人体免疫系统介绍英文版
人类的免疫系统英语作文
人类的免疫系统英语作文The Human Immune System。
The human immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against harmful pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites. It is an essential part of the body's defense mechanism and plays a crucial role in maintaining overall health and well-being.The immune system is comprised of various components, including white blood cells, antibodies, and the lymphatic system. These components work together to identify and neutralize foreign invaders, while also recognizing and remembering specific pathogens to provide long-term immunity.One of the key players in the immune system is the white blood cells, which are responsible for identifying and destroying pathogens. There are several types of whiteblood cells, each with its own specific function. For example, macrophages engulf and digest foreign particles, while T-cells and B-cells are responsible for producing antibodies that target and neutralize specific pathogens.In addition to white blood cells, the immune system also relies on the lymphatic system, which is a network of vessels and organs that help transport and filter lymph fluid. The lymphatic system plays a crucial role in the immune response by carrying white blood cells to areas of infection and helping to remove waste and toxins from the body.Another important component of the immune system is antibodies, which are proteins produced by the body to identify and neutralize specific pathogens. When the body is exposed to a new pathogen, B-cells produce antibodies that bind to the pathogen and mark it for destruction by other immune cells. This process is known as the adaptive immune response and is crucial for providing long-term immunity to specific pathogens.In addition to its role in fighting off infections, the immune system also plays a key role in maintaining overall health and well-being. A healthy immune system is essential for preventing illness and disease, as well as for promoting recovery and healing. When the immune system is compromised, the body is more susceptible to infections and other health problems.There are several factors that can affect the function of the immune system, including age, genetics, and lifestyle. As we age, the immune system becomes less efficient, making older adults more susceptible to infections and illness. Genetics also play a role in determining the strength of the immune system, with some individuals being more predisposed to immune-related disorders.Lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, and stress can also have a significant impact on the immune system. A healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and lean proteins can help support the immune system, while regular exercise can help improve immune function and overall health. On theother hand, chronic stress and poor lifestyle choices can weaken the immune system and make the body more susceptible to illness.In conclusion, the human immune system is a complex and essential part of the body's defense mechanism. It plays a crucial role in protecting the body against harmful pathogens and maintaining overall health and well-being. By understanding the components and functions of the immune system, we can take steps to support its function and promote long-term health.。
免疫系统英文作文
免疫系统英文作文Our immune system is like a superhero that protects our body from harmful invaders. It's like having a personal bodyguard that fights off viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens. It's always on high alert, ready to defend us at any moment.When our immune system detects a foreign invader, it goes into action. It sends out an army of white blood cells to attack and destroy the intruders. These white bloodcells are like the soldiers of our immune system, always ready to fight and protect us.Our immune system is also very smart. It has a memory that helps it recognize and remember the invaders it has encountered before. This means that if we get sick with a particular virus once, our immune system will remember it and be better prepared to fight it off if we encounter it again in the future.Sometimes, our immune system can get a little too enthusiastic and start attacking our own cells and tissues. This is called an autoimmune disease, and it can cause alot of problems in our body. Conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and multiple sclerosis are all examplesof autoimmune diseases.To keep our immune system strong and healthy, we needto take care of our body. Eating a balanced diet, getting enough sleep, and exercising regularly are all importantfor maintaining a strong immune system. It's also important to avoid smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and stress, as these can weaken our immune system.In conclusion, our immune system is an amazing defense mechanism that keeps us healthy and protected. It's like having a superhero inside our body, always ready to fightoff any invaders. Taking care of our immune system is essential for maintaining good health and well-being. Solet's give our immune system the support it needs and keepit strong and healthy.。
什么是免疫系统英语作文
The immune system is an intricate network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect our bodies from harmful invaders like bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. Its a fascinating subject that has always piqued my interest, and Ive always been curious about how it functions and its importance in maintaining our health.Growing up, I was often sick, which led me to learn more about the immune system. I remember the countless trips to the doctor and the various medications I had to take. It was during these visits that I first heard about the immune system and its role in fighting off infections. The doctor explained that a strong immune system could help prevent illnesses and recover more quickly from them. This sparked my curiosity, and I began to research the topic further.The immune system is like a welltrained army, constantly on the lookout for potential threats. It has two main components: the innate immune system, which provides a rapid, nonspecific response to invaders, and the adaptive immune system, which is more specific and can remember pathogens for a quicker response in the future. This dual approach allows our bodies to combat a wide range of threats effectively.One of the most intriguing aspects of the immune system is its ability to recognize and remember specific pathogens. This is achieved through the use of lymphocytes, which are specialized white blood cells. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B cells, which produce antibodies, and T cells, which can directly attack infected cells. When a pathogen enters the body, these cells spring into action, identifying and neutralizing the threat.A good example of the immune system in action is the common cold. When a cold virus enters the body, the immune system responds by producing antibodies that bind to the virus and prevent it from infecting cells. At the same time, T cells are activated to destroy any cells that have already been infected. This coordinated response helps to limit the spread of the virus and, over time, the body is able to clear the infection.However, the immune system is not infallible. Sometimes, it can become overactive and attack the bodys own tissues, leading to autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis or lupus. In other cases, the immune system may not respond strongly enough to a particular pathogen, resulting in a weakened ability to fight off infections. This is often the case in individuals with compromised immune systems, such as those withHIV/AIDS or certain genetic disorders.Understanding the immune system is crucial for developing effective treatments and vaccines. By studying how it works and identifying its weaknesses, scientists can create therapies that boost its ability to fight off infections. For example, vaccines work by introducing a harmless version of a pathogen or its components into the body, stimulating the immune system to produce a response without causing the disease. This primes the immune system for future encounters with the real pathogen, allowing it to respond more quickly and effectively.In conclusion, the immune system is a remarkable and complex defense mechanism that plays a vital role in our health. Its a topic that hasfascinated me for years, and I hope to continue learning more about it as I pursue my studies. By understanding how it works and how we can support its function, we can better protect ourselves and others from the myriad of threats that exist in our world.。
Our-Immune-System 人体的免疫系统
Written by Sara LeBien A story for children with primary immunodeficiency diseases Our ImmuneSystemIMMUNE DEFICIENCY FOUNDATIONA note from the authorThe purpose of this book is to help young children who are immune deficient to better understand their immune system. What is a “B-cell,”a “T-cell,”an “immunoglobulin”or “IgG”? They hear doctors use these words, but what do they mean?With cheerful illustrations, Our Immune System explains how a normal immune system works and what treatments may be necessary when the system is deficient. In this second edition, a description of a new treatment has been included.I hope this book will enable these children and their families to explore together the immune system, and that it will help alleviate any confusion or fears they may have.Sara LeBien This book contains general medical information which cannot be applied safely to any individual case. Medical knowledge and practice can change rapidly. Therefore, this book should not be used as a substitute for professional medical advice. SECOND EDITIONCOPYRIGHT 1990, 2007 IMMUNE DEFICIENCY FOUNDATIONCopyright 2007 by Immune Deficiency Foundation, USA.Readers may redistribute this article to other individuals for non-commercial use, provided that the text, html codes, and this notice remain intact and unalteredin any way. Our Immune System may not be resold, reprinted or redistributed for compensation of any kind without prior written permission from Immune Deficiency Foundation. If you have any questions about permission, please contact:Immune Deficiency Foundation, 40 West Chesapeake Avenue, Suite 308,Towson, MD 21204, USA; or by telephone at 1-800-296-4433.IMMUNEDEFICIENCYFOUNDATIONW e have things inside our bodies that protect us from being sick.These things are found in ourimmune system.1One kind of protector is the B-Cell.B-Cells make immunoglobulins(im-mu-no-glob-u-lins),also called antibodies (an-ti-bod-ies) or Igs.Each has a certain j obTHE 3 MOSTIMPORTANTIMMUNOGLOBULINS to do to keep us well. They are like guards. They guard us from getting sick.2Their job is to kill germs , such as viruses, fungi, and bacteria that get into our bodies and make us sick.I gM protects our bloodand other things inside us.C o m e o n e v e r y b o d y ! L e t ’s g e t b u s y , w e ’v e g o t w o rk t o d o !3IgG travels in our blood to get to the germs.IgA protects the placeswhere we have saliva,tears, and mucus likeour mouth, nose, lungs,and intestines.4Sometimes the Igs help each other gang up on germs.Let’s get him!I’ll help you!I willcome, too!Here is agerm we needto get!!It’s all over,Germie!Gotcha!5Another kind of protectoris the T-cell.T-cells arevery important, too.They are in our blood.But they alsogo to other placesinside our body.6There are 3 kinds of T-cells-Killer T-cells, Helper T-cells and Regulatory T-cellsKiller T-cells kill germs.Got Ya!7Helper T-cells call in more Killer T-cells to kill germs and tell the B-cells when tomake antibodies. 8O K A Y,Y O U B-CE L L S P R O D U C E T H O SEI G A N T I B O D I E S!C A L L I N G A L LK I L L E R T-C E L L S!W E N E E D M O R E O FY O U!TheRegulator T-celltells the B-cellsand other T-cells when the body is better and they can stop making antibodies.Okay B-cellsyou canstop now!Another protector is the Phagocyte(Phag-o-cyte). Phagocytes kill germs by eating them!They also sendsignals to other Phagocytesto help.Calling all Phagocytes!Calling all Phagocytes!Help! Help!Help!The last protector is the Complement (Com-ple-ment). The Complement is made of many pieces working togetherthe Igs and Phagocytes to help get rid of germs faster.to protect us from infection. The Complement system works withSo there are antibodies(immunoglobulins or Igs) made in B-cells ,3 kinds ofT-cells ,I make thecells go intoaction!I tell theB-cells whento stop! I killgerms!I tell the Killer T-cells to attack germs!I tell the B-cells whento make antibodies.Phagocytesand Complement.But some of us don’t have allof our protectors, or we have them but they do not work. Sometimes germs get into our bodies through our eyes, nose,mouth, lungs or blood.Ohhh...mythroathurts!We do not have all the protection we need to kill the germs.So the germs grow into many germs,and we get sick. Maybe we feel very tiredor have a fever,or have a sore throat, or have a bad cough,or our ears hurt,or our chest hurts,or our stomach hurts. The doctor calls it an infection(in-fec-tion).Sometimeswe have to goto the doctor.We may have to goto the hospitalso the doctors and nurses can take care of us.But, if we do not have enoughIgG protectors there are waysto get more. We may get themfrom an infusion(in-fu-sion)or IV into a vein in our hand or arm. What is an IV? IV means into a vein. The nurse gets the antibodies (IgGs) into our vein. This is called an intravenous (in-tra-ven-ous)infusion or IVIG.This is how IVIG is done.The nurse puts a little needle intoour hand or our arm.It goes into our blue vein.Can you see your blue vein?If we sit still, it only hurts a little bit. The nurse puts a little piece of tape on the needle to hold it in place. A pump pumps the antibodies into our vein.Some people get their infusionunder the skin. This is calleda subcutaneous(sub-cu-ta-ne-ous)infusion or SCIG.This is how SCIG is done. A few tiny needles are put under the skin onour belly or legs. If we sit stillit only hurts a tiny bit.Little pieces of tape hold the tiny needles in place. A small pump pumps the antibodies under our skin.19The IgG antibodies rundown,down,downinside the plastic tubeinto our veinor under our skin.The IgG antibodiesget into our bloodand go all through our bodyto protect us.When we get anintravenous infusionor subcutaneous infusionwe can doquiet activitieslike read a book,play a game or watch TV. 20It may be an injection,a pill or a liquid.This medicine is called anantibiotic (an-ti-bi-ot-ic).It kills germs, too.Now the antibodies can go all throughour body to protect us.Sometimes,we alsoneedmedicineto maketheinfectiongo away.21Some peopleneed glassesto help themsee better. 22We need IgGsand antibioticsto help usfeel better.23Follow these Healthy Habits1. Eat healthy foods2. Get plenty of rest3. Get regular exercise4. Wash your hands:Before you eatAfter you use the rest roomAfter being in a public placeAfter playing with your petAfter you cough or sneeze5. Brush your teeth twice each day6. Don’t share food or drinks with other people7. Cover your cough or sneeze with a tissue24Important WordsThis list will help you understand some of the important words in this book.Antibiotics(an-ti-bi-ot-ics)special medicine that can help your body fight germsAntibodies(an-ti-bod-ies) also called immunoglobulins protect our bodies from germs B-Cells make immunoglobulinsComplement(com-ple-ment)a group of proteins that work together, like a team, to fight germs Germ a tiny living thing that may make you sick Immunoglobulins(im-mu-no-glob-u-lins)also called antibodies or IgsIVIG immunoglobulin infused into a vein Intravenous(in-tra-ven-ous)into a vein Phagocyte(phag-o-cyte)identifies germs and gets rid of them by eating themSCIG immunoglobulin infused under the skin Subcutaneous(sub-cu-ta-ne-ous) under the skin T-Cells identify germs and tell the body how to fight themIMMUNE DEFICIENCY FOUNDATIONThe National Patient Organization Dedicated to Advocacy, Educationand Research for Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases40 WEST CHESAPEAKE AVENUE • SUITE 308 • TOWSON, MD 21204800.296.4433 • This publication was made possible by anunrestricted educational grant from。
人体的免疫系统作文英语
The human immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against harmful invaders such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It is a vital part of our bodys defense mechanism that helps maintain overall health and prevent diseases.1. Components of the Immune System: The immune system consists of several key components, including white blood cells leukocytes, the lymphatic system, the spleen, tonsils, bone marrow, and the thymus gland. Each of these components plays a unique role in identifying and combating pathogens.2. Types of Immunity: There are two main types of immunity innate and adaptive. Innate immunity is the bodys first line of defense and is present from birth. It includes physical barriers like skin and mucous membranes, as well as chemical barriers like stomach acid. Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is specific to a particular pathogen and develops over time after exposure to the pathogen.3. White Blood Cells: Leukocytes are the primary cells of the immune system. There are several types of leukocytes, including neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. Each type has a specific function in the immune response.4. Inflammation: Inflammation is a natural response to injury or infection. It is characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain. Inflammation helps to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury and is a key part of the bodys healing process.5. Immunoglobulins Antibodies: Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses. They are a crucial part of the adaptive immune response.6. Vaccination: Vaccination is a process that helps the body develop immunity to specific diseases without suffering from the disease itself. It involves the administration of a vaccine, which contains a weakened or inactivated form of the diseasecausing microorganism.7. Immune Disorders: Sometimes, the immune system can malfunction, leading to immune disorders. Autoimmune disorders occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks the bodys own tissues, while immunodeficiency disorders result in a weakened immune response, making the body more susceptible to infections.8. Lifestyle and Immunity: A healthy lifestyle can support a strong immune system. Factors such as a balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep, and stress managementcan all contribute to maintaining a robust immune response.9. Emerging Diseases and Immunity: The immune system is continually adapting to new threats, such as emerging diseases and antibioticresistant bacteria. Research into the immune system is ongoing to develop new treatments and preventative measures.10. Importance of the Immune System: The immune system is essential for survival, as it protects the body from a wide range of pathogens and helps to maintain overall health. Understanding how the immune system works is crucial for developing strategies to prevent and treat diseases.。
讲讲你的免疫系统英语作文
讲讲你的免疫系统英语作文英文回答：The Immune System A Complex Defense Mechanism.The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body from infection and disease. It is a vital part of our overall health and well-being, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis.The immune system is composed of two main branches: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is the body's first line of defense against infection. It is made up of physical barriers, such as the skin and mucus membranes, as well as chemical barriers, such as stomach acid and antimicrobial peptides. The innate immune system also includes cells that can recognize and engulf foreign invaders, such as bacteria and viruses.The adaptive immune system is more specialized and takes longer to develop than the innate immune system. Itis made up of cells that can recognize and target specific pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites. The adaptive immune system also has the ability to "remember" previous infections, so that it can mount a more effective response to future infections with the same pathogen.The immune system is a remarkable example of the body's ability to protect itself from harm. It is a complex and intricate system, and scientists are still learning about its many functions. However, we know that the immune system is essential for our health and well-being, and that without it, we would be much more vulnerable to infection and disease.中文回答：免疫系统——一种复杂的防御机制。
The Biology of the Human Immune System
The Biology of the Human Immune System 人类免疫系统的生物学免疫系统是我们身体的一个重要组成部分，能够识别和击败各种细菌、病毒、真菌和寄生虫等入侵的异物。
人类免疫系统的生物学是一个庞大且复杂的领域，涉及许多不同的组织、细胞和蛋白质。
免疫系统的组成免疫系统主要由两个部分组成：先天性免疫系统和后天性免疫系统。
先天性免疫系统是人类生命的早期防线，能够对大多数病原体产生迅速、非特异性的反应。
先天性免疫系统包括皮肤和黏膜、炎症反应、天然杀伤细胞、补体系统和巨噬细胞等。
后天性免疫系统是高度特异性的防御系统，能够对特定的病原体产生精确的、特异性的反应。
后天性免疫系统由T细胞、B细胞、抗体和淋巴组织等组成。
皮肤与黏膜皮肤和黏膜是我们身体最重要的保护屏障，能够防止病原体进入我们的身体。
皮肤由多层角质细胞、汗腺和皮脂腺组成，能够防止水分的流失，并且排泄汗液和皮脂，以防止过度干燥和滋生病原体。
黏膜由多种不同类型的细胞和分泌物组成，能够阻止细菌和病毒进入我们的身体。
例如，鼻腔和喉咙内的细毛能够将病原体从我们的呼吸道移除，而胃酸则能够杀死许多进入我们体内的病菌。
天然杀伤细胞天然杀伤细胞是免疫系统的一种重要组成部分，能够直接识别并杀灭感染的细胞，特别是癌细胞。
天然杀伤细胞在人体内广泛分布，能够通过对目标细胞进行直接杀伤、分泌毒素和介导细胞的凋亡等方式，阻止病原体感染我们的身体。
巨噬细胞巨噬细胞是一种能够摄取和消化病原体的免疫细胞。
巨噬细胞的主要功能是引起炎症反应，并清除细胞碎片、细菌和其他异物。
巨噬细胞能够分泌调节因子，帮助其他免疫细胞定位病原体，并参与各种炎症和免疫过程。
淋巴组织淋巴组织是免疫系统的重要组成部分，包括淋巴结、脾脏和淋巴管等。
这些器官都是淋巴组织的重要部分，能够帮助身体识别和应对各种病原体。
T细胞和B细胞T细胞和B细胞是后天性免疫系统中最重要的组成部分，能够产生特异性的反应，对特定的病原体产生针对性的抗体。
西医英语,第8章免疫系统
• The immune system recognizes, attacks, destroys, and remembers each pathogen that enters the body. It does this by making specialized cells and antibodies that render the pathogens harmless.
Where the immune system is.
Yellow, primary lymphoid organs.
Blue, secondary lymphoid organs.
Major components barriers (e.g., skin); phagocytes; pattern recognition molecules
2.胸腺(Thymus gland)
1. The site of T cell differentiation, maturation 2. immune regulation
3.脾脏(Spleen)
• 1. Retention of lymphocyte [ T cells.B cells. NK • cells ] • 2. Important place to produce immune response • 3. The phagocytic cell
• Unlike the first line and second line defense the immune system differentiates among pathogens. • For each type of pathogen, the immune system produces cells that are specific for that particular pathogen.
讲讲你的免疫系统英语作文
讲讲你的免疫系统英语作文Within the intricate tapestry of our physical being resides a remarkable defense mechanism, the immune system.It serves as a vigilant guardian, constantly patrolling our bodies, protecting us from a relentless onslaught of pathogens and foreign invaders. This intricate network of cells, tissues, and organs works in seamless harmony to safeguard our health and well-being.At the core of the immune system lies a vast army of specialized cells, each playing a unique role in thedefense against disease. White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are the foot soldiers of the immune system.They circulate throughout our bloodstream and tissues, ever watchful for signs of infection or foreign substances.Neutrophils, the most abundant type of white blood cell, act as the body's first responders. They are rapidly deployed to sites of infection, where they engulf and destroy invading microorganisms. Macrophages, another typeof phagocytic cell, are adept at engulfing and digesting larger invaders, such as bacteria and debris.Lymphocytes, a diverse group of white blood cells, play a crucial role in the adaptive immune response. B cells produce antibodies, specialized proteins that can bind to specific antigens, marking them for destruction. T cells, on the other hand, have the ability to directly recognize and kill infected cells.The adaptive immune system takes time to develop its full response to a specific pathogen, but it provides long-lasting immunity. Memory cells, a type of lymphocyte, are formed after an infection and remain in the body, ready to mount a swift and robust response if the same pathogen is encountered again.In addition to cells, the immune system also relies on a complex network of proteins and molecules to function effectively. Cytokines, signaling molecules, facilitate communication between immune cells, coordinating their actions and amplifying the immune response. Antibodies,produced by B cells, bind to antigens, neutralizing them and marking them for destruction.The immune system is not static but rather a dynamic and constantly adapting entity. It has the remarkableability to recognize and respond to an almost limitless array of pathogens, from common colds to deadly viruses. Through a process known as immune surveillance, the immune system continuously scans the body for abnormal cells, such as those that may have undergone cancerous transformation.The immune system is not invincible. Certain factors, such as stress, poor nutrition, and chronic diseases, can weaken its effectiveness. Immunosuppressive drugs, used to prevent rejection in organ transplant recipients, can also impair immune function.Understanding the immune system is essential for maintaining optimal health. By supporting its function through a healthy lifestyle, we can strengthen our natural defenses against disease and promote overall well-being.。
关于提高免疫力的单词
提高免疫力的单词免疫力是指身体对外界病菌、病毒等有害物质的抵抗能力。
一个强大的免疫系统可以帮助我们预防和抵御各种疾病。
如果你想提高自己的免疫力，下面是一些与此相关的重要单词和概念。
1. 免疫系统相关单词1.1. 免疫系统（Immune System）免疫系统是人体内一组复杂的器官、组织和细胞的集合，旨在保护身体免受外来病原体的侵害。
它由淋巴系统、脑脊液系统和单核巨噬细胞系统组成。
1.2. 淋巴系统（Lymphatic System）淋巴系统是人体的一部分，包括淋巴器官、淋巴管和淋巴液，它通过排除废物和细菌，以及提供对抗疾病的免疫细胞来支持免疫系统的功能。
1.3. 脑脊液系统（Cerebrospinal Fluid System）脑脊液系统是由脑脊液、脑脊液循环系统和脑脊液屏障组成的系统。
它在免疫反应中发挥重要的作用，通过运输免疫细胞、清除废物和排除细菌来提高免疫力。
1.4. 单核巨噬细胞系统（Mononuclear Phagocyte System）单核巨噬细胞系统是一组位于人体各个部位的特殊细胞，包括巨噬细胞、树突状细胞和嗜酸性粒细胞等。
它们负责吞噬和消化病原体、废物和死亡的细胞，清理身体内的病原体。
1.5. 抗原（Antigen）抗原是能够刺激免疫系统产生抗体或诱导细胞免疫反应的物质。
常见的抗原包括细菌、病毒、花粉和异体细胞等。
1.6. 抗体（Antibody）抗体是由免疫系统产生的一类特殊蛋白质分子，能够与抗原结合并阻止其进一步损害机体。
抗体的产生是免疫系统的主要防御机制之一。
2. 免疫力提升相关单词2.1. 营养（Nutrition）营养对于免疫力的提升起到至关重要的作用。
均衡合理的饮食可以提供身体所需的各种营养物质，包括维生素、矿物质和蛋白质等，增强免疫系统的功能。
2.2. 维生素（Vitamin）维生素是人体所需的一类微量营养素，可以促进免疫细胞的生长和免疫功能的正常运作。
常见的增强免疫力的维生素包括维生素C、维生素D和维生素E等。
免疫系统(2)
• Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures that are laced throughout the body along the lymphatic routes.
A. Innate (natural) immunity
• surface-protective mechanisms
Skin mucous membranes associated secretions: acidity of skin, vagina,
sweat, sebum, sticky mucus, saliva lysozyme, an enzyme that digests the cell wall of
Lymphatic System
• The organs of the immune system are connected with one another and also with other organs of the body by a network of lymphatic vessels similar to blood vessels.
• Lymph nodes contain specialized compartments where immune cells congregate, and where they can encounter antigens.
immune system 高中英语
immune system 高中英语摘要：1.免疫系统的定义和作用2.免疫系统的组成部分3.免疫系统的功能4.免疫系统的异常和疾病5.增强免疫系统的方法正文：一、免疫系统的定义和作用免疫系统（Immune System）是我们身体的防御系统，主要负责抵抗病毒、细菌、寄生虫等外来入侵者，以维护我们的身体健康。
它可以识别和区分“自我”和“非自我”物质，从而对非自我物质进行攻击和清除。
免疫系统还具有监控和清除体内异常细胞，如肿瘤细胞的功能。
二、免疫系统的组成部分免疫系统由多个组成部分构成，主要包括：1.淋巴细胞：是免疫系统中最重要的细胞类型，可以分为B 淋巴细胞和T 淋巴细胞。
B 淋巴细胞主要负责产生抗体，而T 淋巴细胞可以直接杀死受感染的细胞或调节免疫反应。
2.白细胞：是免疫系统中的一种重要细胞，可以吞噬和消化细菌、病毒等外来物质。
3.巨噬细胞：是一种特殊的白细胞，具有吞噬和消化细菌、病毒的能力。
4.抗体：是由B 淋巴细胞产生的一种蛋白质，可以与特定的抗原结合，从而标记出入侵者，使其他免疫细胞更容易识别和清除。
三、免疫系统的功能免疫系统具有以下几种主要功能：1.免疫防御：通过识别和清除外来病毒、细菌、寄生虫等，保护我们的身体免受感染。
2.免疫监控：监控体内异常细胞，如肿瘤细胞，及时清除以预防癌症等疾病。
3.免疫调节：调整和平衡体内的免疫反应，避免过度或不足的免疫反应导致炎症或免疫缺陷病。
四、免疫系统的异常和疾病当免疫系统出现异常时，可能导致以下疾病：1.免疫缺陷病：由于免疫系统功能不足，导致容易感染。
2.自身免疫性疾病：免疫系统错误地攻击自己的组织，导致关节炎、红斑狼疮等疾病。
3.过敏反应：免疫系统对某些无害物质产生过度反应，导致过敏症状。
五、增强免疫系统的方法保持免疫系统健康是预防疾病的关键。
以下是一些增强免疫系统的方法：1.均衡饮食：摄取足够的蛋白质、维生素和矿物质，以支持免疫系统的正常运作。
2.充足睡眠：保持良好的睡眠习惯，有助于增强免疫系统。
免疫系统相关英语单词
免疫系统相关英语单词The Immune System: A Complex Network of Cells, Tissues, and Organs.The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against infection. It is constantly on the lookout for foreign invaders, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and it is able to mount a rapid and effective response to eliminate them.The immune system is divided into two main branches: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is the body's first line of defense against infection. It is made up of cells and proteins that are able to recognize and attack foreign invaders in a non-specific way. The adaptive immune system is slower to respond than the innate immune system, but it is able to mount a more specific and effective response to infection. It is made up of cells that are able torecognize and attack specific pathogens.The immune system is a complex and dynamic system that is constantly adapting to new threats. It is an essential part of the body's defense against infection, and it plays a vital role in maintaining overall health.Cells of the Immune System.The immune system is made up of a variety of different cells, each with its own unique role to play. The most important cells of the immune system include:White blood cells: White blood cells are the cells that are responsible for fighting infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymph. There are several different types of white blood cells, each with its own specific function.Macrophages: Macrophages are large, phagocytic cells that are able to engulf and destroy foreign invaders. Theyare found in all tissues of the body, and they play an important role in the innate immune system.Neutrophils: Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. They are phagocytic cells that are able to engulf and destroy bacteria. They are short-lived cells, and they typically die after a few days.Eosinophils: Eosinophils are white blood cells that are involved in the defense against parasitic infections. They are able to release toxic chemicals that can kill parasites.Basophils: Basophils are white blood cells that are involved in allergic reactions. They release histamine and other chemicals that cause inflammation and swelling.Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are white blood cells that are responsible for the adaptive immune response. They are able to recognize and attack specific pathogens. There are two main types of lymphocytes: T cells and B cells.Organs of the Immune System.The immune system is made up of a variety of different organs, each with its own specific role to play. The most important organs of the immune system include:Bone marrow: The bone marrow is the site of production of white blood cells. It is a soft, spongy tissue that is found in the center of bones.Thymus: The thymus is a small organ that is located in the chest. It is responsible for the maturation of T cells.Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that are located throughout the body. They contain lymphocytes and other immune cells, and they play an important role in the adaptive immune response.Spleen: The spleen is a large organ that is located in the abdomen. It contains lymphocytes and other immune cells, and it plays an important role in the filtering of blood.Peyer's patches: Peyer's patches are lymphoid tissues that are located in the small intestine. They play an important role in the defense against intestinal infections.Tonsils: The tonsils are two small lymphoid tissuesthat are located at the back of the throat. They play an important role in the defense against respiratory infections.Functions of the Immune System.The immune system has a number of important functions, including:Defense against infection: The immune system is responsible for defending the body against infection. It does this by recognizing and attacking foreign invaders, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.Maintenance of homeostasis: The immune system helps to maintain homeostasis in the body. It does this by removing waste products and dead cells, and by regulating theinflammatory response.Tissue repair: The immune system plays a role intissue repair. It does this by releasing growth factors and other chemicals that promote healing.Immunity.Immunity is the ability of the body to resist infection. It is a complex process that involves both the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system.There are two main types of immunity:Innate immunity: Innate immunity is the body's first line of defense against infection. It is non-specific, meaning that it can recognize and attack any foreign invader.Adaptive immunity: Adaptive immunity is the body's second line of defense against infection. It is specific, meaning that it can recognize and attack a.。
医学英语课件 免疫系统 Lymphatic and Immune System
Lymph vessels have thicker walls than those of lymph capillaries and, like veins, contain valves so that lymph flows in only one direction, toward the thoracic cavity. Collections of stationary lymph tissue, called lymph nodes[3], are located along the path of the lymph vessels,. These masses of lymph cells vessels are surrounded by a fibrous, connective tissue capsule
Lymph fluid is rich in two types of white blood cells: Lymphocytes and monocytes.
The liquid part of lymph is similar to blood plasma in that it contains water, salts, sugar and wastes of metabolism such as urea and creatinine, but less protein.
人类的免疫系统英语作文
人类的免疫系统英语作文英文回答：The human immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against infection. It is a remarkable system that has evolved over millions of years to protect us from a wide range of pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites.One of the most important components of the immune system is the white blood cells, also known as leukocytes. White blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymph fluid. There are several different types of white blood cells, each with a specific function in the immune response.Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. They are phagocytic, which means that they can engulf and destroy foreign particles. Neutrophils are particularlyimportant in the early stages of an infection, when they help to clear away bacteria and other microorganisms.Macrophages are another type of phagocytic white blood cell. They are larger than neutrophils and are found in tissues throughout the body. Macrophages are important for clearing away dead cells and debris, and they also play a role in the immune response to cancer.Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that is responsible for the body's adaptive immune response. Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells.B cells produce antibodies, which are proteins that bind to specific antigens. Antigens are molecules that are found on the surface of foreign particles, such as bacteria and viruses. When a B cell binds to an antigen, it produces an antibody that is specific for that antigen.Antibodies help to neutralize pathogens and target them for destruction by other immune cells.T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity. They recognize and destroy infected cells and cancer cells. T cells also play a role in regulating the immune response.The immune system is a complex and dynamic system that is constantly adapting to new threats. It is a remarkable example of the body's ability to protect itself from harm.中文回答：人类的免疫系统是一个复杂的细胞、组织和器官网络，它们共同作用以保护身体免受感染。
人体免疫系统介绍英文版
Specimen Selection, Collection, and Processing
The quantity material must be adequate Specimens are selected on the basis of signs and symptoms, should be representative of the disease process Contamination of the specimen must be avoided by using only sterile equipment and aseptic precautions The specimen must be taken to the laboratory and examined promptly. Special transport media may be helpful. Meaningful specimens to diagnose bacterial infections must be secured before antimicrobial drugs are administered.
Toxoids: a modified form of the toxin that preserves its antigenicity but has lost its toxicity. This has been spectacularly successful with tetanus and diphtheria. Inactivated vaccines: The production of protective antibodies is stimulated by using the killed (inactivated) organisms This is done as a routine with vaccines against pertussis (whooping cough) , typhoid and influenza. There is also an inactivated polio vaccine. Attenuated live vaccines : The approach is to use suspensions of living organisms that are reduced in their virulence (attenuated) but still immunogenic. This strategy has yielded: BCG, mumps, measles , and rubella vaccines (now combined); the live virus polio vaccine. Special vaccines: polysaccharide vaccine, subunit vaccine, ( conjugate vaccine, bio-engineered vaccine, chemical vaccine, synthetic vaccine ), nucleic acid vaccine, idiotype vaccine, autovaccine, etc.
科学解读人体免疫系统,预防疾病保持健康!
科学解读人体免疫系统，预防疾病保持健康！1. Introduction1.1 OverviewIn recent years, the importance of a healthy immune system in preventing diseases and maintaining overall well-being has gained significant attention. The human immune system plays a crucial role in defending the body against harmful pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins, that can cause various illnesses. Understanding the functioning of the immune system and its relationship with our health is essential for taking proactive measures to prevent diseases and lead a healthy lifestyle.1.2 PurposeThe purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the human immune system and explain how it functions to protect our bodies from infections and diseases. It aims to explore the crucial role that the immune system plays in maintaining good health and highlight the importance of boosting our immunity for disease prevention.1.3 Article StructureThis article will be divided into several sections to facilitate an organized discussion on the topic. In section 2, we will delve into understanding the human immune system by providing an overview of its components and functions. Section 3 will focus on exploring the relationship between the immune system and overall health, emphasizing the significance of disease prevention. In section 4, we will present various methods and suggestions to enhance immune function effectively. Finally, in section 5, we will conclude the article by summarizing key points discussed throughout and offering insights into future perspectives on immunology and preventive healthcare.Through this article, readers will gain valuable insights into how a well-functioning immune system contributes to their overall health. With knowledge about enhancing their immunity, individuals can actively take steps towards disease prevention and maintain optimal well-being.2. 了解人体免疫系统:2.1 免疫系统简介:免疫系统是人体的一种复杂而精密的防御机制，旨在保护身体免受感染和疾病的侵害。
Immunization免疫,免疫系统,全英版
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED VACCINES
Hepatitis
B
American Academy of Family PhysiciansMorbidity and (AAFP) Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR).
Vaccine development and testing.
VACCINATION SCHEDULE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
The followings are the common infectious diseases against which world health organization(WHO) recommends routine immunization. Tuberculosis Diphtheria Pertusis Tetanus Polio Measles Hepatitis B.
HERD IMMUNITY
Herd immunity exists if the number of people in a community who have active immunity against an infection exceeds a critical level. If these level is achieved then even nonvaccinated individuals are protected from getting the disease. In this way transmission falls or stops without universal immunity.
EXPANDED PROGRAMME ON IMMUNIZATION (EPI)
免疫系统immunesystem
第三章免疫系统（immune system）1、在解剖学上，免疫系统是由淋巴器官及淋巴组织组成。
2、在功能上，是由各种免疫细胞的协同作用完成的。
淋巴组织及免疫细胞分布于全身各处，以完成适宜的免疫防御功能。
3、免疫系统是机体执行免疫功能的组织机构，是产生免疫应答的物质基础。
免疫系统主宰机体的免疫功能，它们的存在和功能的正常，是维持机体免疫力相对稳定的保证，任何部分的缺陷或过度增生，都可引起免疫功能失调，导致抗传染能力的丧失，或引起各种类型的免疫性疾病。
第一节免疫器官（immune organ）免疫器官：是淋巴细胞和其它免疫细胞发生、分化、成熟、定居和增殖以及产生免疫应答的场所。
就是执行生成免疫细胞的功能一、中枢免疫器官特点：1、形成于胚胎早期；2、是免疫细胞发生、分化和成熟的场所；3、切除，影响免疫功能；4、逐渐萎缩。
（一）、骨髓（bone marrow）1、是哺乳动物的造血和免疫器官；骨髓是骨腔中绵软、鲜红的组织，是成人各种血液细胞再生的场所。
成人骨髓总量约为2-3升，占体重的2-5%。
2、骨髓中的多能干细胞是红细胞、淋巴细胞、粒细胞、单核巨噬细胞群的起始细胞；3、骨髓也是人类和哺乳动物B淋巴细胞成熟的场所。
骨髓功能缺损，将严重损害机体的造血和免疫功能。
（二）、胸腺（thymus）1、哺乳动物位于胸腔前部纵隔内，鸟类在颈静脉一侧呈多叶排列。
位于颈部气管的两侧或胸腔的前下方2、是T淋巴细胞分化和成熟的场所；分化血流胸腺激素血流多能干细胞——→淋巴干细胞——→胸腺————→ T细胞——→外周免疫器官的胸腺依赖区定居T淋巴细胞：胸腺依赖性淋巴细胞——Thymus dependent lymphocyte，简称T细胞。
3、胸腺的免疫功能（1）、诱导T淋巴细胞成熟：（2）、产生胸腺激素：胸腺上皮细胞分泌的，为小分子的肽类，有胸腺血清因子、胸腺素、胸腺生成素、胸腺体液因子等，对诱导T细胞成熟有重要作用，还有免疫调节作用。
医学免疫学全英文(第一章,概论)
Section 1Overview of ImmunologyImmunological Fundament and ApplicationGeneral ContentsDefinitionsans and tissues2.Cells3.Moleculesbone marrow (bursa of Fabricius in bird); thymus Peripheral: lymph nodes; spleen; mucosal associated lymphoid tissuesStem cellsLymphocytes: T, B and NKAPC: DC, Monocyte-macrophageOthers: granulocytes, othersSecreted: Antibodies, complements, cytokinesand …Membrane: CD molecules, receptors and ….外围的(1) organs and tissuesProductionInteractionwith AgMaturationThymus and bone marrow-organ developing in fetal and neonatal period -involution on adolescenceBone marrow1.b Secondary organs and tissuesSpleen: the biggest lymphoid organ cleans blood & concentrates antigens, contains many plasmatic cells, T and B cellsLymphatic nodesCircular lymphatic systemThey meet to produce thoracic duct that drain to bloodLymphatic and blood vesselsI：Structures of Immune system:(2) cellsCells of Immune systemOrgans, cells and circulationsI：Structures of Immune system:(3) moleculesII：Role of the immune system***I nnate (inborn, natural)Immunity Acquired (adaptive) Natural:all of creature (+) (non-specific)Such as : 1. Physical hindered2. Cellular hindered3. Chemical hinderedIII ：ImmunityAdaptive:With functional characteristic:1. Specificity: Heterogeneity2. Differentiate: “SELF”& “NOT SELF”3. Memory Humoral immune responsesCellular immuneresponses•Adaptive immunity –Acquired –Available within days –Specificity –Memory –In higher vertebrates Two Arms of Host Defense •Innate immunity –Natural immunity –Defense system functional at birth–Preformed or available within hours afterinfection –Pattern recognition–Widely present in nature•Adaptive immunity –Acquired–Available within days –Specificity –Memory –In higher vertebrates Innate AdaptiveIV ：History of ImmunologySmall PoxDay 3 Day 6 Day 71. Selected smallpox scabs from children with mild symptoms2. Intranasally administrated to health kids using dry or watery methods3. Selected new scabs from the bodies of suffers post vaccinated4. Administrated to others…After seven times, the scabs were thought as the effective vaccine and to be useful against infection of smallpoxHistory of ImmunologyOriginal vaccine (Tang Dynasty, Kaiyuan, AD 713-741)In 1688, doctorsfrom USSR learnt the techniquesExported to Korea and Turkey etc Introduced to UK by L ady Mary W Montagu (689-1762)Tried in Europe and IndiaIn 1744, Mr R Liintroducedthe techniques to Japan 18th Century spreadtoAmerican continentHistory of ImmunologyChinese variolationMilestones of Immunology(I)713-1000: Variolation, inhalation of live smallpox virus from dried pustule (China)1500:Variolation, inoculation of live smallpox virus from dried pustule (15th century middle East) made popular by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu(wife of the British ambassador in Istanbul ) in Great Britain in 1717 1798:1st vaccine against smallpox (Edward Jenner)1879:Attenuated chicken cholera vaccine or vaccination (Louis Pasteur)1885: Rabies vaccination (Louis Pasteur)1891: Delayed type hypersensitivity (Robert Koch)1900:Antibody formation theory (Paul Ehrlich)1901:Serum therapy against diphtheria (Von Behring, Nobel Price)1905: Cellular immunity to tuberculosis (Koch, Nobel Price)1909:BCG vaccine (Bacille de Calmette et Guérin or BCG)History of Immunology1796，Edward Jenner(1749－1823)created a vaccine prevented people from suffering small pox. In 1979, WHO announced that smallpox was the first disease that had been eradicated worldwide by a program of vaccination.Brazil Australia Peter MedawarMacfarlane BurnetAcquired toleranceClonal selection theory1960UK USA Rodney PorterGerald EdelmanAntibody structure 1972USA Rosalyn Yalow Radioimmunoassay1977Venezuela USAUSA Baruj BenacerrafJean Dausset,George SnellHistocompatibility antigens1980Germany UKUK George KöhlerCesar MilsteinNiels JerneMonoclonal antibodyNetwork theory1984Japan Susumi Tonegawa Gene rearrangement1987USA USA E. Donnall ThomasJoseph MurrayTransplantation immunology 1990Switzerland Australia Rolf Zinkernagel, PeterDohertyMHC restriction1996France France Francoise Barre-Sinoussi, LucMontaguierfor their discovery of humanimmunodeficiency virus2008USA France Bruce A Beutler, JulesA Hoffimannfor their discoveries concerningthe activation of innate immunity2011Classifying Immunities (Acquired Immunity)Acquired ImmunityOverview of immune responses in vivoImmunity and Immune-associated DisordersNormal ImmunityOverAutoimmunity Hypersensitivity: Allergy Transplant rejectionDeficiencyPrimary or secondary immune deficiencies (genetic or affected by other components)TumorsFailure of the immune systemIneffective response -Immunodeficiency Overactive response -Hypersensitivity Auto-reactive response -AutoimmunityV: Why ImmunologyImmunologyBasicClinicalMicrobiology EpidemiologyCell Biology GeneticsBiochemistry Biophysics Molecular BiologyImmunogeneticsEnvironmental GenomicsAllergologyImmune Deficiencies HypersensitivityInfectious Diseases AutoimmunityTumour Immunology Transplantation ImmunologyVI： Modern immunologyPeripheral and secondary lymphoid organsDiversity of antigen receptorsDiscovery of signal transduction pathwaysDiscovery of programmed cell deathHematogenesis (or haematopoiesis) and development of immune cellsMore and more(More complicated and detailed, not required in this class). Still, you have to understand basic biological theory such as understanding-diversity, specificity, hematostem cells, differentiation and proliferation of lymphocytes, etcVII： Immunological applicationApplication of antigen-antibody interaction: used in each bio-lab and perhaps each hospital for research and clinic diagnosisNew vaccines: vaccines have contributed remarkably to human beingRecombinant cytokinesImmune cell therapyMore and moreDirections of Development in ImmunologyPrevention and therapy in infectious diseasesUsing immune methods to treat immuneassociated diseasesBased on specific and regulative features of immunology, immunotherapy will help us to find effective therapeutic strategies in disease, which do not damage whole systemic function of immunityLearning objectivesImmunity: refers to the ability of the human body to resist disease agents and their toxins through recognizing “self- and non-self-antigens” and ruling out these enemiesImmune system includes immune organs, immune cells and immune molecules, performing three functions: 1. Immune defense 2. Immune surveillance 3. Immunological homeostasisDifferences between natural and acquired immune responsesFurther readingsMedical Immunology, by Yunqing An and Zhi Yao. 2013-12. ISBN: 978-7-5659-0750-0. Immunology, 7th Edition, by David Male, Jonathan Brostoff, David Roth and Ivan Roitt. 2006-05-09. ISBN: 97803233992.//wiki/。
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Specimen Selection, Collection, and Processing
The quantity material must be adequate Specimens are selected on the basis of signs and symptoms, should be representative of the disease process Contamination of the specimen must be avoided by using only sterile equipment and aseptic precautions The specimen must be taken to the laboratory and examined promptly. Special transport media may be helpful. Meaningful specimens to diagnose bacterial infections must be secured before antimicrobial drugs are admin
Antitoxin: e.g. Tetanus antitoxin and diphtheria antitoxin. It is raised in the horse .It is most important to give an intented recipient of equine serum a prior test dose to exclude hypersensitivity subjects who may have been sensitized by a previous dose of equine serum. Pooled immunoglobulin: It contains the normal repertoire of antibodies for an adult, and can protect against hepatitis A, and measles. Specific immunoglobulin: Preparations of specific immunoglobulin are available for passive immunization against tetanus, hepatitis B, rabies, varicella-zoster. Cytokine
General procedure for collecting and processing
specimens for aerobic and/or anaerobic bacterial culture
Agglutination test in which inert particles (latex beads or heat-killed S aureus Cowan 1 strain with protein A) are coated with antibody to any of a variety of antigens and then used to detect the antigen in specimens or in isolated bacteria.
Artificial active immunity
Vaccines are antigens prepared from pathogens that can raise a protective immune response, yet do not cause illness. These prepared antigens will stimulate both B cells and T cells and help to create memory cells that can later mount a vigorous immune response to an encounter with the real pathogen.
Active-passive immunity
involves giving both a vaccine to provide long-term protection (preventive infection) and immune globulin to provide immediate protection (therapeutic and preventive infectious disease).
Microbiologic Examination
Culture:Isolation of infectious agents frequently requires specialized media. Nonselective (noninhibitory) media permit the growth of many microorganisms. Selective media contain inhibitory substances that permit the isolation of specific types of microorganisms. Microbial Identification: Colony and cellular morphology may permit preliminary identification. Growth characteristics under various conditions, utilization of carbohydrates and other substrates, enzymatic activity, immunoassays, and genetic probes are also used. Antimicrobial Susceptibility: Microorganisms, particularly bacteria, are tested in vitro to determine whether they are susceptible to antimicrobial agents. Serodiagnosis:A high or rising titer of specific IgG antibodies or the presence of specific IgM antibodies may suggest or confirm a diagnosis. Direct Examination and Techniques: Direct examination of specimens reveals gross pathology. Microscopy may identify microorganisms. Immunofluorescence, immuno-peroxidase staining, and other immunoassays may detect specific microbial antigens. Genetic probes identify genus- or species-specific DNA or RNA sequences.
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人工主动免疫与人工被动免疫的区别
区别要点 免疫物质 人工主动免疫 抗原 人工被动免疫 抗体或细胞因子等 快，立即 短，2~3周 治疗或紧急预防
免疫出现时间 慢，2~4周 免疫维持时间 长，数年~数月 主要用途 预防
DI = duration of illness, DH = duration of hospitalization, B/BF = blood/body fluid precautions, D/S = drainage/secretion precautions, E = enteric precautions, C = contact isolation, S = strict isolation, R = respiratory isolation, TB = tuberculosis isolation, U = universal precautions.
Toxoids: a modified form of the toxin that preserves its antigenicity but has lost its toxicity. This has been spectacularly successful with tetanus and diphtheria. Inactivated vaccines: The production of protective antibodies is stimulated by using the killed (inactivated) organisms This is done as a routine with vaccines against pertussis (whooping cough) , typhoid and influenza. There is also an inactivated polio vaccine. Attenuated live vaccines : The approach is to use suspensions of living organisms that are reduced in their virulence (attenuated) but still immunogenic. This strategy has yielded: BCG, mumps, measles , and rubella vaccines (now combined); the live virus polio vaccine. Special vaccines: polysaccharide vaccine, subunit vaccine, ( conjugate vaccine, bio-engineered vaccine, chemical vaccine, synthetic vaccine ), nucleic acid vaccine, idiotype vaccine, autovaccine, etc.