并无此人。
他是罗马帝国瓦解之后，率领圆桌骑士团统一了不列颠群岛，被后人尊称为瑟王。
西元800年左右，威尔斯的修士撰写了一本《布灵顿人的历史》，书中首次记载“亚”这个名字，描述他领导威尔士人抵抗从泰晤士河中游入侵的撒克逊人。
亚瑟王是其父尤瑟王的私生子，在此之前尤瑟王正室的孩子则是个女孩。
这女孩就是亚瑟王同父异母的姐姐摩根、也是骑士莫德雷德的生母。
（三）诺曼底王朝：1066~1154 公元1066年：诺曼底公爵威廉征服英格兰在黑斯廷斯，威廉和哈罗德展开了决战。
哈罗德占据着居高临下的有利地势，第一次交锋，英国人守在山顶上，向冲锋的诺曼底人投掷石块、标枪，打退了诺曼底人的进攻。
可是很快，威廉就调整了进攻的战术，假装溃退，将英军引出坚固有利的阵地。
哈罗德没有识破这一计谋，命令英军追下山去，正好冲进了威廉设好的包围圈。
《英国历史英文版》课件
World War II saw Britain stand
economic changes in the
alone against Nazi Germany, and
subsequent years.
the country's bravery in the face of
the Blitz remains an enduring
Stuart Era
James I and the Gunpowder Plot
King James I faced numerous challenges during his reign, including the infamous Gunpowder Plot in 1605.
Charles I and the English Civil War
Innovation and technological advancements led to a seismic shift in the way goods and services were produced, transforming the British economy and society adernize the country.
The decision to leave the European
Union in 2016 has plunged Britain
into years of uncertainty and
debate, as the country grapples
Victorian Era
Queen Victoria and the British Empire
Queen Victoria's reign marked the height of British power and influence, as the country enjoyed unprecedented prosperity and global supremacy.
英国历史简介
英国历史(前55~ )1 罗马人占领时期：公元前55年~公元410年2 盎格鲁-撒克逊时期与丹麦统治时期：公元449年~1066年3 诺曼底王朝1066~11544 金雀花王朝1154~13995 兰卡斯特王朝1399~14616 约克王朝1461~14857 都铎王朝1485~16038 斯图亚特王朝1603~17149 汉诺威王朝1714~191710 温莎王朝1917~罗马人占领时期：公元前55年~公元410年公元前55年：朱利叶斯·凯撒(Julius Caesar)第一次率军入侵不列颠公元43年：罗马皇帝克劳迪厄斯(Claudius)率军征服不列颠盎格鲁-撒克逊时期与丹麦统治时期：公元449年~1066年公元597年：圣·奥古斯丁到达不列颠，使当地人皈依基督教公元832~860：肯尼斯·麦克阿尔平统一皮克特人和苏格兰人诺曼底王朝1066~1154公元1066年：诺曼底公爵威廉征服英格兰公元1086年：发布《末日审判书》金雀花王朝1154~1399公元1154年：亨利二世继承王位，金雀花王朝开始公元1215年：英王约翰被迫签署由封建贵族提出的《大宪章》公元13世纪初：牛津大学和剑桥大学创立公元1277~1288：英格兰征服威尔士公元1337~1453：英法"百年战争"公元1387~1394：乔叟写作《坎特伯累故事集》兰卡斯特王朝1399~1461公元1413年：苏格兰第一所大学圣安德鲁斯大学成立公元1455~1487年：约克家族与兰卡斯特家族之间的"玫瑰战争"约克王朝1461~1485公元1477年：威廉·卡克斯顿出版印刷第一本书都铎王朝1485~1603公元1485年：亨利七世即位公元1536年：英格兰与威尔士合并公元1558年：英国女王伊丽莎白一世即位，统治英国达45年之久公元1564年：莎士比亚诞生公元1588年：击败西班牙无敌舰队斯图亚特王朝1603~1714公元1603年：苏格兰王詹姆士六世加冕成为英格兰的詹姆士一世，统一了英格兰和苏格兰公元1620年：对新教徒的镇压激化，一批新教徒乘"五月花号"抵达美洲公元1642~1651年：英国内战爆发公元1649年：查理一世被处决，克伦威尔宣布共和政体公元1660年：查理二世复辟公元1676年：格林尼治天文台设立公元1685年：牛顿发现万有引力定律公元1694年：英格兰银行成立公元1698年：伦敦股票交易所成立公元1707年：英格兰、苏格兰合并，形成"大不列颠王国"汉诺威王朝1714~1917公元1721~1742年：罗伯特·沃尔浦成为英国第一任首相公元1760~1830年：工业革命公元1775~1783年：美国独立战争公元1801年：合并爱尔兰，"大不列颠及爱尔兰联合王国"成立公元1837~1901年：维多利亚时代公元1859年：达尔文发表《物种起源》公元1914~1918年：第一次世界大战温莎王朝1917~公元1921年：爱尔兰独立公元1928年：弗莱明发现青霉素公元1939~1945年：第二次世界大战公元1952年：伊丽莎白女王二世加冕英国历史大事年表--公元前2000-1500年，古印欧人的一支--凯尔特人（罗马人称其为高卢人）西进。
英国历史简介相关内容
英国历史简介相关内容英国历史悠久，被认为是欧洲最著名、最重要的历史之一。
从史前遗址到维多利亚时代的工业革命，英国历史影响了世界上的文化、政治和金融。
以下是英国历史的简要概述。
古代英国英国的历史可以追溯到前12世纪，当时就有根据史料估计的“琼斯人”和“皮克特人”等。
罗马帝国统治下，大量移民入境从而改变了这个地区的文化和语言。
在为期大约400年的罗马统治期间，该地区成为他们广阔的帝国的一部分，逐渐形成了一个由多元文化组成的社会。
在罗马帝国逐渐没落并从公元5世纪起撤退后，新的部族不断入侵，包括安格鲁撒克逊人、朱特人和丹麦维京人等。
中世纪英格兰（England）一词本来指的是“安格鲁人之地”，最早的英格兰国王为威尔士出生的威廉一世。
在这个时期，英格兰成为一个强大的封建社会，并于1066年征服了英格兰，这是英国历史上一个重要的时刻。
诺曼底公爵威廉一世的征服结束了盎格鲁-撒克逊时代并引入了新的构造。
在此期间，出现了著名的文化和艺术运动，例如文艺复兴。
近代英国1485年，泰迪玛(Battle of Bosworth Field)的战斗结束了王权的解体以及一百年战争的时代，亨利七世登上了英格兰王位。
在这个时期，英国成为一个强大的帝国国家，控制了许多海外领土，例如印度、澳大利亚和新西兰。
17世纪17世纪是英国历史上的一个重要时间段。
它见证了英格兰内部的政治变革和对美洲殖民地的扩张。
在这个时期，英国汲取了荷兰管治的经验，实施了大规模的经济和工业改革。
科学、文化和艺术在这个时期也有了很大的发展。
18世纪18世纪是英国的黄金时代。
英国成为一个强大的经济大国，金融和贸易是该国经济增长的主要驱动力。
英国的工业生产也也非常发达，开始了从手工业向机器工业的转型。
18世纪后期，英国殖民帝国达到了巅峰，英国舰队可以到达世界各地的殖民地和扩张领土。
维多利亚时代维多利亚时代(1837-1901)标志着英国经济和工业上的显著变化。
铁路技术和电报技术使得物流和通信更加方便，新的工业机器和生产工艺优化了制造和加工效率。
英国历史简介资料
英国历史简介资料英国历史始于日耳曼人与凯尔特人，亦是后来的英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰，其源头可追溯到罗马统治时期。
今天小编在这给大家整理了英国历史简介资料，接下来随着小编一起来看看吧!英国历史简介英国包括2113大不列颠(英格兰、5261威尔士和苏格兰〉和北爱尔4102兰,是欧洲共同体12个成员国1653之一。
它的全称是大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。
英国是由不列颠群岛中大部分岛屿组成的，其中第一大岛是大不列颠,第二大岛上有北爱尔兰和爱尔兰共和国。
苏格兰西部沿海有一个叫做赫布里底的大群岛。
苏格兰本土的东北沿海有奥克尼群岛和萨得兰群岛。
上述这些群岛都与本土有行政上的关系,但爱尔兰海上的马恩岛以及大不列颠与法国之间的海峡群岛则基本上自治,不是联合王国的组成部分。
英国的面积大约为242500平方公里(93600平方英里),从南部海岸到苏格兰的最北部差不多将近1000公里(约600英里)，横向最宽处差不多将近500公里(约300英里)。
"Britain"这个词起源于希腊和拉丁词,而最终可能追溯到凯尔特语。
尽管用"史前时期"这一尺度来衡量时,凯尔特人也是稍后才来到不列颠群岛的(在此之前的那些文明就已创造了诸如埃夫伯里巨石建筑遗址和圆形巨石阵这样的著名历史遗迹),但是有关英国历史的文字记载毕竟还是从讲述凯尔特人开始的。
"凯尔特"这个词语相当普遍地经常用来区分不列颠群岛的早期居民和后来的盎格鲁-撒克逊人侵者。
罗马人的统治从公元43年起延续了300多年。
在罗马人于408年最后撤走之前,该岛开始遭到来自北欧的盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人的侵扰,经历了一段日趋混乱的时期。
"England"这个词正是从"Angles"而来的。
在此后的两个世纪中,侵扰逐步变成了定居,并建立了许多小王国。
不列颠人在如今的威尔士和康沃尔地区独立生存下去。
英国历史简介
［英国］英国简史(英文)2006-1-23页面功能【字体：大中小】【打印】【关闭】HistoryUntil 1707, this section deals primarily with English history. England and Wales were formally united in 1536. In 1707, when Great Britain was created by the Act of Union between Scotland and England, English history became part of British history. For the early history of Scotland and Wales, see separate articles. See also Ireland; Ireland, Northern; and the tables entitled Rulers of England and Great Britain and Prime Ministers of Great Britain.Early Period to the Norman ConquestLittle is known about the earliest inhabitants of Britain, but the remains of their dolmens and barrows and the great stone circles at Stonehenge and Avebury are evidence of the developed culture of the prehistoric Britons. They had developed a Bronze Age culture by the time the first Celtic invaders (early 5th cent. B.C.) brought their energetic Iron Age culture to Britain. It is believed that Julius Caesar's successful military campaign in Britain in 54 B.C. was aimed at preventing incursions into Gaul from the island.In A.D. 43 the emperor Claudius began the Roman conquest of Britain, establishing bases at present-day London and Colchester. By A.D. 85, Rome controlled Britain south of the Clyde River. There were a number of revolts in the early years of the conquest, the most famous being that of Boadicea. In the 2d cent. A.D., Hadrian's Wall was constructed as a northern defense line. Under the Roman occupation towns developed, and roads were built to ensure the success of the military occupation. These roads were the most lasting Roman achievement in Britain (see Watling Street), long serving as the basic arteries of overland transportation in England. Colchester, Lincoln, and Gloucester were founded by the Romans as colonia, settlements of ex-legionaries.Trade contributed to town prosperity; wine, olive oil, plate, and furnishings were imported, and lead, tin, iron, wheat, and wool were exported. This trade declined with the economic dislocation of the late Roman Empire and the withdrawal of Roman troops to meet barbarian threats elsewhere. The garrisons had been consumers of the products of local artisans as well as of imports; as they were disbanded, the towns decayed. Barbarian incursions became frequent. In 410 an appeal to Rome for military aid was refused, and Roman officials subsequently were withdrawn.As Rome withdrew its legions from Britain, Germanic peoples〞the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes〞began raids that turned into great waves of invasion and settlement in the later 5th cent. The Celts fell back into Wales and Cornwall and across the English Channel to Brittany, and the loosely knit tribes of the newcomers gradually coalesced into a heptarchy of kingdoms (see Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria).Late in the 8th cent., and with increasing severity until the middle of the 9th cent., raiding Vikings (known in English history as Danes) harassed coastal England and finally, in 865, launched a full-scale invasion. They were first effectively checked by King Alfred of Wessex and were with great difficulty confined to the Danelaw, where their leaders divided land among the soldiers for settlement. Alfred's successors conquered the Danelaw to form a united England, but new Danish invasions late in the 10th cent. overcame ineffective resistance (see ?thelred, 965?——1016). The Dane Canute ruled all England by 1016. At the expiration of the Scandinavian line in 1042, the Wessex dynasty (see Edward the Confessor) regained the throne. The conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of Normandy (William I of England), ended the Anglo-Saxon period.The freeman (ceorl) of the early Germanic invaders had been responsible to the king and superior to the serf. Subsequent centuries of war and subsistence farming, however, had forced the majority of freemen into serfdom, or dependence on the aristocracy of lords and thanes, who came to enjoy a large measure of autonomous control over manors granted them by the king (see manorial system). The central government evolved from tribal chieftainships to become a monarchy in which executive and judicial powers were usually vested in the king. The aristocracy made up his witan, or council of advisers (see witenagemot). The king set up shires as units of local government ruled by earldormen. In some instances these earldormen became powerful hereditary earls, ruling several shires. Subdivisions of shires were called hundreds. There were shire and hundred courts, the former headed by sheriffs, the latter by reeves. Agriculture was the principal industry, but the Danes were aggressive traders, and towns increased in importance starting in the 9th cent.The Anglo-Saxons had been Christianized by missionaries from Rome and from Ireland, and the influence of Christianity became strongly manifest in all phases of culture (see Anglo-Saxon literature). Differences between Irish and continental religious customs were decided in favor of the Roman forms at the Synod of Whitby (663). Monastic communities, outstanding in the later 7th and in the 8th cent. and strongly revived in the 10th, developed great proficiency in manuscript illumination. Church scholars, such as Bede, Alcuin, and Aelfric〞as well as King Alfred himself〞preserved and advanced learning.Medieval EnglandA new era in English history began with the Norman Conquest. William I introducedNorman-style political and military feudalism. He used the feudal system to collect taxes, employed the bureaucracy of the church to strengthen the central government, and made the administration of royal justice more efficient.After the death of William's second son, Henry I, the country was subjected to a period of civil war that ended one year before the accession of Henry II in 1154. Henry II's reign was marked by the sharp conflict between king and church that led to the murder of Thomas 角 Becket. Henry carried out great judicial reforms that increased the power and scope of the royal courts. During his reign, in 1171, began the English conquest of Ireland. As part of his inheritance he brought to the throne Anjou, Normandy, and Aquitaine. The defense and enlargement of these French territories engaged the energies of successive English kings. In their need for money the kings stimulated the growth of English towns by selling them charters of liberties.Conflict between kings and nobles, which had begun under Richard I, came to a head under John, who made unprecedented financial demands and whose foreign and church policies were unsuccessful. A temporary victory of the nobles bore fruit in the most noted of all English constitutional documents, the Magna Carta (1215). The recurring baronial wars of the 13th cent. (see Barons' War; Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester) were roughly contemporaneous with the first steps in the development of Parliament.Edward I began the conquest of Wales and Scotland. He also carried out an elaborate reform and expansion of the central courts and of other aspects of the legal system. The Hundred Years War with France began (1337) in the reign of Edward III. The Black Death (see plague) first arrived in 1348 and had a tremendous effect on economic life, hastening the breakdown (long since under way) of the manorial and feudal systems, including the institution of serfdom. At the same time the fast-growing towns and trades gave new prominence to the burgess and artisan classes.In the 14th cent. the English began exporting their wool, rather than depending on foreign traders of English wool. Later in the century, trade in woolen cloth began to gain on the raw wool trade. The confusion resulting from such rapid social and economic change fostered radical thought, typified in the teachings of John Wyclif (or Wycliffe; see also Lollardry, and the revolt led by Wat Tyler. Dynastic wars (see Roses, Wars of the), which weakened both the nobility and the monarchy in the 15th cent., ended with the accession of the Tudor family in 1485.Tudor EnglandThe reign of the Tudors (1485——1603) is one of the most fascinating periods in English history. Henry VII restored political order and the financial solvency of the crown, bequeathing his son, Henry VIII, a full exchequer. In 1536, Henry VIII brought about the political union of England and Wales. Henry and his minister Thomas Cromwell greatly expanded the central administration. During Henry's reign commerce flourished and the New Learning of the Renaissance came to England. Several factors〞the revivalof Lollardry, anticlericalism, the influence of humanism, and burgeoning nationalism〞climaxed by the pope's refusal to grant Henry a divorce from Katharine of Arag车n so that he could remarry and have a male heir〞led the king to break with Roman Catholicism and establish the Church of England.As part of the English Reformation (1529——39), Henry suppressed the orders of monks and friars and secularized their property. Although these actions aroused some popular opposition (see Pilgrimage of Grace), Henry's judicious use of Parliament helped secure support for his policies and set important precedents for the future of Parliament. England moved farther toward Protestantism under Edward VI; after a generally hated Roman Catholic revival under Mary I, the Roman tie was again cut under Elizabeth I, who attempted without complete success to moderate the religious differences among her people.The Elizabethan age was one of great artistic and intellectual achievement, its most notable figure being William Shakespeare. National pride basked in the exploits of Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and the other ※sea dogs.§ Overseas trading compan ies were formed and colonization attempts in the New World were made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh. A long conflict with Spain, growing partly out of commercial and maritime rivalry and partly out of religious differences, culminated in the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), although the war continued another 15 years.Inflated prices (caused, in part, by an influx of precious metals from the New World) and the reservation of land by the process of inclosure for sheep pasture (stimulated by the expansion of the wool trade) caused great changes in the social and economic structure of England. The enclosures displaced many tenant farmers from their lands and produced a class of wandering, unemployed ※sturdy beggars.§ The Elizabethan poor l aws were an attempt to deal with this problem. Rising prices affected the monarchy as well, by reducing the value of its fixed customary and hereditary revenues. The country gentry were enriched by the inclosures and by their purchase of former monastic lands, which were also used for grazing. The gentry became leaders in what, toward the end of Elizabeth's reign, was an increasingly assertive Parliament.The StuartsThe accession in 1603 of the Stuart James I, who was also James VI of Scotland, united the thrones of England and Scotland. The chronic need for money of both James and his son, Charles I, which they attempted to meet by unusual and extralegal means; their espousal of the divine right of kings; their determination to enforce their high Anglican preferences in religion; and their use of royal courts such as Star Chamber, which were not bound by the common law, to persecute opponents, together produced a bitter conflict with Parliament that culminated (1642) in the English civil war.In the war the parliamentarians, effectively led at the end by Oliver Cromwell, defeated the royalists. The king was tried for treason and beheaded (1649). The monarchywas abolished, and the country was governed by the Rump Parliament, the remainder of the last Parliament (the Long Parliament) Charles had called (1640), until 1653, when Cromwell dissolved it and established the Protectorate. Cromwell brutally subjugated Ireland, made a single commonwealth of Scotland and England, and strengthened England's naval power and position in international trade. When he died (1658), his son, Richard, succeeded as Lord Protector but governed ineffectively.The threat of anarchy led to an invitation by a newly elected Parliament (the Convention Parliament) to Charles, son of Charles I, to become king, ushering in the Restoration (1660). It was significant that Parliament had summoned the king, rather than the reverse; it was now clear that to be successful the king had to cooperate with Parliament. The Whig and Tory parties developed in the Restoration period. Although Charles II was personally popular, the old issues of religion, money, and the royal prerogative came to the fore again. Parliament revived official Anglicanism (see Clarendon Code), but Charles's private sympathies lay with Catholicism. He attempted to bypass Parliament in the matter of revenue by receiving subsidies from Louis XIV of France.Charles's brother and successor, James II, was an avowed Catholic. James tried to strengthen his position in Parliament by tampering with the methods of selecting members; he put Catholics in high university positions, maintained a standing army (which later deserted him), and claimed the right to suspend laws. The birth (1688) of a male heir, who, it was assumed, would be raised as a Catholic, precipitated a crisis.In the Glorious Revolution, Whig and Tory leaders offered the throne to William of Orange (William III), whose Protestant wife, Mary, was James's daughter. William and Mary were proclaimed king and queen by Parliament in 1689. The Bill of Rights confirmed that sovereignty resided in Parliament. The Act of Toleration (1689) extended religious liberty to all Protestant sects; in subsequent years, religious passions slowly subsided.By the Act of Settlement (1701) the succession to the English throne was determined. Since 1603, with the exception of the 1654——60 portion of the interregnum, Scotland and England had remained two kingdoms united only in the person of the monarch. When it appeared that William's successor, Queen Anne, Mary's Protestant sister, would not have an heir, the Scottish succession became of concern, since the Scottish Parliament had not passed legislation corresponding to the Act of Settlement. England feared that under a separate monarch Scotland might ally itself with France, or worse still, permit a restoration of the Catholic heirs of James II〞although a non-Protestant succession had been barred by the Scottish Parliament. On its part, Scotland wished to achieve economic equality with England. The result was the Act of Union (1707), by which the two kingdoms became one. Scotland obtained representation in (what then became) the British Parliament at Westminster, and the Scottish Parliament was abolished.The Growth of Empire and Eighteenth-Century Political DevelopmentsThe beginnings of Britain's national debt (1692) and the founding of the Bank of England (1694) were closely tied with the nation's more active role in world affairs. Britain's overseas possessions (see British Empire) were augmented by the victorious outcome of the War of the Spanish Succession, ratified in the Peace of Utrecht (1713). Britain emerged from the War of the Austrian Succession and from the Seven Years War as the possessor of the world's greatest empire. The peace of 1763 (see Paris, Treaty of) confirmed British predominance in India and North America. Settlements were made in Australia toward the end of the 18th cent.; however, a serious loss was sustained when 13 North American colonies broke away in the American Revolution. Additional colonies were won in the wars against Napoleon I, notable for the victories of Horatio Nelson and Arthur Wellesley, duke of Wellington.In Ireland, the Irish Parliament was granted independence in 1782, but in 1798 there was an Irish rebellion. A vain attempt to solve the centuries-old Irish problem was the abrogation of the Irish Parliament and the union (1801) of Great Britain and Ireland, with Ireland represented in the British Parliament.Domestically the long ministry of Sir Robert Walpole (1721——42), during the reigns of George I and George II, was a period of relative stability that saw the beginnings of the development of the cabinet as the chief executive organ of government.The 18th cent. was a time of transition in the growth of the British parliamentary system. The monarch still played a very active role in government, choosing and dismissing ministers as he wished. Occasionally, sentiment in Parliament might force an unwanted minister on him, as when George III was forced to choose Rockingham in 1782, but the king could dissolve Parliament and use his considerable patronage power to secure a new one more amenable to his views.Great political leaders of the late 18th cent., such as the earl of Chatham (see Chatham, William Pitt, 1st earl of) and his son William Pitt, could not govern in disregard of the crown. Important movements for political and social reform arose in the second half of the 18th cent. George III's arrogant and somewhat anachronistic conception of the crown's role produced a movement among Whigs in Parliament that called for a reform and reduction of the king's power. Edmund Burke was a leader of this group, as was the eccentric John Wilkes. The Tory Pitt was also a reformer. These men also opposed Britain's colonial policy in North America.Outside Parliament, religious dissenters (who were excluded from political office), intellectuals, and others advocated sweeping reforms of established practices and institutions. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, advocating laissez-faire, appeared in 1776, the same year as the first publication by Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism. The cause of reform, however, was greatly set back by the French Revolution and the ensuing wars with France, which greatly alarmed British society. Burkebecame Britain's leading intellectual opponent of the Revolution, while many British reformers who supported (to varying degrees) the changes in France were branded by British public opinion as extreme Jacobins.Economic, Social, and Political ChangeGeorge III was succeeded by George IV and William IV. During the last ten years of his reign, George III was insane, and sovereignty was exercised by the future George IV. This was the ※Regency§ period. In the mid-18th cent., wealth and power in Great Britain still resided in the aristocracy, the landed gentry, and the commercial oligarchy of the towns. The mass of the population consisted of agricultural laborers, semiliterate and landless, governed locally (in England) by justices of the peace. The countryside was fragmented into semi-isolated agricultural villages and provincial capitals.However, the period of the late 18th and early 19th cent. was a time of dynamic economic change. The factory system, the discovery and use of steam power, improved inland transportation (canals and turnpikes), the ready supply of coal and iron, a remarkable series of inventions, and men with capital who were eager to invest〞all these elements came together to produce the epochal change known as the Industrial Revolution.The impact of these developments on social conditions was enormous, but the most significant socioeconomic fact of all from 1750 to 1850 was the growth of population. The population of Great Britain (excluding Northern Ireland) grew from an estimated 7,500,000 in 1750 to about 10,800,000 in 1801 (the year of the first national census) and to about 23,130,000 in 1861. The growing population provided needed labor for industrial expansion and was accompanied by rapid urbanization. Urban problems multiplied. At the same time a new period of inclosures (1750——1810; this time to increase the arable farmland) deprived small farmers of their common land. The Speenhamland System (begun in 1795), which supplemented wages according to the size of a man's family and the price of bread, and the Poor Law of 1834 were harsh revisions of the relief laws.The social unrest following these developments provided a fertile field for Methodism, which had been begun by John Wesley in the mid-18th cent. Methodism was especially popular in the new industrial areas, in some of which the Church of England provided no services. It has been theorized that by pacifying social unrest Methodism contributed to the prevention of political and social revolution in Britain.In the 1820s the reform impulse that had been largely stifled during the French Revolution revived. Catholic Emancipation (1829) restored to Catholics political and civil rights. In 1833 slavery in the British Empire was abolished. (The slave trade had been ended in 1807.) Parliamentary reform was made imperative by the new patterns of population distribution and by the great growth during the industrial expansion in the size and wealth of the middle class, which lacked commensurate political power. The general elections that followed the death of George IV brought to power a Whig ministrycommitted to parliamentary reform. The Reform Bill of 1832 (see under Reform Acts) enfranchised the middle class and redistributed seats to give greater representation to London and the urban boroughs of N England. Other parliamentary legislation established the institutional basis for efficient city government and municipal services and for government inspection of factories, schools, and poorhouses.The competitive advantage British exports had gained from the Industrial Revolution lent new force to the arguments for free trade. The efforts of the Anti-Corn-Law League, organized by Richard Cobden and John Bright, succeeded in 1846 when Robert Peel was converted to the cause of free trade, and the corn laws were repealed. But Chartism, a mass movement for more thorough political reform, was unsuccessful (1848). Further important reforms were delayed nearly 20 years.The Reform Bill of 1867, sponsored by Disraeli and the Conservatives for political reasons, enfranchised the urban working classes and was followed shortly (under Gladstone and the Liberals) by enactment of the secret ballot and the first steps toward a national education system. In 1884 a third Reform Bill extended the vote to agricultural laborers. (Women could not vote until 1918.) In the 1880s trade unions, which had first appeared earlier in the century, grew larger and more militant as increasing numbers of unskilled workers were unionized. A coalition of labor and socialist groups, organized in 1900, became the Labour party in 1906. In the 19th cent. Britain's economy took on its characteristic patterns. Trade deficits, incurred as the value of food imports exceeded the value of exports such as textiles, iron, steel, and coal, were overcome by income from shipping, insurance services, and foreign investments.Victorian Foreign PolicyThe reign of Victoria (1837——1901) covered the period of Britain's commercial and industrial leadership of the world and of its greatest political influence. Initial steps toward granting self-government for Canada were taken at the start of Victoria's reign, while in India conquest and expansion continued. Great Britain's commercial interests, advanced by the British navy, brought on in 1839 the first Opium War with China, which opened five Chinese ports to British trade and made Hong Kong a British colony. The aggressive diplomacy of Lord Palmerston in the 1850s and 60s, including involvement in the Crimean War, was popular at home.From 1868 to 1880 political life in Great Britain was dominated by Benjamin Disraeli and William E. Gladstone, who differed dramatically over domestic and foreign policy. Disraeli, who had attacked Gladstone for failing to defend Britain's imperial interests, pursued an active foreign policy, determined by considerations of British prestige and the desire to protect the route to India. Under Disraeli (1874——80) the British acquired the Transvaal, the Fiji Islands, and Cyprus, fought frontier wars in Africa and Afghanistan, and became the largest shareholder in the Suez Canal Company. Gladstone strongly condemned Disraeli's expansionist policies, but his later ministries involvedBritain in Egypt, Afghanistan, and Uganda.Gladstone's first ministry (1868——74) had disestablished the Church of England in Ireland, and in 1886, Gladstone unsuccessfully advocated Home Rule for Ireland. The proposal split the Liberal party and overturned his ministry. In the last decades of the 19th cent. competition with other European powers and enchantment with the glories of empire led Britain to acquire vast territories in Asia and Africa. By the end of the century the country was entangled in the South African War (1899——1902). Great Britain's period of hegemony was ending, as both Germany and the United States were surpassing it in industrial production.World War I and Its AftermathVictoria was succeeded by her son Edward VII, then by his son, George V. The Liberals, in power 1905——15, enacted much social legislation, including old-age pensions, health and unemployment insurance, child health laws, and more progressive taxation. The budget sponsored by David Lloyd George to finance the Liberals' program brought on a parliamentary struggle that ended in a drastic reduction of the power of the House of Lords (1911). Growing military and economic rivalry with Germany led Great Britain to form ententes with its former colonial rivals, France and Russia (see Triple Alliance and Triple Entente).In 1914, Germany's violation of Belgium's neutrality, which since 1839 Britain had been pledged to uphold, caused Britain to go to war against Germany (see World War I). Although the British emerged as victors, the war took a terrible toll on the nation. About 750,000 men had died and seven million tons of shipping had been lost. In the peace settlement (see Versailles, Treaty of) Britain acquired, as League of Nations mandates, additional territories in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. But the four years of fighting had drained the nation of wealth and manpower.The postwar years were a time of great moral disillusionment and material difficulties. To the international problems stemming directly from the war, such as disarmament, reparations, and war debts, were added complex domestic economic problems, the task of reorganizing the British Empire, and the tangled Irish problem. Northern Ireland was created in 1920, and the Irish Free State (see Ireland, Republic of) in 1921——22.The basic domestic economic problem of the post——World War I years was the decline of Britain's traditional export industries, which made it more difficult for the country to pay for its imports of foods and raw materials. A Labour government, under Ramsay MacDonald, was in power for the first time briefly in 1924. In 1926 the country suffered a general strike. Severe economic stress increased during the worldwide economic depression of the late 1920s and early 30s. During the financial crisis of 1931, George V asked MacDonald to head a coalition government, which took the country off the gold standard, ceased the repayment of war debts, and supplanted free trade with protectivetariffs modified by preferential treatment within the empire (see Commonwealth of Nations) and with treaty nations.Recovery from the depression began to be evident in 1933. Although old export industries such as coal mining and cotton manufacturing remained depressed, other industries, such as electrical engineering, automobile manufacture, and industrial chemistry, were developed or strengthened. George V was succeeded by Edward VIII, after whose abdication (1936) George VI came to the throne. In 1937, Neville Chamberlain became prime minister.The years prior to the outbreak of World War II were characterized by the ineffective attempts to stem the rising tide of German and Italian aggression. The League of Nations, in which Britain was a leader, declined rapidly by failing to take decisive action, and British prestige fell further because of a policy of nonintervention in the Spanish civil war. Appeasement of the Axis powers, which was the policy of the Chamberlain government, reached its climactic failure (as became evident later) in the Munich Pact of Sept., 1938. Great Britain had begun to rearm in 1936 and, after Munich, instituted conscription. With the signing of the Soviet-German pact of Aug., 1939, war was recognized as inevitable.World War II and the Welfare StateOn Sept. 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland. Great Britain and France declared war on Germany on Sept. 3, and all the dominions of the Commonwealth except Ireland followed suit (see World War II). Chamberlain broadened his cabinet to include Labour representatives, but after German victories in Scandinavia he resigned (May, 1940) and was replaced by Winston S. Churchill. France fell in June, 1940, but the heroic rescue of a substantial part of the British army from Dunkirk (May——June) enabled Britain, now virtually alone, to remain in the war.The nation withstood intensive bombardment (see Battle of Britain), but ultimately the Royal Air Force was able to drive off the Luftwaffe. Extensive damage was sustained, and great urban areas, including large sections of London, were devastated. The British people rose to a supreme war effort; American aid (see lend-lease) provided vital help. In 1941, Great Britain gained two allies when Germany invaded the USSR (June) and the United States entered the war following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7). Britain declared war on Japan on Dec. 8.The wartime alliance of Great Britain, the USSR, and the United States led to the formation of the United Nations and brought about the defeat of Germany (May, 1945) and Japan (Sept., 1945). The British economy suffered severely from the war. Manpower losses had been severe, including about 420,000 dead; large urban areas had to be rebuilt, and the industrial plant needed reconstruction and modernization. Leadership in world trade, shipping, and banking had passed to the United States, and overseas investments had been largely liquidated to pay the cost of the world wars. This was a serious blow to the。
英国历史的英语介绍带翻译
通过对英国历史的英语介绍，我们可以理解这个国家的文化和传统的形成过程。对于学习英国文化和了解世界历史的人来说，深入了解英国历史是非常有价值的。无论是古罗马时期、盎格鲁-撒克逊时期、诺曼底征服时期，还是宪法发展和工业革命，这些重要的时期和事件塑造了英国的现代社会和文化面貌。
二、盎格鲁-撒克逊时期 Anglo-Saxon Period
5世纪至11世纪是盎格鲁-撒克逊时期。在这一时期，来自日耳曼地区的盎格鲁-撒克逊人占领了不列颠，并建立了七主要王国。这段时期见证了英国基督教的传入，以及英语作为主要语言的形成。盎格鲁-撒克逊文化对英国文化产生了深远的影响，英国的传统节日和习俗中仍可以看到其痕迹。
五、工业革命 Industrial Revolution
18世纪的英国经历了工业革命，这次革命对英国和世界产生了深远的影响。领导着全球工业变革的英国通过发明和创新推动了工业化进程，从而带动了经济繁荣。工业革命改变了英国社会结构，也引发了许多社会问题。然而，这段时期同时也催生了现代科学、技术和制度的重大进步。
英国历史简介英文-66页精选文档
Anglo-Saxon Britain (410-871)
Basis of Modern English race: the AngloSaxons
The Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes invaded in 5th and 6th centuries
The Anglo-Saxons left their home in northern Germany and Denmark.
1. After the Norman Conquest, feudalism was established in England.
2. The nobility gradually gained power. 3. State mechanism was gradually
established such as the parliamentary system and the common law.
against the Anglo-Saxon invaders in the early 6th century
Viking(871-1042)
• Invasion time – In the late 8th
century
• From Denmark – Norsemen, “people
tall and golden-haired from Central Europe farmers warlike people
Roman Britain (55 B.C.- 410)
British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation.
HistoryofUK英国历史
2. The suffix “-caster” or “-chester”, in English place names, derives from “castra”, the Latin word for “camp”.(hP2) eg. Manchester, Rochester, Lancaster
2. The Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. (The true slave society was introduced into England.) The Romans and the Britons never intermarried during the 4 centuries.
Alfred defeated them through many great battles. But he thought it impossible to drive all of them out of England, so he made an agreement with Vikings in 878. The Vikings kept the north and east of England, known as the “Danelaw”丹法国; while Alfred ruled the rest.
英语发展史 the history of English
In the late eighth century, the Vikings attacked England. Fighting continued for years. During this time, almost two hundred many Latin, Danish, and Norse words entered the English language. Latin gave English words like kitchen and cup. From Danish and Norse, English borrowed skin, leg, they. many synonyms from the Norse language became integrated into English, for example, wrath(English),anger(Norse);sick(English),i ll(Norse).
古英语的词汇有着浓厚的日尔曼语族的特点。这主
要表现为复合法是重要的构词方法。复合词在古英
语词汇中占有显著的地位。据统计，在史诗《贝奥 武夫》3183行诗句中，竟有1069个复合词。有些复 合词中不重读部分，渐渐失去了独立地位，而演变 成了词缀，如for-, in-, -ful 等派生法在古英语中也 广泛使用。共有二十四个名词后缀、十五个形容词 后缀，-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -the, -ful,- ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。古英语时期的诗歌 有一种特殊的修辞手法，即头韵(alliteration)，
英国历史概况
英国历史概况英国历史是一部征服与合并和的历史。
英国全称为大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，由英格兰、威尔士、苏格兰和北爱尔兰组成，而整个英国的历史也就是由这四个区域的历史交织组成。
1535年威尔士成为英格兰王国的一部分，1707年苏格兰与英格兰正式合并为大不列颠王国，1800年大不列颠王国和爱尔兰合并成为大不列颠与爱尔兰联合王国，1922年爱尔兰共和国独立，爱尔兰北部仍留在联合王国内。
苏格兰历史简介苏格兰位于大不列颠岛北部，英格兰之北。
苏格兰的历史的正式记载是在古罗马人入侵不列颠之后的一些纪录。
公元5世纪，爱尔兰北部的盖尔人（凯尔特人的一支）移居苏格兰，曾在阿盖尔郡和比特郡地区建立达尔里阿达王国。
此后向东扩张到阿瑟尔森林和厄恩河谷，向北扩张到埃尔金地区。
公元843年达尔里阿达国王麦卡尔平兼任皮克特王国的国王，建立阿尔巴王国，王号为肯尼思一世，一个相对独立完整的苏格兰王国逐渐成形。
此后，苏格兰历经邓凯尔德王朝、坎莫尔王朝、巴里奥尔王朝、英格兰占领、布鲁斯王朝以及斯图亚特王朝统治，至1707年与英格兰王国合并成为联合王国。
威尔士历史简介威尔士位于大不列颠岛西南部，英格兰以西。
距今约29，000年便有人类定居于威尔士。
至古罗马人进入了大不列颠岛后，威尔士属于不列颠行省公元5世纪，随着罗马人的撤离，盎格鲁撒克逊人大举入侵大不列颠，直至到11世纪，威尔士人在盎格鲁撒克逊人的高压统治与入侵中度过，而同时布灵顿人开始称自己威尔士人。
公元8世纪，传说中的亚瑟王(King Arthur)领导布灵顿人抗击盎格鲁撒克逊统治。
公元9世纪和10世纪维京入侵使威尔士王国进一步统一，成为一个实体，但同时亦使威尔士落入英国皇室统治之下。
公元927年，威尔士国皇承认盎格鲁撒克逊国王阿瑟斯坦保护威尔士的主人。
在随后的11世纪中，威廉一世充分利用了这种先例，在威尔士边境建立的强大而野心的封建领地制度。
公元1282年，英格兰王爱德华一世征服最后一个威尔士北部和西部的威尔士公国（Statute of Rhuddlan）公元1284年，威尔士正式被英格兰合并，爱德华一世以《罗德兰法令》确立自己在该地区的统治。
abriefhistoryofBritain英国历史简述（精选五篇）
abriefhistoryofBritain英国历史简述（精选五篇）第一篇：a brief history of Britain 英国历史简述A Brief History of Britainby Pam BarrettWhen French and British construction workers met beneath the English Channel in 1990, Britain became linked to Continental Europe for the first time in 7,000 years.For it was then, when the last Ice Age ended, that melting ice flooded the low-lying lands, creating the English Channel and the North Sea and turning Britain into an island.This fact of being “set apart” was one of the two seemingly contradictory factors which would affect every aspect of the country’s subsequent history.The other was a genius for absorbing every invader and immigrant, creating a mongrel breed whose energies would establish an empire incorporating a quarter of the population of the planet.Early settlers: Stone Age people arrived, probably from the Iberian peninsula, in around 3000 BC.They lived by farming but left few traces.The most dramatic ancient monument is Stonehenge in Wiltshire, built during the next 1,000 years.How and why it was built was a mystery, but it must have had religious and political significance.The Beaker people, named after their pottery, were next to arrive.But a more importance wave of immigration, in 700 BC, was that of the Celts from eastern and central Europe.The ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Welsh and the Irish, they left behind a rich legacy of intricate and beautiful metalwork.The Romans: British recorded history began when Julius Caesar first crossed the English Channel in 55 BC.Roman rule continued for nearly 400 years, failing to subjugate only Scottish tribes, whose raiding parties were contained by Emperor Hadrian who built adefended wall right across the north of England.Eventually, threatened by barbarians at the gates of Rome, they abandoned Britain, leaving behind them a network of towns, mostly walled, a superb road system, and a new religion, Christianity.The next wave of invaders from central Europe – Angles, Saxons and Jutes – gradually pushed the native Celts west into Wales and north into Scotland.Anglo-Saxon dominance, too, lasted for four centuries, though it did not extend to Scotland, where a separate kingdom was forged by the Picts and the Scots.Although the Anglo-Saxons were a ferocious bunch, constantly squabbling, they laid the foundations of the English state, dividing the country into shires and devising an effective farming system.Their Teutonic religion, worshipping gods such as Woden and Thor, eclipsed Christianity until, at the end of the 6th century, the monk Augustine(once heard to remark “O Lord, make me chaste, but not yet”)converted the kings and the nobles.Monasteries sprang up, becoming places of learning.Treasures contained in the monasteries were a lure for the Vikings, whose ruthless raids from across the North Sea began in the 9th century.Initially they were defeated at sea by Alfred the Great, founder of the British Navy, but eventually they too were assimilated.Canute, the Danish leader, became king of Britain.The Norman Conquest: Links with Normandy, the part of France settled by the Vikings, were strong, and in 1066 William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the English throne.His triumph at the battle of Hastings decisively changed English history.As W.C.Sellar and R.J.Yeatman put it in their classic humorous history 1066 And All That: “The Norman Conquest was a Good Thing, as from this time onwards England stopped being conquered and thus was able to become top nation.”William parceled out the land to barons in return for their loyalty, and the barons parceled out land in turn to lesser nobles in return for goods and services.At the bottom were the peasants, whose feudal status resembled slavery – hence the potency of the Robin Hood legend, celebrating the Nottingham outlaw who stole from the rich to give to the poor.Although much of the Norman kings’ energies were devoted to protecting their borders, there was a great flowering of Norman culture, producing many erudite historians and scholars.In 1167 Oxford University was founded.Thanks to the influence of William Shakespeare’s history plays, much of the next period of English history is popularly remembered through his view of the shifting alliances of the Plantagenet and Tudor kings who ruled from 1154 to 1547.During this period of conflict and disease –the Black Death alone killed nearly half the population in 1348-49 –the royal succession was by no means assured.Power struggles propelled to the throne those who could command the greatest military backing from the majority of the rival barons, a process vividly illustrated by the Wars of Roses, the tussles between the House of Lancaster and York between 1455 and 1485.Frequent strife with France(including the intermittent Hundred Years’ War from 1337 to 1453)dominated international relationships.Internally, Wales was subjugated by 1288, though Scottish independence was recognized when Robert Bruce defeated English forces at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314.Britain’s most famous king, Henry VIII, is remembered not only for his six wives(two of whom he had beheaded)but also for bringing about the Reformation, making England a Protestant rather than a Catholic countr y.His quarrel centred on the Pope’s refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, who couldnot oblige him with a male heir.Doctrinal differences aside, however, Henry capitalized on a growing distaste for the church’s excessive privilege and wealt h, and was thus able to get away with seizing enough monastic lands and property to finance his rule.Under Henry, Wales was formally united with England in 1536.The Age of Elizabeth: England entered its Golden Age under Elizabeth I, Henry’s daughter by Ann e Boleyn.The Elizabethan Age has a swashbuckling ring to it: the Virgin Queen and her dashing courtiers;the defeat of the Spanish Armada;Sir Walter Raleigh’s discovery of tobacco in Virginia;Sir Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the world.Poetry, plays a nd pageantry flourished during her 45-year reign.When Elizabeth, the “Virgin Queen”, died without an heir, the throne passed to James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England, inaugurating the Stuart dynasty and effectively joining together the two kingdoms.The Stuart period was one of conflict between Crown and Parliament.James I, a staunch believer in the Divine Right of Kings, would have preferred no Parliament at all, and Charles I dissolved Parliament and initiated an 11-year period of absolute rule.The upshot was a civil war from 1622 to 1649;Charles lost and was beheaded.A period of republicanism followed, under the rule of Oliver Cromwell, but after his death the monarchy was restored and prospered under Charles II.His brother, who succeeded him as James II, was less circumspect and tried to restore absolute monarchy and the Catholic religion.The newly emerging political parties, growing in confidence, forced him to flee and invited his daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, Prince William of Orang e, to take the throne.This “Glorious Revolution”, although bloodless, was nonetheless a revolution and paved the way for Parliament’s permanent dominance overthe Crown.In 1707 an Act of Union united England and Scotland, although Scotland was allowed to retain its own Church and legislature.Many Scots felt that the union was bulldozed through by English politicians’ intent on improving their international trade prospects, and Scottish pressure to unravel the union is still a political issue.Political pragmatism triumphed again in 1714 when, a reliable Protestant monarch being needed in a hurry, a search through the family tree came up with George I of Hanover in Germany.Although he spoke no English and had little interest in his subjects, he founded a dynasty which was to span 115 years and encompass an expanding empire and an industrial revolution.The age of empire: Despite the loss of its American colonies in 1783, Britain’s trade-driven adventurism was undiminished, giving it control of West Africa and India, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, some Caribbean island, and Australia and New Zealand.At home, farmers embraced more efficient and profitable methods, which led to the eviction of many peasant farmers who either emigrated to the New World, carrying with them a resentment that would bequeathed to future generations, or left the land to find work in the towns, which rapidly became overcrowded.This combination of landowners with surplus capital to invest and laborers in search of a living was one reason why British became the first country to industrialize.Political stability helped too, as did the security of being an island, natural resources, good trade arrangements and a native genius for inventing things.The Scottish inventor James Watt modified and improved the steam engine in the 1770s, opening the way for the efficient powering of trains, ships and factory machinery.The invention of the Spinning Jenny and the power loom created mass production in textiles.The smelting ofiron with coke, instead of charcoal, hugely increased the production of iron.A massive building program of railways, roads and canals created a new class of industrialist, whose fortunes rivaled those of the aristocracy.But it also created abominable working conditions in mines and factories, conditions which led to the slow and painful development of trade unionism.Political reforms, seized elsewhere in Europe by revolution, came gradually in Britain.Parliamentary seats were distributed more fairly among the growing new towns, but voting was still based on property ownership and universal suffrage didn’t come until 1918(and even then was scarcely universal since it excluded women under 30).The problem that dominated parliamentary debate during this period was the intractable Irish Question.The resentment over centuries of British rule in Ireland bubbled to the surface after the potato famines of the mid-1840s, when about 20 percent of Ireland’s population died of starvation and more than a million people emigrated to escape a similar fate.Demands for Irish independence grew but they were demands which many English politicians, conscious of the security problems of having an independent and possibly none-too-friendly neighbor to their west, were reluctant to grant.As with today’s IRA campai gn, the debate had a backdrop of violence.T oday, however, the Victorian Age is remembered as a time of exuberant self-confidence, symbolized by the building in London of the Crystal Palace to showcase Britain’s industrial and technical achievements in the Great Exhibition of 1851.But many of London’s inhabitants might well have wondered when they would benefit from all these accomplishments.For them, the squalor and crime which Charles Dickens portrayed so evocatively in his novels were all too real.Working-class lifeimproved considerably during the last quarter of the 19th century.Many homes had gas lighting and streets were cleaned by the new municipal councils.A new police force contained crime.The music hall provided inexpensive entertainment in towns.Bicycles became a common method of transport, and a trip by train to seaside resorts was for many a highlight of summer.In London, trains in the world’s first underground railway began puffing their way through smoke-filled tunnels between Paddington and Farrington in 1863.Art and drama flourished.By the time of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 1897, the country was feeling quite pleased with itself.Britannia ruled the waves, and anything seemed possible.The 20th century: But all good things come to an end.The Boer War of 1900 ended in victory for the British in South Africa but damaged its international reputation.France, Germany and America were becoming powerful competitors for world markets.The newly united German state was flexing its military muscles.The Edwardian era of the early 20th century, seemingly an idyllic time, was built on shifting sands.Dragged into World War I by a complex web of international alliances, Britain faced unimaginable carnage in which more than a million of its young men died.Social unrest at the end of the war, though less devastating than in the defeated Germany, gave more power to women(who had shouldered a heavy burden while the men were at war)and led to a General Strike by dissatisfied workers in 1926.The Irish Question was partly answered with the creation of an independent Irish free State, but six Protestant-dominated counties in the north stayed under UK rule – a time bomb which exploded in 1969.The shock waves from the 1929 New York Stock Market crash plunged Britain into depression, throwing millionsout of work, especially in the industrial areas of northern England, south Wales and Clydeside in Scotland.The monarchy was rocked by crisis in 1936 when Edward VIII, who had just become king, decided to marry the twice-divorced Mrs Wallis Simpson.His family, the church and the government opposed the match, forcing him to abdicate.His brother, a reluctant George VI, restored the monarchy’s popularity, not least through the support which he and his wife Elizabeth(later the Queen Mother)gave to their subjects during the German air raids of World War II.Although Britain’s island status saved it from invasion, this war involved civilians in an unprecedented way.Cities like Coventry were devastated by bombing and the Blitz radically changed the face of London for the first time since the Great Fire of 1666.Many children were sent to live in the countryside.Most social inequalities were set aside during the war and, when peace returned in 1945, voters turned to the Labour party in hope that it could develop an even greater egalitarianism.It laid the basis of a welfare state, providing free medical care for everyone as well as financial help for the old, the sick and the unemployed.But the war had left Britain broke.While Germany and Japan rebuilt their industries almost from scratch, helped by international aid, Britain was left to patch together a severely damaged economy.It could no longer sustain an empire, and gradually its colonies became independent.Many former subjects, especially from the Caribbean and the Indian sub-continent, settled in Britain, raising fears of racial conflict that, despite some serious tensions, were never(quite)fulfilled.As the austere 1950s gave way to the ’60s, things started to look up.New universities were built, a motorway network launched, and a reinvigorated culture promoted by a group of writersdubbed “the angry young men”.Much of the explosion of new talent came from the north of England: actors like Albert Finney, playwrights like Alan Sillitoe, and pop groups galore, led by the Beatles.The swinging Sixties, powered by a newly affluent youth, had arrived.Britain’s heavy industry might be in trouble, but in fashion and pop music it led the world.The good times died in the 1970s as inflation and unemployment soared and labour unrest led to endless strikes.Joining the European Community in 1973 seemed to produce few obvious economic benefits and revenues from North Sea oil were quickly spent rather than invested.Margaret Thatcher came to power in 1979 promising tough new policies.Her popularity quickly faded, but was revived in 1982 by the Falklands War when an invading Argentinean force was beaten off the South Atlantic islands, remnants of the old empire.Although she went on to win two further elections convincingly, by 1990 her popularity, always firmer abroad than at home, was so shaky that her party, fearing that she would not win them the next election, replaced her with a less combative leader, John Major.He duly won the 1992 election, but a reinvigorated Labour Party under T ony Blair won in 1997.The overall problems did not change, though.The economy remained weak, distrust of the European Community did not abate, nationalism simmered in Wales and Scotland, the conflict in Northern Ireland dra gged on, and the Royal Family’s private life continued to obsess the tabloid press.It was business as usual, in fact – which, in a country obsessed by continuity, was immensely reassuring.第二篇：材料学的历史简述姓名：何莞晨学号：2014012075材料学的历史简述1.按材料划分的时代生活离不开材料，人类的一切生产活动所需的工具都建立在合适的材料的基础上。
英国历史简介briefintroductionofenglishhistory
The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)I.Early Settlers （5000BC-55BC）The IberiansThe Beaker FolkThe CeltsII.Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation.III.The Anglo-Saxons (446-871)In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes. The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.IV．Viking and Danish invasionsThe invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. Theybecame a serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex.Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.He founded a strong fleet and is known as “the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.”V．The Norman Conquest (1066)The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.The Shaping of the Nation （1066-1381）Norman Rule （1066-1381）William's Rule （1066-1087）King Henry II and his reformsThe Great CharterThe origins of the English ParliamentThe Hundred Years' War（The Hundred Years‘ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France， while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders， which were the importer of English wool， but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides， England's desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes.The English being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France， the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity， while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.）The Black DeathThe Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reducedEngland's population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century.The Peasant Uprising of 1381Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex， led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw， moved on London in June， 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home， while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king.The uprising was brutally suppressed， but it had far-reaching significance in English history. First， it directed against the rich clergy， lawyers and the landowners. Second， it dealt a telling blow to villeinage， and third， a new class of yeomen farmers emerged，paving the way to the development of capitalism.Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)The Wars of RoseThe name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster， symbolized by the read rose， and that of York， symbolized by the white， from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor，descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars， English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.The English ReformationHenry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes： a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now，encouraged by the success of Martin Luther， many people believed its time had come； the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented； and Henry needed money.Elizabeth I （1558-1603）The English RenaissanceThe Civil WarsBecause of the absolute rule of Charles， the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22，1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King， and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious （ Puritan） ideology while the Crown‘s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.The RestorationWhen Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son，Richard， the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George Monck， occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as King Charles II. It was called the Restoration.The Glorious Revolution of 1688In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe， was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II， and appealed to a Protestant king， William of Orange， to invade and take theEnglish throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth， with no bloodshed， nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.The Gunpowder Plot of 1605The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of the Catholic conspiracies. On Nov. 5，1605， a few fanatical Catholics attempted to blow King James and his ministers up in the House of Parliament where Guy Fawkes had planted barrels of gun-powder in the cellars. The immediate result was the execution of Fawkes and his fellow-conspirators and imposition of severe anti-Catholic laws. The long-term result has been an annual celebration on Nov. 5， when a bonfire is lit to turn a guy and a firework display is arranged.The Rise and Fall of the British Empire（1688-1990）Whigs and Tories originated with the Glorious Revolution（1688）. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th CenturyDuring the late 18th and early 19th centuries， the “open-field” system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries.The Industrial Revolution （1780-1830）The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanization of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.The Chartist Movement （1836-1848）Parliamentary reformsThree Reform BillsBetween 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.The Reform Act of 1832The Reform Act of 1832 （also called the “Greater Charter of 1832）abolished ”rotten boroughs“， and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing tows. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenant‘s， based on the value of their property.A People‘s CharterThere was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836， a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men‘s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands （a People’s Charter） in 1838， with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points：（1）the vote for all adult males；（2）voting by secretballot；（3）equal electoral districts；（4）abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament；（5）payment of members of Parliament；（6）annual Parliaments， with a General Election every June.Trade Unions and the Labor PartyColonial Expansion: The growth of dominionsEnglish colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. Encouraged by Britain‘s control of the seas， especially by the rising tide of emigration， British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada， Australia， and New Zealand， in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. By 1900， Britain had built up a big empire， “on which the sun never set”。
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Oldபைடு நூலகம்English (450-1100)
The period from 450 to 1100 is known as the Old English or the Anglo-Saxon period. In the sixth century, the Roman missionaries headed by St. Augustine brought Christianity to the Germanic tribes (mainly the Saxons). The English language adopted many words from Latin, the official language of the church. Latin provided not only religious vocabulary (e.g., abbot, altar, disciple, hymn, nun, mass, pope, and priest) but also a surprising number of what are now everyday words (e.g., candle, cap, school, and spend).
This created an interesting mixture, because Old English was very similar to this close Germanic relative. For example, Old English Norse loan Many words beginning with scshrub scrub /sk- are borrowed from Scandinavian languages, e. g. lend loan score, scorch, skill, skin, skirt, sky. rear raise shirt skirt craft skill
Scandinavian Influences
Several hundred Norse words were borrowed into Old English, among them till, flat, they, skin, egg, etc.
Nouns
birth, bull, gap, quest, leg, egg, sister, skin
Old English (450-1100)
In the fifth century, the Germanic invaders conquered and occupied the eastern part of the British island. The Celtic language originally spoken in that area was replaced by the West Germanic dialects spoken by the invaders, as the original inhabitants (the Celts) were killed, were relocated, or adopted the language of the now dominant society. Roughly speaking, the tribes that settled in Britain comprise three groups: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. The Angles and the Saxons occupied the greatest part of the country, so that the Germanic civilization that emerged in Britain is often called Anglo-Saxon. The Angles lent their name to the language—English, and to the land —England (the land of Angles).
The World Languages
It is estimated that there are about 5000 languages all over the world, which can be grouped into different language families, such as Sino-Tibetan Family, Indo-European Family, Altaic Family, Austronesian Family, and so on. Chinese is a member in the Sino-Tibetan Family, while English is a member in the Indo-European Family.
The Germanic Branch
The Germanic language that remained after the East Germanic split off developed into two new groups, North Germanic and West Germanic. The West Germanic group includes English. The North Germanic branch includes Viking Norse, which developed into Old Norse and eventually into modern Scandinavian languages such as Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish.
Middle English (1100-1500)
The Middle English period is from 1100 to 1500. The most important event to affect the history of English, the Norman Conquest (1066), took place at the end of the Old English period. The big changes that this invasion produced in the English society were accompanied by equal effects in the vocabulary of Middle English. After their victory in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings under William the Conqueror, the Normans quickly assumed leadership and privilege in England.
The Normans were originally Vikings—their name comes from North man (i.e., ‘Norse’). In a sense, the Norman conquest can be seen as yet another Germanic invasion. But there was a difference this time. The Normans had earlier been given the control of a large piece of land along the northern coast of France—Normandy. As French subjects, they had adopted French culture. So the language they brought with them was not a Germanic language, but French. The Norman dialect of French became the language of the upper class, while English completely lost its scholarly and literary importance, and was used only by the peasants and people of the working class. This resulted in a massive borrowing of French words into English vocabulary.
Introduction
In the study of English vocabulary, it is important to know about the history of English. We will look at the major historical events that have shaped the English language. We pay special attention to the development of the native Germanic vocabulary, and to the forces that introduced a large number of foreign words, especially from Latin, Greek, and French. This combination makes English vocabulary extremely rich and heterogeneous among the world languages.
Scandinavian Influences