建筑学外文翻译样本
建筑学外文翻译—XXX当代艺术中心
建筑学外文翻译—XXX当代艺术中心XXX位于中国广西壮族自治区南宁市的XXX是一所综合性大学。
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XXXXXX是一座位于美国俄亥俄州辛辛那提市的现代艺术博物馆。
该博物馆由XXX设计，于2003年开放。
博物馆的建筑结构非常独特，外观呈现出流线型的曲线和弧形结构，内部空间布局合理，充满着现代艺术的气息。
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designed by award-winning architect Zaha Hadid。
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the center's new n on a XXX increase its profile in the city.Hadid's design aimed to draw the energy and activity of the city into the lobby and up into XXX "urban carpet," XXX skylit atrium。
建筑设计外文翻译文献
建筑设计外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)外文：Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete Sloping Roof Abstract: This paper point out common mistakes and problems in actual engineering design according immediately poured reinforced concrete sloping roof especially common residential structure.It brings out layout and design concept use folded plate and arch shell structure in order to reduction or elimination beam and column Layout to reduce costs and expand use function for user of garret . The paper also discussed the need to open the roof holes, windows, and with other design with complex forms . The corresponding simple approximate calculation method and the structure treatment also described in this paper.Keywords : sloping roof;folded plate; along plane load;vertical plane load1. IntroductionIn recent years, reinforced concrete slope of the roof has been very common seen, the correct method of it’s design need establish urgently It’s target is to abolish or reduce the roof beams and columns, to obtain big room and make the roof plate "clean ". This not only benefits tructure specialty itself but also to the design of the building professionals to develop new field, and ultimately to allow users, property developers benefited,and so it has far-reaching significance.In the common practice engineering practice, a designer in the calculation of the mechanical model often referred sloping roof as vertical sloping roof under the projection plane Beam, or take level ridge, ramps ridge contour as a framework and increase unnecessary beam and tilt column . In fact ,the stress is similar between General square planar housing, double slope, multi-slope roof and arch, shell.Ping and oblique ridge are folded plate like “A”, whether layout beams and columns, its ridge line of the deformation pattern is different from the framework fundamentally. All these method will make the difference between calculation results and real internal structure force. During the construction process, housing backbone, plate bias department template has complex shapes, multi-angle bars overlap, installation and casting is very difficult. These projects are common in construction and is a typical superfluous. Some scholars use the elastic shell theory to analyze folded plate roof、internal force and deformation, reveals the vertical loads law of surrounding the base is neither level rise nor the vertical displacement which to some extent reflects the humps and shell’s features .But assume that boundary conditions which is very different from general engineering actual situation and covered the eaves of a vertical cross-settlement and bottom edge under the fundamental characteristics of rally, so it is not for general engineering design .2. Outlines of MethodsFor most frequently span, the way to cancel the backbone of housing, didn’t add axillary often. But in the periphery under the eaves to the framework need established grid-beam or beams over windows. For long rectangular planar multi-room, multi-column, building professionals in a horizontal layout of the partition wall between each pair of columns and the direction set deep into the same thickness width have possession of a gathering of the rafah beam profiles . Pull beam above has a two-slope roof plate affixed sloping beams expect smaller span. For residential,if it has no needs according construction professional, we will be able to achieve within the household no ceiling beams exposed, see figure 1. Similar lattice theory, this approach emphasizes the use of axial force component effe ct, But is different with the truss because it’s load distribution along the bar not only single but also along the axis of the plate. Generally each plate has force characteristics of folded plate, for bear gravity at the roof, wind, earthquake loads, caused the plate along with the internal force components, each plate is equivalent to strengthen the thin flange beams .Among vertical bearing , it is thin-walled beams anti-edge horizontal component to balance Wang thrust formed by arch shell effect. When plates bear the the vertical component load, each plate is equivalent to a solid edge embedded multilateral bearing plates .The design feature of this method is establish and perfect the sloping roof of the arch, folded plate system Consciously, at top of the roof, using a minimal level of rafah balance beam ramp at the level of thrust.It’s calculation methods can be divided into hand algorithm and computer paper, this paper focus on the hand algorithm.Hand algorithm take the single-slope plate of sloping roof plate as slider , through approximate overall analysis, Simplified boundary conditions of determine plate,solving load effect along level and vertical plane, Internal forces of various linear superposition under the condition of assumption of normal straight, testing stability and integrated reinforcement. The method pursuit of operational, use general engineer familiar calculation steps to address more complex issues.This method is suitable for the framework structure, little modifications also apply to masonrystructure or Frame-wall structure. General arch structure have good anti-seismic performance, if designed properly, the sloping roof will also do so. In this paper the pseudo-static is used to analysis earthquake effects.3. Analysis and Design for Along Plane Effect of LoadsFirst regard to cross profile of figure 1,we analysis equal width rectangular parts of long trapezoidal panels 1、2. as for approximate calculation,it is take plane loads along plane as a constant just like four rectangular plate can be simplified to one-way slab,we take along to long unit width narrow structure as analysis object ,take hinged arch model shown in figure 2.图2a图3a图2b图3b图2c图3cIn Figure 2 the right supports vertical linkage representatives roof beams supporting role, ramps connecting rod on behalf of the board itself thin beam reaction effect which is virtual and approximate equivalent. We would like to calculate two anti-bearing.Because the total pressure of physical project through two plate roof beams and transfer to the ends column, So Anti two numerical difference can be seen as two plates bear along with the plane load and roof beams bear the vertical load pressure. Two Anti power link expressions in Various conditions were given as follows, because the model take units width,so the results is line averageload distribution except it has Focus quality in house.They are bouth represent by N , English leftover subscript s, b, represent the plane along the roof panels and vertical role in the roof beam, g, w, e,represent gravity, air pressure and the level of earthquake separately. d, c, represent distribution of concentrated load or effect separately, In the formula h is thicness of every plate,g is gravitation acceleration, a is roof for the horizontal seismic acceleration value formula, Wk represent the standard value Pressure.m with number footnotesrepresent every numbered ramp the quality distribution per unit area ,m with english footnotes represent quality of per location.as to two symmetrical slopes, the formula can be more concise.Figure 2a represent situation of vertical gravity load ,these formulas as follows:()()'''111100110cos cos 38cos cos cos cos L AL L m L AL N l h l h l m ωαβμααββ-=++ ()()()()'10000000101'100000cos cos 2cos cos 8sin cos 8sin cos cos 8sin cos cos cos l l l l l h m m s h N l l h h l h l μαβωααηαβωμβββαββααβ++-=--++()()()()101101110100001012111cos 2cos cos 2L L L L L L L m LL L L mLL L L L L L N h B hL hL LIμξβαβ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫⎛⎫--+-+--+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎣⎦=++()()()()()001001110011200101021000110111121cos sin 2sin 2sin cos cos A L h L m LL L L mL L m a L L L L h h L m l m N L L L Ah L L k B h L h L δδββββαβ⎛⎫⎛⎫⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-+--+ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎢⎥+⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎣⎦=+---++Figure 2b represent situation of bear wind load, these formulas as follows:()()222211122111cos cos cos 8cos cos cos cos wkL h L L S li N a L h h b ωαωββαβα-=++ ()()()()22222001111222212110cos cos cos 11cos cos cos cos sin 5cos sin cos cos sin cos k K L h l w L w w h w h m L N l l AL h L a h L αωαβαβλαβααββββαββ⎡⎤-⎡⎤+⎢⎥=+++-+⎢⎥++⎢⎥⎣⎦⎣⎦Figure 2c represent situation of role of level earthquake, these formulas as follows:()()2222210011022001sin cos sin cos 3sin cos cos cos cos cos a a L h l L L N L h l hl αμβαωαβωβδαβαβδβ+=--+ ()()()()222221011120322222102101sin cos sin cos sin sin sin 3cos 2ln cos 5ln cos cos cos cos a l h m l m L m m m N n s l l l g h l h l δβααβαββββαβαβαβ++=++++ ()()()0010011012110121000111sin cos 2cos 2cos cos cos a a L L m L L L n L L L L L nh L N L l h l h l ββαβαβ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫-+-+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥=+⎢⎥+⎢⎥⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()00000201sin 2cos a a L m L L L h L l θβα⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-⎢⎥ ⎪⎝⎭⎣⎦+()()()2000010121001sin sin cos sin cos sin cos cos 2sin cos a e L m L L L h L m m N l l h βααβαββαβββ⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-⎢⎥ ⎪+⎝⎭⎣⎦=-+ ()()()001001001221111221001sin 1sin cos 2cos 2cos cos cos sin a a L L L L L L m L L L L L h L h l L h l h ωαββαβαββ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫-+-+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥-+⎢⎥+⎢⎥⎢⎥⎣⎦ When vertical seismic calculation required by Seismic Design ParametersIt’s calculate formula generally similar as formula 1 to 4 which only need take gravity g asvertical seismic acceleration a. Above formulas apply to right bearings in figure 2 and also to left when exchange data of two plate.As end triangle of Multi-slope roof ,for simplify and approximate calculation need, we assume two lines distribution load only produced by roof board of several load, effect.now II-II cross-section from figure is took to analysis Long trapezoidal plate two’s end triangle, assuming the structure symmetry approximately, take half of structure to establish model (figure 3). Because linked with the end triangular plate-3 plane has great lateral stiffness ,therefore assume the model leftist stronghold along the central component around which can not be shifted direction. Central Plate vertical stiffness small, in general gravity load of roughly symmetric midpoint only next movement happened possible, Therefore, the model used parallel two-link connection. Wind loading, and the general role of the earthquake in two slope was roughly antisymmetric,so plate model in the central use fixed hinge bearings which allow rotation and transtlateral force to plate 3near the plate beam. Under plate two triangular area is eaves of vertical beams and plates itself along with plane load distribution is functionshown in Figure 1 take the variable x as an argument,assume the distance from position of section II to end part is x 0s so the slope level length is y 0=x 0L 2/L 3,formula 11 to 14 is the value of Vertical triangle of gravity along the x direction arbitrary location of the two load distribution ,where h 3 is Slitting vertical thickness of plate 3.()22001cos 212cos e a a mkxL h x N L sh v l x ββ⎡⎤=-⎢⎥+-⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()211121001sin cos 212cos m kvL h x N l xh x L V βββ⎡⎤=+⎢⎥+-⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()22000002221100max 1123cos L La h L L L L N VL h h l a V L L αγβ⎡⎤⎛⎫=---⎢⎥ ⎪+-⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ ()22201000112222201001ln 23cos a L L h l L L L n V s xl h v h L x x l L ββ⎡⎤⎛⎫=+-⎢⎥ ⎪+-⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ As wind load and earthquake effect, sketch could use approximate figure 3b 、3c and use method of structural mechanics to solve But the process is cumbersome and reasonable extent is limited .the wind and earthquake effect is not important compare with the load effect. Moreover,the triangle area is small As approximate calculation, such direct-use rectangular plate slope calculation is more convenient and not obvious waste. The method of solve two load distribution of plate three is same as the solution of Long trapezoidal plate area just make the change of x and y、L2 and L3 in figure 1.The actual profile is part III-III shown in figure 1A B C图4a图4b BDFigure 4 is vertical launch plan and bear load portfolio value of roof ramp shown in Figure 1 to analysis inclined plate and the internal forces of the anti-bearing column . in the figure hypotenuse is oblique roof equal to strengthen frame, Similar wind ramp truss rod and the next edge portfolio, could form the dark truss system ,while long rectangular plate can be seen as part of thin-walled beams, which could also be seen as truss. Therefore, we called roof boarding the plane formed a "thin-walled beam-truss" system, in concrete theory, between the truss and the b eam have no natural divide . it’s no need hand count accurate internal forces and bearing force to such a joint system, Because on the one hand span more, big bending stiffness structure sensitive to the bearing uneven subsidence and have to stay safe reserves; on the other hand it has high cross-section, by increasing reinforced to increase capacity on the cost impact is not significant. Specific algorithm is: Single-ramp calculate by simple cradle, Multi-Span ramp’s bending moment, shear, and supporting anti-edge use the calculate value by the possible maximum numerical control methods, Moment is calculate by simple cradle two sides of supports middle Shear, negative moment and support force calculate according to bearing this continuous, two-hinged, about two span take the largest one. Pin-Pin bearing shear force that is supported by the inter-simple calculate according to simple cradle. But in this method the location of the various internal force’s safety level is uneven expansion, appropriate adjustmen t should be made is late calculation. No mater f the triangular or rectangular part of plate, Thin-plane bending rebar can get by method of moment right boards from the bottom point for the moment distance whichassigned to the eaves or roof. The author believe it has no necessary control number of reinforcement according to smallest beams reinforced rate. On the rim of triangle equivalent to ramp strut can shear entirety. when consider the end is weak can properly reinforced its roof beam below the reinforcement. If shear required stirrup in the rectangular part of thin-walled, should superposition to the beam, generally it’s no need to intentionally imaginary abdominal strengthening reinforcement at rod position.4. Calculation and Design of Pull Beam and Roof BeamsBy column in figure 1 marked calculated value of supporting force and their level of vertical component, horizontal component of the total force multiplied by the cosine of angle. Take column A as example, the first footnotes in R A2 is column number, the first footnotes represent the force generated by the panel two. Their horizontal component balanced by triangle three under the eaves of beams. horizontal component of intermediate support reaction is balanced by the two-level pull beam in deep direction. Then pull beam and above the sloping beams constitutes steel Arch. Because of the existence of antisymmetric load, bilateral role in the anti-power-level components may be inconsistent and pull beam should take the average lag. consider the support impact of uneven settlement, the level pull beam design should take bigger value.Roof beams general under four internal forces: First of the above is levels Rally, The second is axial force generated when oblique roofing in the flange plate plane bending. The third is the vertical load to bear as the roof slab edge beams under bending moment, shear ,like board supported by multi-faceted, Actual force is smaller than bear calculated by one-way plate N b,Fourth is the effect of lateral framework of internal forces .it should linear superposition ,Composite Reinforced, in the situation of weight Load, span and the small dip, checking computations should be took for tension beams cracking, appropriate intensify the section, with fine steel, including the side beams of steel beams rafah terminal should take two meander anchorage,just like letter L With ng as 10d long bends, meander 135 degrees angle and put pull beam intersection with the vertical reinforcement column touting the Meander overcast horn.This paper take model in figure 1 as example, ignore tigers window , 4 sloping roof are 35 o angle, the length of roof slab dimensions are shown in figure 4. Plate unit area quality is 350kg/m2,Overhaul live load is 0.50 kN/m2, Pressure standard of windward side is 0.21 kN/m2, Leeward face is -0.45 kN/m2, Design value of roof horizontal seismic acceleration is 0.1g, Calculate the bearing capacity limit by standardizing, Considered separately with and without seismic load effect of the combination basic design value,we use combination of without earthquake force through compare，Load calculation and analysis results of every position shown in table 1:5. Analysis and Design for Roof of the Vertical Loads Under Sloping RoofSlabs as a Multilateral Support PlateFolded plate structure has character of “unified of borad and frame”: General intersection of each pair of ramps are for mutual support, both sides of the transition line’ plate can be counted dogleg small rotation and transmission, distribution Moment.Under load control which is the role of gravity the two sloping geometry load roughly symmetrical occasions, there is no corner at symmetry capital turning point, Approximate seen as the plate embedded solid edge.if take out a distance by plate of eaves, plate of inside ridge also formation to negative moment,and long roof slabs in the plate sloping beams department and neighbor plate linked together, these all can be approximated as embedded-plate edge to process.For antisymmetric load like horizontal seismic load,the Ping roof should be treated as shear,but it is not control load usually. Plate final design moment value is the status of various unfavorable combination of linear superposition, from the cross-sectional direction plate reinforced by the columns, Reference, balance the require of concrete deep beams of tectonic, upper plate for Moment of negative reinforcement should be reinforced at all or an entire cross-leader, as they also serve as a deep beam distribution lumbartendons or stirrup. plate in the bottom vertical with reinforcement eaves, Negative reinforcementin accordance with their respective calcualte requirements,and it is different after superpositionstirrups requirementBoth sides of "stirrup" in this situation cann’t linked at awnings edge follow shape “U”, can bebent to shape "L" follow upper and down direction,legnth of packs could equal to thickness ofplate.It should enhenced at the node of ramp at the intersection appropriately. It recommended thatuse swagger tectonic shown as in Figure 5 considing simple structure without axillary at thesituation of Cloudy angle without pull. To ensure all reinforced Installing accuracy, Few of therhombus with the supports and rebar stirrups could be added to formed positioning Skeleton atstrengthening reinforced department in the figure, Let two later installed sloping steel plate tie toits lashing,designers should use a three-dimensional geometric method to accurately calculate thediamond stirrups limb edge length and Forming a swagger construction plans6. Calculating and processing of open window and hole in sloping roofAssume the plate in figure 6 has a big hole whose wideth is b ,height is h 0 ,assuming that tungcenter along with the plane bending moment, shear, respectively are M and V through overall calculation, use vierendeel calculation method get about middle cave:1XO MM T τ= 2NR MM T τ=3113312h V V h h =+ 0XO NR M M M V h --= Where I 1、I 2 、I respectively represent upp er and down plate limb’s Section moment of inertia anddouble limbs section moment of inertia.while Edge Moment by hole is:1113I M V b M α=+ 2212I M V b M μ=+not very big by the hole, close to the neutral axis in most cases overall, under the no-hole design of the reinforced the opening hole after the plane can meet the demands by calculation,under the no-hole design of the reinforced the opening hole after the plane can meet the demands by calculation.General tiger win dow’s form prominent roof Facade which a hole had opened up and the other faces a concrete slab closed.when analysis of vertical slab roof slab surface loads ,compare with without windows and roof slabs hole window sheet increased load. profiles of window’s folded plate form make it reduce the bending stiffness compare with without hole roof board, But with the profile hole edge which parallel to the vertical plate is a partial increase in bending stiffness. In the absence of the vertical plate window subordinate legislation should have upturns beam to increase stiffness of the surrounding caves near.in this way i can temporarily ignore the plate stiffness variation acording to the actual load, size and boundary conditions by entities plate to calculate psitive and negative moment and further processing nodes.it should point out that theRoof ramp layout hole edge ideal location is near the plate-bending line, especially in the open side of the window because it was cut down byvertical transmission line of the moment. If the roof slab roof beams department no outward roof then the actual plate-bending force on the line near the roof beam reversed also true, Because of this architects should strive for when determine oosition of tiger position take appropriate care.When pin tung far away from line-bending window wall and roofing in the intersection must bear folded plate and transmission moment, but compare with plate without hole its capacity is weaken surely,and it’s node turn into weak parts. To fill thy judgment and calculation errorstwo panels can be double reinforcement. When the hole is less than line-bending scope should increase negative reinforcement around to keep overall security plate bearing capacity. To ensure steel plate in place accuratly,also should use positioning stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement constitute skeleton similar as figure 5. Hoop end within vertical bars should be strengthen steel and end cave corner should be harvested more than one anchor length to make sure that bottom of the cave 4 tensile stress concentration.7. Stabilize Roof SlopeIn China's V-shaped folded plate structure design norms,the method prevent both sides of theflanges at local instability is limit its generous ratio,This requirement come from the use of isotropic plate buckling theory analysis. In research the flanges outside instability in critical state, the boundary conditions of winglets suppose as freedom outside, fixed interior, pre - and post-hinged on both sides,the situation plates subjected to the bending stress to solve width and height ratio corresponding with the critical pressure compressive stress. When the grade of concreteIs C30,the limit of width and height(b/t)ratio is 47, take 35 as stress non-normative value. Concrete elastic modulus and strength levels is not a linear relationship if use high-strength concrete other study should be taken. In the actual slope roof only a long row to the middle plate bearing plate outside may receive pressure. And here is just the pouringplate affixed roof sloping beams and horizontal pull beam cast together.Have no possible of rollover and foreign rising displacement. norms limited of folded plate span is 21m. roof below and the vertical column spacing generally much smaller it. And the board which into one with roof beams changed boundary conditions of plate, anti-great instability role also very big. For other locations ramp vertical compression edge May also set up the appropriate plate edge beams all these method will receive beyond the norms of redundant safety. Taking into account the plate shear plane, while the vertical direction of the load caused the exit plane effects, Therefore, the grasp of security of caution should cautious. This paper proposed ramp thickness not less than to the short span of 1 / 35 which also conform to design experience of generally confined SLABS, Concrete should graded between C25 and C35 while Steel should I or class II.puter Calculation Method of Local Sloping Roof Structure andOverall ICC of Overall StructureAny calculate software with inclined plate shell modules and the modules bar structural finite element can calculation of competent sloping roof. Shell element of each node have 3 membrane freedom and three panels freedom and can analysis the plane board and internal forces Of out-of-plane effects. However, the current prevalence of certain spatial structure finite element computer program which although have shell model but some are not inclined plate, some not right at the same plane, the stress state and foreign integrated reinforcement are not perfect. Withstructures becoming more diverse, complex and ramp space problems often encountered. Such software should expand its pre - and post-processing functions for conversion of shell element stiffness matrix and loading vector in the direction of freedom and further analysis of ramp space, the space of concrete against stress integrated reinforcement. In a fundamental sense manual method and the finite element method are interchangeable but the result may be very different. As long as layout roof component as this concept,then use the software to calculate can fast, precise, to achieve this goal of this paper.From the eaves to the roof elevation areas, the whole roof of anti-lateral stiffness lower than mutation, quality small than lower,this could not easy to simulate in calculation of whole housing. At the top construction of the seismic as higher-mode response which is also whiplash effect, the earthquake-lateral force may be abnormal and have effect on under layers. Therefore, in the partial hand count roof occasions when take ICC analysis to the overall structure, it proposed roof layer use model of tilt rod ramp support to reduce effect on the overall results distortion.If use software with function of space ramp handling and sloping roof modeling with shell element,all will be wrapped from top to bottom. Top results can be directly used and the distortion of the overall impact would cease to exist.10. Conclusion1）Concrete ramps, side beams in different directions superposition of internal forces, reinforced and ramp stability, the hole limits all to be do in-depth study related this research. Similar typical problems are top floor of structural transformation layer and box-type base box side wall all their research results can be used to adopt.It’s a important method do observation on project; finite element analysis ICC will be more economical, practical and popular. Currently existing completed sloping roof no matter the subjective designers use what kind of assumptions and analysis and whether reinforcement is reasonable as long as the overall structure of the objective reality, create a space folded plate and the arch system that their current work state can be used to summarize and draw upon.2）This structure forms make a new world of design concept of use the top floor and impact on people's living habits.The economic, social benefits it taked will gradually revealed,however it need interaction of architectural and structural professionals and People’s awareness andinformation and even real estate management policies and other support aspects.This method is hard for structure professional,some specific details have no norms to follow at present. This is the challenges sructure staff faced and also the happy exist.references[1]Francis D.K.Ching A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, International Thomson Publishing Inc. 1997.[2]Jiang Fengqing :internal forces of Simply supported two-way pack square plate, Civil Engineering Journal,1982(2)[3]Lai Mingyuan.Zhang Guxin:Deflection and internal forces of Simple peripheral portfolio folded plate roof, Civil Engineering Journal,1992(2)[4] ]Lai Mingyuan: Deflection and internal forces of Simple flattened four folded plate roof slope, Civil Engineering Journal, 1995(1)[5]Li Kaixi.Cui Jia:Local Stability About Yan Beam, Building Structures ,1996(1) [6]user manuals and technical conditions of Multi-storey high-rise building and the space finite element structural analysis and design software SATWE, PKPM CAD department of China Building Research Academy[7]Chen Xinghui.Lin Yuankun: Several calculation problems in the design of V-folded plate roof , Scientific publishing house,1985[8]current building structure norms, China Construction Industry Press,2002译文：钢筋混凝土坡屋顶的结构设计简介：本文对于现浇钢筋混凝土坡屋顶，尤其是常见的住宅结构，指出实际工程中常见的设计错误及问题。
建筑学毕业外文翻译
（2016届）毕业设计文献翻译题目：姓名：学院：专业：建筑学班级：学号：指导教师：导师学科：导师职称：教务处制年月日嘉兴学院外文文献翻译译文1外文题目：Analysis of and Study on the Difficulties in the Fire ProtectionDesign of Large Commercial Complex专业班级：学生姓名：学号：一、外文原文AbstractFire properties of the large commercial complex has been summarized. Based on the fact that there are contradictions between what is required for the large commercial complex in the fire code and the real application in practice, difficulties in fire protection of designing large commercial complex have been analyzed.Key words:large commercial complex; fire protection design; difficulty; research status 1. IntroductionIn recent years, more and more large commercial complexes have appeared in China. These complexes integrate different businesses into on large building, where customers can do shopping, eat or enjoy themselves. According to the statistics, nearly 200 large complexes in China now have indoor walking street, with different kinds of shops standing along both sides. And what’s more, the indoor walking street shares the large space with the atrium.Generally speaking, the large commercial complex is multi-functional with high fire load and large assembly of people. The mechanism of the occurrence of fire is different from that of the ordinary buildings and the fire loss is also heavier. As a result, this kind of commercial complex needs higher fire safety. However, the current national fire code only gives the minimum requirements. No specific fire safety objectives are provided. Therefore, it is quite important to understand the design and research status of the large commercial complex and to provide safe, reasonable and economical fire design method.2.Characteristics of large commercial complex fire2.1 High fire occurrenceThere are heavy fire loads inside the large commercial complex, which include merchandises like clothes, shoes, hats and combustible decorations. It is widely recognized that electricity is the important factor to cause fire hazard. Therefore, to provide electricity among these combustibles is very dangerous. However, in the large commercial complex, electric systems and equipment are installed to provide electricity for lighting, ventilating and air conditioning. If there is short circuit, spark, poor contact or long time electrifying of the lights or electric heater, fire may be caused. In addition, other factors like improper welding, lighted cigarette ends or arson can cause fire too. 2.2 Quick spread of fire and smokeIf fire occurs in a large commercial complex, it can spread very quickly and grow into a large fire in a short time, while the shelter of the rack usually decrease the sensitivity of the fire detection system and cause delay. As a result, fire can’t be detected and controlled timely. The other reason for quick fire spreading is that the vertical space formed by the atrium and escalators in the complex may help fire and smoke to spread to the whole building.2.3 Large casualties and property lossThe large commercial complex usually accommodates valuable merchandises and facilities. Once there is a fire, big property loss is inevitable. And what’s more fatal is that there are usually large assemblies present. The heavy smoke with CO, CO2, NOx, HCN not only affects the safe and quick evacuation of the people, but also put them in danger. According to the statistics of Japan and UK, the percentage of deaths caused by suffocation in the fire can be as high as 78.9%. As a result of a complicated layout, large assembly of people, long time to evacuate, the large commercial complex is susceptible to fatal fire accidents which usually suffer heavy casualties. For example, on Sept. 30, 1997, a fire occurred in a supermarket on the third floor of a shopping mall in Changchun, Jilin province. It caused 11 deaths and 2 injuries. The burning area reached 4500m2 andmost of the commodities inside the supermarket were burnt. The direct property loss was RMB 14,611,000 Yuan.3.Analysis of difficulties in fire protection design of large commercial complexComparing with the ordinary building, the commercial complex is large and usually multi-functional. During the construction, new materials, technologies and structures are employed, which often bring about difficulties in its fire protection design.3.1 There are no applicable requirements for the fire protection design of the complex in the current national fire codeFor the fire protection design of a large commercial complex, the current national standard has covered the following points:（1）the building style and the distribution of business operations inside the complex; （2 ）the style of the indoor walking street;（3 ）how to determine the fire load of the complex;（4）if the walking street inside the complex can be used as a safe evacuation area? If yes, what kind of conditions should be provided;（5）the occupancy density, fire fighting equipment, smoke control pattern as well as other important design parameters;（6）the size and separation of the shops along the both sides of the walking street.3.2 There are limitations in the fire code for the fire designing of the large commercial complexHere just gives an example to illustrate the limitation. The requirements for the evacuation of the people in “Code for design of shop buildings”JGJ48-88 can’t meet the need of the evacuation system of the large commercial complex. Personnel convert quantity in JGJ48-88 is based on the business area and the area of the storage, which is totally unfit for the new layout of a complex with modern ideas and novelties. The evacuation width calculated according to the method given in JGJ48-88 is usually too big. As a result, more staircases will be required, which not only brings great difficulties in the designing of the evacuation system, but also create enormous waste. At the sametime, the layout, structure as well as the aesthetic quality of the complex will be affected too.[68~70] Therefore, it is improper to determine the evacuation width or other parameters according to the calculation method given in the current standard.3.3 Some of the requirements in the current code can’t be implemented easily in the fire protection design of large commercial complex（1）Fire compartmenttion.It is required in the current fire code that the fire compartment of the commercial buildings shall not be larger than 5000m2. However, the building area of a large commercial complex is usually as big as hundreds of thousands of square meters. If the fire compartment is divided strictly according to the requirements of the fire code, many many fire compartments, staircases and exits will be provided. The result of this is that the arrangements of the business area will be greatly affected and the function of the complex will be completely limited.（2）Fire separation.The typical problem for the fire protection design of large commercial complex is that its travel distance and evacuatio n width can’t meet the requirements of the code.“Code for design of building fire protection and prevention” GB 50016-2006 requires that the linear distance between any point in the shopping areas inside the Class A and Class B buildings and the nearest exit should not be larger than 30m; when the building is protected completely by sprinkler system, the maximum safe travel distance shall be 37.5m; the end of the staircase on the first floor shall be provided with exit directly leading to outdoor or shall be enlarged. When the building is not more than 4 stories, the exit directly leading to outdoor can be located at the place that is not more than 15m away from the staircase. But in practice, it is not enough for large commercial complex to provide emergency staircases only at the periphery of the building because the complex is usually quite long and deep. Therefore, more staircases shall be provided in the middle. According to the requirements of the fire code, these staircases in the middle part of the building must have exits directly leading to the outdoor, which is completely out of the question.“Code for fire protection design of tall buildings” GB 50045-95(2005 edition) requires that the linear distance between any point in the shopping areas and the nearest exit should not be larger than 30m. In practice, the emergency staircases of the high-rise commercial buildings are also provided at the periphery of the building. The linear distance between the least favorable point to the nearest staircase is often larger than 30m. But in order to meet the requirement of the tall building code, staircases in the middle of the building must be provided. However, the staircases in the middle of the building can’t directly lead to outside.（3）Fire fighting.Both “Code for design of building fire protection and prevention” and “Code for fire protection design of tall buildings” require that where the length of the building along the street is more that 150m or the total length of the building is more than 220m, a well situated fire vehicle access shall be provided to cross the building. For large commercial complex, it is quite difficult to provide fire vehicle access to cut the building apart. Therefore, in practice, many designers propose to use the walking street as the fire vehicle access, but it can’t meet the fire fighting need of the fire vehicles.4.Current research status at home and abroadCurrently in China, the researches on the fire protection design of large commercial complex mainly focus on the analysis of some fire protection system.Zhao Hualiang analyzed the commonly used index and parameters of evacuation design. Parameters used for design of evacuation system of large commercial complex such as number of people, evacuation width, travel distance as well as emergency lighting have been discussed.Aim at the difficulties in designing of the fire partition in commercial construction, Zheng Yanqiu analyzed the general requirements for the design of the sunk plaza, fire compartment, protected evacuation passage and atrium. The application of cesium and kalium fire protection glass and toughened glass protected by water sprinkler as the fire partition was also studied.Guo Jinjun and Zhao Lijun introduced the difficulties in the designing of water based fire fighting systems as well as the solution.Guo Xiaolong and Wang Lingjian introduced a method to solve the problem of fire separation of a large commercial complex as well as atrium smoke extraction by separating inner atrium and horizontal sliding skylight.“Code for fire protection design of large commercial complex in Chongqing” provides a method to calculate the width of exit and series of parameters that are applicable for Chongqing city. In the code, the concept of calculating the width of the exit based on the fire compartment was put forward for the first time. The requirements that the exit can be borrowed or shared by the adjoining fire compartments are provided and the calculation method to calculate this kind of exit is given. For the shopping malls with quite many stories above ground, this local code of Chongqing introduces the concept of “refuge space”, which provides favorable conditions for the emergent evacuation of the people.Aiming at the problems in the requirement of the fire code-“if the building area of an underground shopping mall is larger than 20000m2, fire wall shall be used to separate it and there shall be no openings in the fire wall”, Kang Dasheng and Wang Jinling suggested to provide a so-called “open fire isolating area” (sunk space) and “closed fire isolating area” . They also suggested to provide an emergency passageway less than 55m long on the first underground floor to directly lead to the outside of the building. For those large space areas like the atrium and indoor walking street, they suggested to install intelligent sprinkler system especially for large space areas.The above mentioned researches mainly focus on the problems in the design of the commercial buildings. Solutions from the experiences during design, review and construction have been proposed, but they are not complete and thorough. The results can’t be generalized.Some foreign building and fire codes have some requirements for the fire protection of commercial buildings. For example, building code of Canada, fire code of Singapore, building code of New Zealand and the “Uniform Building Code” of NFPA etc. However,these requirements are mainly applicable to ordinary shops, not the large commercial complexes in China.5.ConclusionIn order to solve so many practical problems encountered in the fire protection design of the large commercial complex, to evaluate the fire safety performance of this kind of building scientifically, and to define the scientific, reasonable and economic fire safety system, it is necessary to study the key technology of fire protection based on the practical fire loads and occupant density in the large commercial complex in China. Through this research, the related technical requirements of fire protection design were determined, and the scientific, reasonable and economical method of fire protection design was proposed. It is very important to understand the method and to prevent the occurrence of fire so as to safeguard the life safety and reduce property loss.References[1]Fire Bureau of MPS. Anthology of disastrous fire cases of China,2008.[2]LI Yin-qing. Performance Design for Building Fire Protection. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press.2005.141~171.[3]LI Yu. Study on Performance-based Fire Protection Design of Large Sho pping Centre. MA thesis of Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology,2005.[4]ZOU He. The key technology research for performance-based design of underground commercial building. Engineering Master Degree Dissertation of Chongqing University,2007.[5]LI Xin, GU Yu. Discussion on the problems in the evacuation design of large commercial complex.. Fire Technology and Products Information,2007,12,31~33.[6]Chongqing Construction Committee. DBJ 50-054-2006 Code for fire protection design of large-scale commercial buildings of Chongqing,2006.[7]HUO Ran, YUAN Hong-yong. Performance-based Fire Protection Design and Analysis.Hefei:Anhui Science & Technology Publishing House, 2003.[8]ZHAO Wei. Evaluation of performance-based design on giant commercial building.Fire Science and Technology, 2009,28(11),817~819.[9]The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China. GB50016-2006 Code of Design on Building Fire Protection and Prevention. Beijing: China Planning Press,2006.[10]The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China. GB50045-95 Code for fire protection design of tall buildings(2005Edition).Beijing: China Planning Press,2005.[11]Civil Air Defence Office of China, The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of Chi na. GB 50098-2009 Code for fire protection design of civil air defense works. Beijing:China Planning Press,2009.[12]Central-south Architectural Design Institute. Code for Design of Shop Buildings(draft) JGJ 48-88. Beijing:China Architecture & Building Press,1988.[13]LIN Feng. Studies on the Fire Safe of Large-scale Commercial Buildings. MA thesis of Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology,2009.[14]ZHAO Hua-liang. Discussion on Safe Evacuation from Commercial Buildings.Fire Technology and roducts Information,2005,2,9~11.[15]JING Jian-sheng, NI Zhao-peng, ZHUANG Jing-yi. Calculation method of the number of safe egress occupants in commercial building.Fire Science and Technology,2003,22(5),351~353.[16]ZHANG Shu-ping, JING Ya-jie. Research of evacuation crowd in the business hall of large department stores. Fire Science and Technology,2004,23(2),133~136.[17]QI Xiao-xia, PAN Jing. Research of evacuation crowd in the large specialized stores. Fire Science and Technology,2005,24(1),60~64.[18]YAN Xiao-long,WANG Ling-jian. Fire protection design of large-scale commercial building. Fire Science and Technology,2007.26(5),523~525.[19]ZHENG Yan-qiu. Analysis of fire protection separate design in commercial construction [J]. Fire Science and Technology,2009,28(1),43~46.[20]GUO Jin-jun, ZHAO Li-jun. Design difficulties and solutions for water fire-extinguishing system in the mall [J]. Water & Wastewater Engineering,2008,7(34),86~88.[21]GUO Sheng-you, LIU Mei-mei. Idea and characteristic of code for the fire prevention design of large-scale commercial buildings of Chongqing [J]. Fire Science and Technology, 2007, 26(1), 49~51.[22]KANG Da-sheng, WANG Jin-ling. The Measures of Large-Scale Shop Fire Prevention Designing [J]. Journal of Chinese People's Armed Police Force Academy,2008,24(10),15~17.[23]National Research Council of Canada.National Building Code of Canada[S].2005ˈVolume 1.[24]Singapore Civil Defence Force.Singapore Fire Code[S].[25]NFPA. NFPA1 Fire Code 2009 Edition[S],2009.[26]R.L.P. Custer & B. J. Meacham. Introduction To Performance based Fire Safety. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1997.[27]SFPE engineering guide to performance–based fire protection:analysis and design of buildings.First Edition,National Fire Protection Association,Society of Fire Protection Engineers,USA,2000.[28]British Standards Institution. Draft British standard BSDD240 fire safety engineering in building,Part l: Guide to the application office safety engineering Principles,1997.[29]Building Code of Australia, Australia Building Code Board, October 1996.[30]Hadjisophocleous GV,Benichou N.Development of performance-based codes, performance criteria and fire safety engineering methods.International Journal on Engineering Performance-based Fire Code, 2000, 2(4), 127~142.二、翻译结果分析与研究大型商业综合体中消防难点的设计摘要总结了大型商业综合体的火灾特性。
建筑外文翻译（可编辑）
建筑外文翻译Building a culture rooted in the natural environment of Habitat Different geographical They certainly have different natural environment: topography, sunshine point of view, sun and tides, currents and winds, temperature, pressure, food, land, water, vegetation and so on. As an intermediary between man and nature of the construction, the external should be conducive to the formation of district external environment should be conducive to the protection of the domestic indoor environment Habitat. These buildings, like plants, the roots, making a day, or geographical areas of the natural environment suitable for the requirements of integration with nature In Southeast Asia and South Asia, in China's Hainan Island and Taiwan Island, Coconut Grove dense, hot weather, people with palm leaves, palm-leaf built to adapt to the tropical rainforest of thatched rooms, small, ventilation, cool, lightweight, simple , built a tropical rain forest building In Central Asia, West Asia, in China's western alpine region, people with stones, the mountain has been built on the powerful stone building, take shelter from the wind, blocking snow, heat, warm, building construction has become plateaus. Such as China, Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan and other ethnic minorities in China's western mountains and on the potential tobuild a wide variety of mountain building Loess Plateau in China, the Gobi Mobei, low rainfall, dry climate, people use the hillside slopes built tunneling room, built with distinct characteristics of immature soil construction. Gansu Dunhuang Art Exhibition Hall of the building buried in the hillside, the semi-open entrance connected hillside retaining wall, construction features of immature soil is very obvious In the eastern part of the United States, in Australia, in China's south, rainfall, mild climate, people use wood, brick and mountains on the potential, in line with local conditions, build a shade shelter from the rain, ventilation, styling and unique architectural humid areas These architectural forms, of various styles, suitable for different regions of the natural environment, with the landscape, vegetation, terrain together, forming a natural environment is rooted in a variety of architectural culture. Building both rooted in the natural environment, but also subject to the natural environment, this is the architects must follow a basic principle Second, the social space-time caused by environmental differences in the diversification of architectural culture Different regions, different countries, different nations have different social and historical patterns. European countries, the Americas, Asia and Africa and other developing countries, land of different religious beliefs, economic development of the different regions have different cultural practices. Habitat in different parts ofthe social differences in time and space environment, resulting in the architectural culture and the diversity of time and space, resulting in ancient or modern Chinese architectural culture, the Russian architectural culture, architectural culture in Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States Architectural Culture, the African Architectural Culture and so on. Ancient Greek architecture in Europe, North Africa, the ancient Egyptian architecture, the South Asian Association for the ancient Indian architecture, ancient Chinese architecture is the world's architectural and cultural history of ethnic origins. Catholic, Jesus taught, Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, such as the formation and development of religion, a profound impact on the religious beliefs of countries and regions, but also a profound impact on those areas of construction, forming a rich and colorful culture of religious architecture China several thousand years long history, has followed so far, both ancient and extensive, since ancient times by Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Zen, such as the impact of ethical thinking. Especially Confucianism ruled China for 2 000 years, deep-rooted. To this culture of Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism and Zen eclectic variety of ideas, together brilliant, independent nations of the world Architectural Culture under certain conditions, can be transformed. Geographical, ethnic and cultural construction under certain conditions, can be transformed into international architectural culture, and international architecturalculture can also be absorbed, the integration of the region and the national character of the new architectural culture. In today's world, building a culture of development and progress, both the transformation of the former to the latter, which also includes the absorption and integration of the former. The two also both opposing reunification, complement each other, affect each other and common development, only the protection and development of a variety of architectural culture of all ethnic groups, the promotion of world architectural culture of pluralism, and ultimately to create a "different and" the human societyThree Chinese and foreign construction and cultural development and blend Architectural Culture in the global "big culture" systems, all nationalities, all geographical construction symbiotic culture in this form the world's architectural culture Symphony. Social process of globalization has brought to the cultural collision with the rendezvous, conflict and blend For thousands of years, the Chinese culture to external sources of long. Buddhist culture have originated in India, Zhang Qian as envoy to the Western Regions of the Western Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty Master Xuan Zang went to India to learn from their experience Chuan-by, the impact of China's 2,000 years of Buddhism. However, the contents of Buddhism, Buddha, like Maung, the shapes with the Chinese Buddhist temple in cultures, the formation and development of a unique Chinese Buddhist architectural culture As early as the 20th century, 20 years, China's modern architectsreturned from studying abroad, most of whom are scholars in the United States, they are building at the time of Western academic and cultural concepts and China Architectural Culture nationalistic concept of the double impact, emphasizing cultural exchange between Chinese and Western architecture focused on the architectural style for the first time a creative way to design a number of products, creating a cultural exchange between Chinese and foreign construction of a new era. For example, the first batch of U.S. architect Mr. Lv Yanzhi Canton 20's design Zhongshan Memorial Hall, Dr. Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing and so on, in the Chinese construction industry has played a really ground-breaking effect in stimulating the Chinese and foreign architectural culture of the integration process The early founding of New China, the Chinese government, mechanisms copied the Soviet model, the Chinese all over the building of a group of Russian cultural identity building construction, the formation and development of China's 50's "socialism" of architectural culture. Since reform and opening up, China's open-door once again, the introduction of Western economic management model to imitate, "European style", RTHK construction, post-modernism almost swept the country, the formation and development of China's 80's "reform and opening-up" construction culture. It goes without saying that all countries in the world of architectural culture at that time are subject to local political systems, economic conditions, technical level ofrestraint, in conflict with each other, mutual exchanges, mutual influence, mutual integration. However, what kind of fusion and exchange with vitality, stand the test of time and space? Only those who learned the essence of eastern and western cultures, integration-oriented areas of national culture and national character of the construction only has great vitality Fourth, cultural exchange between old and modern architectural exploration and the pursuit of Ancient and modern cultures, the past serve the present, what? Need to analyze the "ancient" and "today" in the construction of content changes that have taken place. These qualitative change is the social system, production technology, living habits, work, cultural values, building materials in the construction sector caused by the inevitable result. As Mr. Wu Yurong in the evaluation of the French engineer Gustave. Eiffel designed the Eiffel Tower noted: "People are trying to adapt to every human life an art form the new direction of development and to make all the human activities and the rapidly changing era of emotion caused by the new suit." To explore ancient and modern blend of traditional architecture and modern architecture combining problem. China's traditional architectural culture has many features, such as the overall layout of buildings, in line with local conditions, and be full of change; architectural style, rich and colorful; space separated, flexible and diverse; interior decoration, pay attention to the connotation; color to use, colorful; garden green, it is implicitlylively, changeable, unique in the world. In the creation of modern architecture, the contemporary architects should learn from ancient architecture and cultural wealth of nutrition, according to the modernization of a wide range of requirements, from the analysis of the various contradictions in the exploration and pursuit of people's lives to adapt to the new direction of development and people's construction activities and the rapid caused by the changing times adapt to new emotions Since the founding of New China, focusing on the succession of Chinese tradition, carry forward the, creative architectural art of the problems the United States experienced a number of exploration and discussion. Experienced the liberation of the early to imitate the "big roof" retro nostalgia period; experienced a critical retro, and copy the Soviet "model" dogmatism stage; experienced the Cultural Revolution, servility to foreigners critical philosophy, the implementation of "dry-base hit," the poor during the transition; experienced early advocate of reform and opening up the West, the popular "Hong Kong style" period. After exploring the difficulties and setbacks, China began to follow the traditional architect, to adapt to function, the use of high-tech, to explore ancient and modern cultures, the realization of the modernization of architectural creation of the correct way In this paper, talking about building a culture of environment and blend only preliminary study, many deep theoretical issues need further study. Our generation of architectsshould be firmly established the "scientific concept of architectural culture" to the Chinese culture as the main body, to accelerate the construction of culture and environment, and the nation, and society, and the blending process with the times.一建筑文化根植于人居自然环境之中不同的地域自然有不同的自然环境:地形地貌、日照角度、日月潮汐、水流风势、气温、气压、食物、土地、水质、植被等等。
建筑外文文献及翻译(参考模板)
外文原文Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of ProjectsLin Jingjing , Zhou GuohuaSchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm.Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority .1.INTRODUCTIONMore and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have discussed the resource allocation problem in multi-project environment with resources constrained. Reference [1] designed an iterative algorithm and proposeda mathematical model of the resource-constrained multi-project scheduling .Basedon work breakdown structure (WBS) and Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition method ,a feasible multi-project planning method was illustrated , as in [2] . References [3,4]discussed the resource-constrained project scheduling based on Branch Delimitation method .Reference [5] put forward the framework of human resource allocation in multi-project in Long-term ,medium-term and short-term as well as research and development(R&D) environment .Basedon GPSS language, simulation model of resources allocation was built to get the project’s duration time and resources distribution, as in [6]. Reference [7] solved the engineering project’s resources optimization problem using Genetic Algorithms. These literatures reasonably optimized resources allocation in multi-project, but all had the same prerequisite that the project’s importance is the same to each other .This paper will analyze the effects of project’s priority on human resource allocation ,which is to be introduced into a mathematical model ;finally ,a Genetic Algorithm is used to solve the model.2.EFFECTS OF PROJECTS PRIORITY ON HUMAN RESOUCE ALLOCATIONAND THE AFFECTING FACTORS OF PROJECT’S PRIORITYResource sharing is one of the main characteristics of multi-project management .The allocation of shared resources relates to the efficiency and rationality of the use of resources .When resource conflict occurs ,the resource demand of the project with highest priority should be satisfied first. Only after that, can the projects with lower priority be considered.Based on the idea of project classification management ,this paper classifies the affecting factors of project’s priority into three categories ,as the project’s benefits ,the complexity of project management and technology , and the strategic influence on the enterprise’s future development . The priority weight of the project is the function of the above three categories, as shown in (1).W=f(I,c,s…) (1)Where w refers to project’s priority weight; I refers to the benefits of th e project; c refers to the complexity of the project, including the technology and management; s refers to the influence of the project on enterprise .The bigger the values of the three categories, the higher the priority is.3.HUMAN RESOURCE ALLOCATION MODEL IN MULTI-PROJECTENVIRONMENT3.1Problem DescriptionAccording to the constraint theory, the enterprise should strictly differentiate the bottleneck resources and the non-bottleneck resources to solve the constraint problem of bottleneck resources .This paper will stress on the limited critical human resources being allocated to multi-project with definite duration times and priority.To simplify the problem, we suppose that that three exist several parallel projects and a shared resources storehouse, and the enterprise’s operation only involves one kind of critical human resources. The supply of the critical human resource is limited, which cannot be obtained by hiring or any other ways during a certain period .when resource conflict among parallel projects occurs, we may allocate the human resource to multi-project according to project’s priorities .The allocation of non-critical independent human resources is not considered in this paper, which supposes that the independent resources that each project needs can be satisfied.Engineering projects usually need massive critical skilled human resources in some critical chain ,which cannot be substituted by the other kind of human resources .When the critical chains of projects at the same time during some period, there occur resource conflict and competition .The paper also supposes that the corresponding network planning of various projects have already been established ,and the peaks of each project’s resources demand have been optimized .The delay of the critical chain will affect the whole project’s duration time .3.2 Model HypothesesThe following hypotheses help us to establish a mathematical model:(1)The number of mutually independent projects involved in resourceallocation problem in multi-project is N. Each project is indicated withQ i,while i=1,2, … N.(2)The priority weights of multi-project have been determined ,which arerespectively w1,w 2…w n .(3) The total number of the critical human resources is R ,with r k standingfor each person ,while k=1,2, …,R(4) Δk i = ⎩⎨⎧others toprojectQ rcer humanresou i k 01(5) Resources capturing by several projects begins on time. t E i is theexpected duration time of project I that needs the critical resources tofinish some task after time t ,on the premise that the human resourcesdemand can be satisfied .tAi is the real duration time of project I thatneeds the critical resource to finish some task after time t .(6) According to the contract ,if the delay of the project happens the dailycost loss due to the delay is △c i for pro ject I .According to the project’simportance ,the delay of a project will not only cause the cost loss ,butwill also damage the prestige and status of the enterprise .(while thelatent cost is difficult to quantify ,it isn’t considered in this articletemporarily.)(7) From the hypothesis (5) ,we can know that after time t ,the time-gapbetween the real and expected duration time of project I that needs thecritical resources to finish some task is △t i ,( △t i =t A i -t E i ). For thereexists resources competition, the time –gap is necessarily a positivenumber.(8) According to hypotheses (6) and (7), the total cost loss of project I is C i(C i = △t i * △C i ).(9) The duration time of activities can be expressed by the workload ofactivities divided by the quantity of resources ,which can be indicatedwith following expression of t A i =ηi / R i * ,.In the expression , ηi refersto the workload of projects I during some period ,which is supposed tobe fixed and pre-determined by the project managers on project planningphase ; R i * refers to the number of the critical human resources beingallocated to projects I actually, with the equation Ri * =∑=Rk ki 1δ existing. Due to the resource competition the resourcedemands of projects with higherPriorities may be guarantee, while those projects with lower prioritiesmay not be fully guaranteed. In this situation, the decrease of theresource supply will lead to the increase of the duration time of activitiesand the project, while the workload is fixed.3.3 Optimization ModelBased on the above hypotheses, the resource allocation model inmulti-project environment can be established .Here, the optimizationmodel is :F i =min Z i = min∑∑==Ni i N i Ci 11ω =min i i Ni i N i c t ∆∆∑∑==11ω (2) =min ∑∑==N i i N i 11ω )E i R i ki i t - ⎝⎛∑=1δη i c ∆ 2F =min Z 2=min ()i t ∆=min )E i R i ki i t -⎝⎛∑=1δη (3) Where wj=max(wi) ,(N j i 3,2,1,=∀) (4)Subject to : 0∑∑==≤R k ki N i 11δ=R (5)The model is a multi-objective one .The two objective functions arerespectively to minimize the total cost loss ,which is to conform to theeconomic target ,and to shorten the time delay of the project with highestpriority .The first objective function can only optimize the apparenteconomic cost ;therefore the second objective function will help to makeup this limitation .For the project with highest priority ,time delay will damage not only the economic benefits ,but also the strategy and the prestige of the enterprise .Therefore we should guarantee that the most important project be finished on time or ahead of schedule .4.SOLUTION TO THE MULTI-OBJECTIVE MODEL USING GENETICALGORITHM4.1The multi-objective optimization problem is quite common .Generally ,eachobjective should be optimized in order to get the comprehensive objective optimized .Therefore the weight of each sub-objective should be considered .Reference [8] proposed an improved ant colony algorithm to solve this problem .Supposed that the weights of the two optimizing objectives are αand β ,where α+β=1 .Then the comprehensive goal is F* ,where F*=αF1+βF2.4.2The Principle of Genetic AlgorithmGenetic Algorithm roots from the concepts of natural selection and genetics .It’s a random search technique for global optimization in a complex search space .Because of the parallel nature and less restrictions ,it has the key features of great currency ,fast convergence and easy calculation .Meanwhile ,its search scope is not limited ,so it’s an effective method to solve the resource balancing problem ,as in [9].The main steps of GA in this paper are as follow:(1)EncodingAn integer string is short, direct and efficient .According to thecharacteristics of the model, the human resource can be assigned to be acode object .The string length equals to the total number of humanresources allocated.(2)Choosing the fitness functionThis paper choose the objective function as the foundation of fitnessfunction .To rate the values of the objective function ,the fitness of then-th individual is 1/n。
房建外文资料翻译
毕业设计外文资料翻译系（院）：专业：土木工程（房屋建筑方向）姓名：学号：外文出处：Applied Composite Materials(用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文关于高分子复合材料加强体系下的混凝土柱的研究摘要：一项研究试验用来调查用不同的纤维（玻璃和碳）、树脂（醋酸乙烯酯和环氧树脂）包裹混凝土柱组成的各种复合包裹系统加强结构的效果。
成本评估后以辨别每一个独立体系下的费用效率。
结果表明，在钢筋混凝土的外围使用无碱玻璃纤维和醋酸乙烯酯能有效的降低材料成本。
以环氧树脂为基础的系统，在承载力上并没有得到多少改善。
R/T比值小（包裹层的厚度/混凝土柱的半径）会导致加强效率的降低。
用玻璃纤维层和碳纤维层组成的复合材料，能获得很好的力学性能，还可以增加包裹层的厚度。
强化效率在很大程度上取决与复合材料的结构。
在环箍方向的加固纤维能对混凝土柱产生一个高围效率。
然而对于长而细的柱子，在轴线方向仍然需用一定量的纤维来作为高分子材料。
关键词：混凝土柱、包装技术、高分子复合材料、强化工作效率、基础设施1．导言全球基础设施的损耗是由各种因素造成的，包括源于海洋污染、高氯含量的空气和盐碱溶质的使用。
此外，由于氯离子的渗入，混凝土柱的开裂和剥落往往伴随着内部钢筋的锈蚀。
胶凝材料的损失，以及由腐蚀所致的保护层处钢筋减少，导致了柱状支撑构件结构完整性很承载能力的大幅度降低。
对地震破坏意识的增加已引起了人们对柱子和其他支撑结构改进的迫切需要，前提是不增加结构的总体质量。
然而，在许多情况下，改进和修理一般来说都是非常昂贵和困难的。
直到最近，最常用的方法是安装加固钢套。
使用一种钢装箱来为在压缩中的混凝土提供侧向限制，这一方法得到了广泛的研究。
这一措施能显著提高柱子的受压承载力和变形能力。
然而，使用钢套的最主要缺点是耐腐蚀性差、高成本和自重大。
旨在加强土木工程结构而对纤维增强复合材料的研究和使用早在20世纪60年代初就开始了。
建筑学专业外文翻译--挪威Romsdal民俗博物馆
中文3500汉字，2000单词，10500英文字符外文翻译学院建筑学院专业建筑学专业姓名学号指导教师完成时间1.外文资料原文Norway Romsdal Folk MuseumPhotograph from : Stiftelsen RomsdalsmuseetThe Romsdal Folk Museum is an architectonic attraction and a treasured landmark that embodies the history and identity of the entire region. Our intention in this project was to let the structure signal its meaning and function through an architectural expression and the use of local materials. The scale of the building refers to the urbanity and morphology of the town. The overall layout of the museum grounds the connections to the town by linking different surrounding areas in an overall plan where all circulation is linked in a unified structure. The project conveys an open and progressive attitude that makes diverse utilization possible.The Museum design approach is rooted in rationality and sustainability. The plan geometry is deceptively simple, the characteristic angled shapes are limited to the roof and the external wall, making the circulation and internal organisation clear and flexible. The public areas are clearly separated from the administration wing, which is located on both the ground and first floor. Exhibition rooms, the auditorium and the library are all placed on the ground floor to increase flexibility and user experience. The transparency of the reception room permits supporting internal and external activities. Large sliding doors separate the permanent and temporary exhibition areas, giving the curators the ability to combine or separate the spaces. The archives and workshops are located on the basement level, with the vertical circulation of large items facilitated by a large goods lift.Pine is the primary building material of the museum. Exterior walls and roof are made of solid timber in combination of steel beam when required. The terrain entailed the use of concrete, however its use was reduce to the foundations. Exterior walls and ceilings covered with maintenance-pine relief tempered with bio-based oil.Different openings filter the daylight in such way that the internal space are enriched by gradations and translucency nuances. However, the main exhibition rooms are black boxes, giving the curators total control of artificial lightening inthese areas. All the glazing units have high-energy performance glass, in some locations with silk printed colours and patterns.The impact on the Nordic society:The Romsdal Folk Museum is a great example of strategic use of low-tech building solutions. It embodies the national policy in Norway to aim for a more sustainable future. The museum is built using Norwegian timber technology and acts as a hub for cultural development.In this building, the people of Molde as well as visitors and tourists are given the opportunity to connect and to build a wider community. The museum hosts not only exhibits about Norwegian culture but also concerts, workshops and lectures on a day-to-day basis.The architectural form brings together the region's folk culture and the area's characteristic landscape qualities in a larger composition. The range of perspectives and activities ensures a broad audience, with the museum becoming a living centre for the exploration of the region’s history, contemporary culture, and future.Schöningen Germany paleontology research and experience centerArchitects: Holzer Kobler ArchitekturenLocation: Schöningen, GermanyArea: 4,090 ㎡Year: 2013Photographs from : Courtesy of Holzer Kobler ArchitekturenFrom the architect. ArchitectureThe PALÄON pushes itself out of the slightly hilly topography and cuts into the forested meadows.The volume of the three-story building and the paths emanating from it form lines of sight that divide the landscape into vectors. A second winding path system forms synapses thatconnect to the surroundings. The building is a camouflage –a hyperrealistic abstraction of the landscape.The metallic skin of the PALÄON mirrors the meadows and forests that surround it as well as the movements of the clouds in the sky passing by. Through its archaic form, the research and experience center becomes one with its surroundings. Sharp, large- formatted cuts into the building façade offer wide-reaching and fascinating views to the place where the spears were discovered, the pit of the brown coal mine, the nearby forest, and the Przewalski horses grazing in the meadows. The expressive openings cut into the building like spears in the skin of the horses and reflect this dynamic in the form language. The abstract cuts into the building also formally react to the neighboring traces of opencut mining. The resulting expressive architecture mediates between manmade and natural landscape and forms an emblem for the place.ExhibitionThe experience exhibition, with its presentation of the original site from Schöningen lies at the heart of the project. Memorable images speak to the visitor’s senses and emotions. New findings on our ancestors, the homo erectus, his daily life and the flora and fauna that existed around 300,000 years ago are presented as well as connections to current themes such as climate change and sustainability.The circuit through the exhibition begins in the three-story foyer in the middle of the building, which connects all of the views to the outside. The tall space creates view axes to the research and exhibition areas in the first and second floors as well as vistas to the brown coal mine. Here is where all paths leading to the programmatic areas, such as exhibition, educational areas, administration, restaurant or shop, begin and end. The foyer then leads one back to prehistoric times through the lacquered cross-section of the geological and archaeological layers of the excavation.Central to the exhibition design is the sculptural white exhibition structure, whose form vaguely resemble those of horse bones. Through enlargement and abstraction, a row of theme cabinets form a spatially activating element with views alternating with large-format artwork. Highlight to the exhibition circuit is the spears` cabinet that presents the world-wide uniques wooden spears from the stone age. Finally the panoramic cinema makes 300,000 years emotionally experiential.Upon leaving the main exhibition space and crossing the foyer one last time high above the entrance, current archaeological excavation and research work in Schöningen can be experienced in the research area. In the laboratory, visitors solve a tricky case with modern archaeological methods.The professional laboratory and workspaces of the archaeologists on-site are strung along the exhibition circuit and can be examined by the visitors. The ‘Adventure Research’ that takes place here daily is made comprehensible for laymen, children and experts and allowed to be experienced close-up – in the PALÄON itself and the exhibition site outdoors.LandscapeFor the design of the outdoor spaces of the new research and experience center, two complementary form languages were introduced into the landscape.They differ functionally and formally in the newly created park landscape echoing an inter-glacial cycle of primeval times and in the access and gathering areas, which are strongly influenced architectonically through the building. To the east, dense woods will soon cover half of the area of the site. To the west and surrounding the PALÄON stretch dappled forests, as well as meadows and a lake, which also accommodate the fenced- in area for the Przewalski horses. A curving network of paths leads the visitor to special viewpoints, attractions, and makes necessary connections. For example, the design of the playground was inspired from extinct primeval animals. And from a slightly raised point at one area of the lake, the visitor is given an ideal view of where the wild horses reside.Spa Hot Springs Resort Ming Tang, Bazhou,Hebei Province of China. Architect: CT Design + Cooperation TeamLocation: Bazhou City, Hebei Province, ChinaSite Area: About 12 hectares at the first phaseInvestment: About 600,000,000 TWDHot Spring Hotel Area: About 13,000 ㎡Completion: Nov 2010Photographs: TonyBACKGROUNDWith advantage of location about distance from Beijing city by car in 1 hour and resource of hot spring, Bazhou has been planed and developed as hot spring town in Hebei Province of China. There are 6 pieces of land allotted to 6 investment groups in the new development area and the project is 1 of 6 hot spring resorts.ISSUE & AGENDAHow to redefine quality for 5 star resort hotel which is not mai nly by it’s physical luxury but more about rich nature experience is the issue we have and how to create resort as one sustainable environment is our main concern. Therefore, environment goes first, then landscape experience, architectural form is just based on how to integrate it with surroundings.SITE SITUATIONThe site is flat which is about 18 hectares in rectangle shape (12 hectares for the first phase) and as normal northern landscape in China. Cold winter wind comes from northwest direction and cool summer wind comes from southeast direction. Moreover climate and landscape situation is very different at 4 reasons – spring is comfortable, summer is hot which will reach to 32 degree at highest, autumn is cool, and winter is cold about minus 10 degree at lowest. So how to use these varied experience for resort is the one of main points for design.ABOUT PLANNING & LANDSCAPEMore Nature, More SustainableNew topography created intends to respond to site’s situation wh ich is to have high hill at north side working as defence for cold winter wind and low hill at south side to guide cool summer wind into the site.Topography also works as base to creates three landscape typologies which will create multiple landscape experience – the hilltop as grassland, the hillside as forest, and the low land as hot spring. Hotel and villas will be set at different position and zoning as groups with different landscape theme such as hot spring, forest, and lake.As hot spring resort, water is the main subject and is used as main landscape element. From hot spring to SPA, from dam to waterfall, and from water courtyard to surrounding lake, we intend to create more chance for guest to experience hot spring in many different ways.About water system, secondhand hot spring is collected and pumped into waterfall and water wall in courtyard. Water will flow from high level to low level, from inside to outside, from water courtyard to entrance pool and down to lake and river. Finally water will be pumped back to water courtyard at the end pool of river as one circulating system.ABOUT ARCHITECTURE & SPACEArchitecture in Nature, Nature in Architecture“Architecture in Nature, Nature in Architecture” is our basic concept for the hotel. In the way, we intend to create weak and humble architecture which is harmonious and consistent with surroundings.We take linear form for building as the way to integrate it with surroundings in stead of creating one big solid object as normal business hotel on landscape. Linear form is as loop putting on topography which still will keep landscape inside and can give maximum proximity and access to the landscape. Moreover, it also works as corridor to guide guest experiencing environment and as the best circulation for flow of people as well.Based on arrangement of landscape, the hotel space is arranged in 3 loops following topography from level +0.2m up to level +1.1m.3 LOOPSLoop 1: Lobby, Café, SPA, indoor / outdoor swimming pool – water zoneSurrounded by water and looks like standing on it, our intention is to integrate inner space with surrounding big water. And due to temperature difference, hopefully hot spring could create kind atmosphere that hotel will look like as in mist in winter.Loop 2: Restaurant – flower zoneSurrounded by flower and encircling sakura courtyard, we intend to create kind atmosphere which is comfortable and refined in restaurant.Loop 3: Guest room area – bamboo forest zoneDue to it’s special charact er and ability to survive in winter, bamboo is chosen to create forest for guest room area which is not just only to provide privacy but also create kind feeling of meditation, especially for hot spring area in guest room towards bamboo courtyard.EXPECTATIONWe hope this resort could be as an environment which people can experience by not just only vision, but hearing, smell, and touch as well. It is just simply you can hear voice of water, birds, and wind going through bamboo, and can feel hot spring and smell flower as well.2.外文资料翻译挪威Romsdal民俗博物馆图片来源：Stiftelsen Romsdalsmuseet这是由Reiulf Ramstad建筑事务所设计的Romsdal民俗博物。
建筑专业外文翻译
英语原文A Unified Approach to Project ManagementThomas Froese* and Sheryl Staub-French**Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z4. e-mail: 1tfroese@civil.ubc.ca, 2sherylsf@civil.ubc.caAbstractIn current project management practice, the overall task of designing, managing, and constructing a building is carried out by organizing the work into many distinct tasks assigned to many different groups. Most project effort is then directed towards carrying out these tasks in the most effective manner possible, while relatively little effort (concentrated within a few critical positions) is focused on managing the interdependencies between tasks and effectively combining these results to yield the overall result. We propose a unified approach to project management that brings an integrative view to the forefront, centered on the notion of defining multiple views of the project and the interrelationships that exist between the views. This integrated representation acts as a model or prototype of the physical facility, allowing more experimentation and optimization and providing a unifying focus for the ongoing work. The representational framework, proposed methodology, and accompanying IT issues for this approach to project management are discussed.MotivationMuch of our previous research has been in the area of information technologies (IT) applied to the task of project management (PM) in the field of architecture, engineering, construction, and facilities management (AEC/FM). Within this field of research and development (R&D), a major theme has been the integration of information resources and tools throughout the AEC/FM project lifecycle. Great progress has been made in the concepts, technologies, and tools to support this integration. As of yet, however, the results have had minimal impact on practice in the industry. This situation begs the question of why this active area of R&D has not had greater impact. One significant problem seems to be that the resulting technologies and tools do not fit particularly well with current project management practices. More specifically, the new tools assume and require a level of integration and coordination among project participants that is seldom found in practice. Clearly, the technologies require further development towards tools that better suit current practice. Yet it may be useful to also consider current project management practices to see if changes could be introduced that would allow projects to better exploit the advances that have been made in IT.From this initial perspective of IT, we have begun to explore potential weakness and opportunities for improvement in current project management practices. In the process, the perspective has broadened to identify several issues that are not specifically IT related. These are not new concepts, but a collection of several current trends in AEC/FM and relevant ideas from other industries. In this paper, we consider several of these views on weakness in current project management practices and opportunities for improvements. We then synthesize these into a proposed framework for a unified approach to project management in AEC/FM.Perspectives on Weaknesses and Opportunities for Project ManagementComplexity and Interdependencies in AEC/FM projects. AEC/FM projects are often described as large and increasingly complex. A greater understanding of the nature of this complexity can point to the areas where the need for improved management is greatest.Studies have identified the following characteristics as generally common to anytype of complex system11:plex systems are comprised of a multiplicity of things; they have a large number of entitiesor parts. Generally, the more parts a system contains, the more complex it is.plex systems contain a dense web of causal connections among their components. The partsaffect each other in many ways.plex systems exhibit interdependence of their components. The behavior of parts isdependant upon other parts. If the system is broken apart, the components no longer function 1Paraphrased from Homer-Dixon 2001, pp.110-114.(like the parts of the human body).plex systems are open to their outside environments. They are not selfcontained, but areaffected by outside events.plex systems normally show a high degree of synergy among their components: the wholeis more than the sum of its parts.plex systems exhibit non-linear behavior. A change in the system can produce an effect thatis not proportional to its size: small changes can produce large effects, and large changes can produce small effects.To some extent, all of these features can be observed in AEC/FM projects. AEC/FM projects are made up of components such as the physical elements in a building, thedesign or construction activities, the people and resources utilized, etc. In many cases, the individual components are not complex. Yet the number of components that make up the project is vast, and the causal connections between these components are numerous. For example, a change in the intended use of some space in a building could affect the heating and cooling requirements for that space, which could affect the design of parts of the mechanical system, which could alter the elements of the electrical system, which could change a purchase order for material supplies, which could delay a material delivery, which could influence the construction schedule, which could reduce the productivity of a work crew, which could increase a work package cost, which could affect a sub-contractor’s financing, and so on.AEC/FM projects, then, are justifiably described as complex, largely because of the quantity and interdependence of the components that make up the project.Explicit recognition of interdependency in project management approaches.One of the fundamental mechanisms that the AEC/FM industry has developed for dealing with complexity is the approach of dividing project work into well-defined work tasks and assigning each work task to a specialist group. These tasks are then carried out, to a large extent, as if they are fairly independent from each other. To be sure, each participant has some notion that their work must follow certain work and must precede other work, and that certain actions or outcomes of their work will influence others. By and large, however, participants focus primarily on their individual tasks, with any concerns about these interdependencies addressed in a very ad hoc and reactive way. Most participants try to optimize their own work while the few people responsible for managing the project as a whole have little opportunity to optimize the entire system.Clearly, it is beneficial to organize work in such a way as to minimize interdependency among work tasks. However, we contend that a weakness of current project management practice is that it tends to treat typical AEC/FM work tasks as being far more independent than they actually are. Instead, project management approaches should strive to make the interdependencies between work tasks more explicit. This does not increase interdependence and complexity, but it does make the existing interdependency and complexity more visible, and therefore more manageable. In summary, AEC/FM projects are complex because of the quantity and interdependency of their components, and project management techniques should strive to make these interdependencies explicit.Information, Information Management, and Information Technology. All design and management tasks on AEC/FM projects are fundamentally information processing tasks: they take existing project information as input and produce new project information as output. Even construction tasks, which deal with the processing of physical resources, require information as a significant resource. Yet the information resources and information flows are rarely considered and managed explicitly, and are instead treated as implicit in assigned work tasks and physical project components. This makes the management of this important resource haphazard, and makes the application of appropriate information technology more difficult.Information Management. We suggest the following general approach to information management (IM) on AEC/FM projects. The IM should adopt a processbased approach, organizing the project into its work tasks. The IM approach should then consider three main issues: 1) the information requirements for each task, 2) the communication requirements between tasks, and 3) the integration across tasks and communications. For each task, the IM should evaluate what the information input requirements are, what IT tools should be used for supporting the task, and what the information outputs are. For communications, the IM should evaluate what information flows must exist between tasks (including their required characteristics such as sender, receiver, mode, content, etc.), and what information and communication technologies are used for these communications. For the integrative analysis, the IM should examine the integration across all tasks and communication flows (i.e., adopt a holistic view and common IT platforms, rather than addressing each task or communication flow in isolation). This includes integration across organizational boundaries and integration with existing (and future)technologies.Disparate views of a project.As stated previously, all design and management tasks work with information rather than physical resources. This information all describes or models the physical construction project, and thus it can be said that all designers and managers work with information models of the project. However, each task often works with its own unique view, perspective, or type of information model. This wide range of disparate views adds to the fragmentation of these tasks. There is very little of a common, shared vision of the project across all participants—at least until the physical structure begins to emerge, which provides a unifying common perspective for all participants.A unified IT view. One of the opportunities of emerging IT is the ability to create building information models: semantically rich information models of construction projects that include both 3D geometric information (3D CAD) along with nongeometric information (everything from material properties to construction costs and schedules). These models support a wide range of advanced analytical and predictive software tools, including virtual project representations such as photo-realistic 3D renderings and walk-throughs, and they support extensive information sharing and software interoperability throughout the lifecycle of the project (as exemplified by the Industry Foundation Classes, IFCs, see International Alliance, 2002 and BLIS, 2002). This technology does not require that all project information be combined into a single model, but it allows linkages and interoperability between the various bodies of project information.This technology offers opportunities to create a more unified approach to project management in two ways. First, by linking together disparate views of project information and supporting software interoperability, it provides a technical platform for achieving a more integrated approach to project management. Second, the “virtual building” created by these technologies has the potential of acting as a common focal point, or unifying view, for all project participants, particularly during pre-construction design and management phases, much in the way that the physical structure does during the construction phase.Lean Construction and Workflows. There is currently a great deal of attention being paid to the area of lean construction, which spans a wide range of issues that relate to the management of AEC/FM projects (Lean Construction Institute, 2002). Among these issues is the concept that when a project is made up of many interdependent tasks, a focus on optimizing each task independently leads to sub-optimization of the overall project. Therefore, project management practices should ensure that tasks are managed with careful consideration of their role within the overall project workflows; they should not be treated as isolated, independent activities.Software Engineering and the Unified Modeling Language. Although project management has a much longer (and perhaps more successful) history within the field of AEC/FM than in the field of software engineering, there are some valuable lessons that AEC/FM can learn from developments in the software industry, particularly related to integrated information structures for managing projects.Much of the software engineering community has consolidated around the Unified Modeling Language (UML) (Object Management Group, 2002), a standard language for representing the components involved in the design and implementation of software projects. The UML provides a much more uniform and integrated (if less comprehensive) view of project requirements, processes, and elements, than comparable representations within AEC/FM (i.e., project plans and specifications, construction schedules, etc.).Furthermore, UML-based software development methodologies have emerged (e.g., the Unified Process, Kendall, 2002) that tightly integrate the various project workflows with the various project artifacts (deliverables) throughout each phase of the project lifecycle. These methodologies also accentuate the cyclical and repetitive nature of the related work tasks that are carried out within workflows as they move through the phases of the project lifecycle. Unlike approaches that treat each activity as an independent, one-time task, this reinforces attempts to continually improve performance in this work. While these techniques are not directly applicable to the AEC/FM industry, some of the approaches and best practices are quite relevant.A Unified Approach to Project ManagementWe have argued that existing project management practices underemphasize the interrelationships between individual work tasks and other project components. This leaves the interdependencies under-recognized and under-managed, and promotes a “one-time event” thinking that hinders the quest for ongoing performance improvements. We have begun to conceptualize a unified approach to project management that addresses some of the weaknesses and opportunities identified above.The basic approach is to adopt a framework that: 1) explicitly represents the various views that are critical for managing projects, and 2) explicitly represents the interconnections between these views.Examples of project views include the physical view (“what”), the process view (“how, who, when”), the cost view (“how much”), etc. (Russell and Froese, 1997). If the total collection of project information is thought of as a multi-dimensional information space, then the views define the dimensions. For each view, the overall project can be broken down into smallerelements. The simplest representation of a view would be a list or hierarchical breakdown structure of the elements that make up the view (e.g., a work breakdown structure, WBS). More complex representations would capture additional relationships between the elements, such as a CPM network or an IFC model.Primary Views. There are many views that can be useful for managing projects. To act as a unifying management tool, however, these views should be shared with all participants, and this places a practical limit on the maximum number of views, since it would become too complex to require all participants to work with numerous, interconnected views. We propose that the following three views to be used as the primary project coordination mechanism for all participants:•The project lifecycle dimension: The first primary view is time-based, organizing the project into well-defined project phases, which are further refined into iterations. These phases are arranged in sequential chronological order, constituting a logical time-view. This dimension can also provide an absolute time-view by defining the calendar dates for activities that take place within the phases. Unlike current project management practices where project phases are treated “loosely”, the phases and iterations have formal management roles. All work requirements, assignments, outputs, etc. are defined relative to a specific project phase, and phases have formal progress review procedures. This approach to phases can be seen, for example, in the Process Protocol approach (Process Protocol, 2003) and in the previouslymentioned Unified Process (Kendall, 2002).•The workflow dimension: The second primary view is process-based. It organizes the work into the various work disciplines required to complete the project. This is somewhat like the normal division of work into work packages, but rather than describing the tasks as discrete work packages, the work is organized as ongoing workflows, which can be further broken down into sequences or networks of sub tasks. Thus tasks are more explicitly placed in the context of the overall workflows than is common practice today.•The product/deliverable dimension: The third primary view organizes the outputs or deliverables of work. This view combines two important main elements, the information that describes the construction product (facility) being created, and the physical product itself.During the early phases of the project, the deliverables of design and management tasks are information about the physical facility. The collective sum of all of this information can be thought of as the building information model or virtual building (whether or not an integrated IT environment is used). During later phases, this information drives the physical deliverables of the construction work: the creation of the physical components themselves. This view emphasizes a continuum that flows from the virtual facility to the physical one.As a highly simplified example, an AEC project might be organized into the following primary views:Project Lifecycle Dimension:⏹Inception Phase⏹Design Phase⏹Construction Phase⏹Operation PhaseWorkflow Dimension:⏹Architectural workflow⏹Structural workflow⏹Building Services workflow⏹Cost workflowProduct/Deliverable Dimension:⏹IFC Product Model⏹Project Documents⏹Building Superstructure⏹Building Systems and FinishesIntegrating and Representing the Primary Views. Given these three primary dimensions, the work can be further organized by expressing the interrelationships between the dimensions:●Workflows vs. project lifecycle: Placing workflows and their constituent tasks within projectlifecycle phases creates a schedule view of the project, showing what should happen when.This can include both the logical schedule (sequencing) and absolute schedule (calendar dates). It can also show that most workflows span multiple phases/iterations, and can indicate the amount of effort expended on each workflow over time, which emphasizes the “ongoing processes” nature of the work.●Product/deliverables vs. project lifecycle: Similarly, the various project deliverables can bemapped to the project phases/iterations. The deliverables are generally cumulative, thus this shows how the total project output (the collective body of project information and the physical structure) develops over time.●Product/deliverables vs. workflows: The assignment of project deliverables to workflows andtasks shows how work processes collaborate to produce the required deliverables.The definition of the three primary views and the interrelationships between them defines a three-dimensional space, as illustrated in Figure 1. Key to the applicability of this approach is the ability to represent the primary views and their interrelationships in a simple, intuitive manner that all project participants can work with. It would be ideal if this could be achieved in a single, three-dimensions format, but it seems unlikely that such a representation is possible (even the simplified representation in figure 1 shows the relationships of each pair of dimensions rather than the relationships between all three dimensions simultaneously). Therefore, it may be necessary to represent the primary dimensions as a set of two-dimensional matrices. Each of these matrices may be quite simple and intuitive. For example, the matrix of workflows vs. project lifecycle forms a Gantt chart (bar chart schedule). What is essential (and what would differentiate this approach from current practice) is that the collection of two-dimensional matrices is interrelated and kept synchronized, which would require an effective underlying project management tool.Figure 1: Schematic of the dimensions in a unified approach to project management. Additional Views. We have suggested that the three primary views seem to be appropriate for the overall project organization and the coordination of all participants. However, those responsible for managing the project can add several more interrelated views. This would provide a very powerful representation of the project from all of the perspectives that are important for achieving project objectives, along with explicit representations of the interrelationships that exist between these views. Examples of the additional views include the following:●Organization View: An organizational view identifies the project participants; can link participantsto workflows/tasks, deliverables, etc.●Cost View: This view identifies the various cost schedules (estimates, costcontrol accounts, etc.)that are important to the project. Costs can be related to workflows/tasks, deliverables, organizational units, etc.●Risk View: As part of a risk management approach, significant risks can be identified andassociated with specific workflows/tasks, deliverables, organizational units, cost items, etc.●Quality View: Quality management programs may identify quality metrics, inspection tasks andresults, etc., associated with the workflow/tasks and deliverables.●Requirements View: Software engineering methods formally capture system requirements usingconstructs such as use cases. On AEC/FM projects, requirements would typically be less structured, but it may be possible to define a view that explicitly represents the project requirements in a way that helps●As-Built View: As construction work proceeds, the actual results of the work, in terms of finalconstruction results, actual cost and productivity data, etc., can be captured in an as-built view.●Other Views: A view can be created for any other area of interest on a project where a set of itemscan meaningfully be identified that relate to other defined view, such as a contractual view, safety view, environmental impact/sustainability view, punch list/defect view, maintenance view, etc.The possibility of defining a large number of views does not imply that a significant amount of additional management work is required. Rather, it suggests that when issues are already being addressed with some form of explicit management effort, that a representation structure can be used that can capture the relationships with other management issues.In many cases, the relationships between any two views may form a narrowly banded matrix: each item in one view would be associated with a small number of items in the other view. This may lead to interesting possibilities, such as the ability to partially automate the creation of one view from another (e.g., automatic generation of approximate lists of construction activities and estimate items from a building product mo del), or the ability to recognize “exceptions”, cases where relationships deserve extra management attention because they lie outside of the typical band of inter-relationships. Changing the Project Mindset.The unified approach to project management involves not only a change to the representational structures as outlined above, but this also a change in the way participants think of the underlying project mechanism and their role in it. Currently, projects are regarded as custom, unique endeavors and project tasks as a collection of one-off activities. The thought process is to find a satisfactory solution to the project requirements rather than to find “the best” solution. In part, this is because there is no room for trial-and-error exploration. Full-scale models are impossible and small-scale physical models are of limited use.In the unified approach to project management, the integrated project representations acts as project prototypes or models that can play the same centralrole in construction as prototypes do in manufacturing. They provide integrated, computer-based collections of all known project information. They may contain geometric information to allow tools like 3D visualization, but they also contain nongeometric design and management information, such as material properties, supplier information, cost and schedule data, organizational information, etc. Thus, the perspective is changed to be more like that of manufacturing: a prototyping process followed by an ongoing production process. Design and planning tasks first work towards the creation of prototypes or models. In these models, alternatives are developed and explored, new issues are identified and resolved, and interactions and interfaces are hammered out. Once all concerns are satisfied, the prototype is used to organize the production process. Every participant views their role as carrying out their tasks by drawing information from the project model, placing their results back into the project model, and using the model to explore the interaction of their work with others and to support communications. In this way, the overall concerns of the project are more prominent to all and are easier to identify and explore—we believe this will produce better solutions.Working with the Unified Approach to Project Management.As shown, the unified approach to project management is based on defining formalized views of project information along with the interrelationships between the views. This section will discuss how this approach might be carried out by comparing it with best practices in how project scheduling is carried out. If good scheduling and schedule control practices are used on an AEC/FM project, the project will benefit from good work coordination; there will be more certainty about the timing of events; it will be easier to measure progress; and productivity, cost, and project duration will be improved. Similarly, good practices using the unified approach will improve the project outcomes through more effective planning, particularly with respect to the interdependencies between project views. The process would be approximately as follows:●The project management team would define the project views to be used on the project.●Project planning would be carried out much as on a typical project, except that the results would berepresented using the defined project views. This would result in lists or breakdown structures for the project phases, workflows/tasks,deliverables, etc. This would be analogous to a typical project scheduling process, where the results are represented in a CPM network.●The key inter-relationships between the views would be defined. This would be analogous to theway that precedence relationships are captured in a schedule, or the way that a schedule can bemapped to cost accounts, resource plans, or to a building information model (as in the case of 4D CAD). Other than the precedence relationships, this type of mapping is not typically done in current project management practices, so it represents some additional work for project planners.However, it need not be done at a very detailed level, and the use of hierarchical relationships and effective planning tools may minimize the effort required for this task.●The execution of the resulting plan (e.g., initiating work tasks), project controland feedback(collecting progress information and monitoring results), and replanning activities all take place using the representational framework. Work tasks themselves remain essentially unchanged, but because the planning and management system explicitly captures the interrelationships, the causal links between actions will be better recognized and understood, and the potential negative impacts of any action will be identified earlier and mitigated or avoided more easily. For example, in the case of the change in the intended use of some space in a building mentioned previously, the threads of the causal impacts of this change may be more easily traced through the design,construction, procurement, time, and financial aspects of the project—appropriate adjustments can be made in advance, rather than allowing the impact to propagate as a series of unanticipated, reactionary actions.●As with scheduling, detail is important, but not all detail is required in advance. Planning for eachview might be carried out at a summary level initially, with greater detail added over time, culminating in something like detailed, rolling two-week look-ahead unified plans.●In scheduling, basic schedule representations such as bar charts are widely used as coordinationmechanisms for all participants, while more advanced analysis like resource leveling is carried out by project management specialists only. Similarly, the many potential applications of the unified approach fall into three general categories: 1) the use of the primary views as a broadly-applicable coordination mechanism shared by all participants, 2) the use of multiple views to capture all of the detailed information relevant to one participant carrying out one particular task, and 3) the use of detailed information in multiple views to carry out some specialized project analysis.We have discussed the unified approach to project management in terms of a representational framework and general methodology for project planning and management. However, the organizational context for the approach should also be addressed. This would include issues such as how the project team is organized (ideally, all key team members would be involved early in the process); who carries out which portions of the unified plans, when, and in how much detail; how incentives are structured to encourage effective use of the unified approach, etc. The approach is also quite dependant on a set of appropriate IT tools to support the process, as discussed in the following section.IT Tools to Support the Unified Approach to Project Management. A practical minimum requirement for applying the unified approach to project management is some type of IT platform that allows the views to be represented, inter-related, accessed, and utilized in an efficient manner by all project participants. Such asystem would be similar in many ways to various systems in common use today—project scheduling software, project management systems such as Prolog Manager from Meridian Project Systems, and web-based project collaboration systems such as Buzzsaw from Autodesk—yet none of these existing systems capture all of the multidimensional and integrated nature of the proposed approach.The unified approach would be an excellent complement to IT systems that use integrated product and process models, such as those based on the IFC’s, but these are not a necessary requirement for using the approach. Finally, while the minimum requirements for an IT platform would be the support of information entry and access (e.g., database-type functionality), it would also be possible to operationalize the integrated models. This could provide simulation, analysis, and visualization, e.g., as is done for certain views by scheduling software, 4D CAD systems (Fischer and Lam, 2002) or organizational simulation (Levitt, 2003). The representation of work activities in the system could also tie into workflow management systems to partially automate the management of the project activity. Thus, the problem of fit between project management practices and emerging IT technologies would be addressed in two ways. First, it creates explicit linkages between the project management framework and integrated IT systems. Second, and perhaps more importantly, it strongly emphasizes the integration and collaboration of all project activities, which is a basic requirement of highly integrated and interoperable IT approaches.ConclusionsIn summary, we have presented several perspectives of project management practices that suggest weakness with current practice and opportunities for improvement. We have synthesized these into a unified approach to project management, which is based on an explicit representation of multiple project。
建筑学外文翻译
附录ArchitectureThe summary In order to make people more clear understanding of architecture, this project to backfill earthwork specific requirements and the filled soil compaction, the special problems of the earthwork processing of turkmen excavation and backfilling, should pay attention to the safety measures for detailed in this paper.Keyword Architecture Earthwork backfilling ConcreteBackfilling securityArchitecture is the art of building. Virtually all architecture be concerned with the en-closure of space for human use. The precise activities to be housed in any specific building, ranging from an assembly Hue in n factory to a living room in a home, should dictate the size and shape of the several areas within, These spaces also must be arranged in some logical rela-tion to each other. Furthermore the movement of human beings within the building requires balls stairs or elevators whose size is governed by the expected load of traffic. The plan of a structure, always the first consideration of an architect, is the resolution of these different pur-poses into an organization of spaces that will fulfill the intent of the building, Good planning guides the visitor to his destination in the structure and impresses him, perhaps subconscious-ly by visibly relating the several units of the edifice. Conversely a bad plan results in incon-venience waste and. visual confusion.Furthermore, a structure must be well built it could have such permanence as the purpose for which it is intended demands and the materials chosen may allow. The raw materi-als of architecture-stone brick wood steelor glass-in part govern the forms of the building and are expressed by them. Stone can resist compression almost indefinitely. While n is possible 10 crushes stone in a laboratory, for practical purposes its compressive strength is unlimited, On the other hand - stone is weak in withstanding tension. Any beam spanning a void tends to bend downward between the supports, putting the lower half of the beam under tension. It follows from the tensile weakness of stone that beams of this material must be comparatively short and supported at frequent intervals. Moreover stone columns must be sturdy rarely more than 10 times as high as they are wide. In stone buildings, windows, doors and the spaces between columns are almost compelled to beBackfill the topic of the Turkish side to fill specific requirements and the compaction of the earthworks in dealing with the special problems of earth excavation and backfill the attention of the safety measures should be elaborated in detail. Backfilling should ensure that the earthwork fill the strength and stability, such as the design of a request, should be in conformity with the relevant provisions of the fillmaterial moisture content must also be strictly controlled. By filling the compacted into artificial consolidate and mechanical compaction of the two. Backfill venues should first remove the basement on garbage, grass, roots, excluding Kengxue in stagnant water, mud and debris, and shall take measures to prevent stagnation of water into the surface filling, soaking the foundation, causing subsidence of soil. By filling the compacted into manual and mechanical compaction consolidating the two, for different construction methods have different requirements. A landslide and collapse of the factors (or condition) is very complicated, can be summed up conditions can be divided into internal and external conditions for the two areas, the article on the Turkish side of the landslide and collapse of the prevention and treatment were discussed and provided a number of specific Programme. Earth excavation and backfill is to have the appropriate security measures to strictly regulate the construction.The first phase of the project ,which was conducted at the University of Michigan, involved monotonic punching shear tests of slabs of fiber-reinforced concreted concrete 60 in.(1520mm) square and 6 in .(150mm) thick .The slabs were constructed with fibers of varying diameters, strengths, and shapes. A 1.5 percent mix of fibers by volume was created for each specimen. Of the fiber tested in the first phase , the researchers determined that a hook-shaped wire of regular strength 1.2 in.(30mm) long and 0.022in(0.55mm) in diameter, as well as a hook-shaped wire of high strength 0.015 in.(0.38mm) in diameter ,offered the highest strength and ductility . These fibers were then tested further in the second and third phases of the project.The researchers determined that in the test specimens, the fiber-reinforced concrete needed to surround each column only to a distance equal to four times the thickness of the slab to be effective; the remainder of the slab could then be composed of standard reinforced concrete. This amount of fiber-reinforced concrete increased the amount of sway that a slab-to-column frame could experience without undergoing punching shear failure in the connections at a cost comparable to that of shear stud reinforcement, Parra-Montesinos says.The amount of lateral movement possible in a slab-to-column connection before punching shear damage occurs is greatly affected by the gravity load present; this is typically expressed as the radio of the shear induced by the gravity loads to the punching shear capacity of the connection under the action of loads alone. According to Parra-Montesinos, without shear reinforcement, a ratio of generally associated with a roughly 1.5 percent drift capacity in the slab-to-column frame. The higher the ratio, the more likely a connection is to fail during extreme loading. During the tests carried out in the second phase, the researchers applied a 0.5 ratio, which without slab shear reinforcement would probably lead to a punching failure at a drift of roughly 1 percent. When the connection still had not failed at a 4 percent drift, the researchers increased the ratio to 0.63. “The specimen with the high-strength fiber did not fail, and the specimen with the regular-strength fibers exhibited punching at five percent drift,” says Parra-Mon tesinos. “The gain in drift capacity was incredible on the unidirectional displacement tests.”Concrete is characterized by strong compressive strength, but is relatively weak in tension and shear. It can support large axial loads, and is used extensively in the foundations of large structures such as bridges and tall buildings.but it breaks easily under bending without reinforcing steel. Concrete with compressive strength of 3,000 ~ 6,000 pounds per square inch (psi) is common.The American Concrete Institute defines any concrete over 6,000 psi as high-strength concrete.For structures that require flexural strength for resistance to bending moments, reinforcing steel--rebar--is embedded in the concrete. In some cases,tensioned cables are placed in the concrete to make prestressed or post-tensioned concrete. The tension to resist the bending moment comes from the reinforcing steel or the stressed cables. For a concrete mix to reach its ultimate strength, a long period of time is needed. The ultimate strength of concrete and its 28-day strength are not the same. For design purposes, engineers use the 28-day strength, and the concrete should be subjected to only minimum loads until the 28 days have passed. That rule is very rigidly enforced in heavy construction. It is not at all uncommon for work in residential and medium-rise commercial building construction to be processed on a 3-day floor cycle. Place concrete one day, form and shore the next floor over the next two days, this puts minimum load on the new slab, and then place concrete on the third day. This placement increases the load on the previously placed floor, but the load is carried primarily by the shoring, which passes continually down for several floors, thereby shifting the load to concrete that has had time to reach its ultimate strength.建筑学摘要为了使人们更清楚的人是建筑学，本专题对土方回填具体要求以及填土的压实、对土方工程中的特殊问题处理、对土方开挖与回填应该注意的安全措施进行详细的阐述。
建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文
建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：《Advanced Encryption Standard》文献、资料发表（出版）日期:2004.10.25系（部）：建筑工程系生：陆总LYY外文文献：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with Contemporary architecture1, is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions.Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his "fireproof design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, πDark satanic millsπof places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan∙ Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright,s Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner,s Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities- The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright r s career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modem Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as πmachines for living,∖but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines- Even Philip Johnson admitted he was πbored with the box∕,Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a πstyleπthat threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin ,,At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion/1At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question πModern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?11In New York, the coup d r etat appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of πair rights,∖[l] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to ,,severπthe Park Avenue streetscape and πtarnishπthe reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and thebuilders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.中文译文:现代建筑现代建筑，不被混淆与‘当代建筑’，是一个词给了一些建筑风格有类似的特点，主要的简化形式,消除装饰等.虽然风格的设想早在20世纪,并大量造就了一些建筑师、建筑教育家和展品，很少有现代的建筑物，建于20世纪上半叶.第二次大战后的三十年，但最终却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设.1起源一些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为一个社会问题，息息相关的工程中的现代性, 从而影响了启蒙运动，导致社会和政治革命.另一些人认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和工程学的发展，那就是获得新的建筑材料，如钢铁，混凝土和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术，它作为工业革命的一部分.1796年，Shrewsbury查尔斯bage首先用他的‘火’的设计，后者则依靠铸铁及砖与石材地板.这些建设大大加强了结构，使它们能够容纳更大的机器.由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏,一些早期建筑失败.直到1830年初，伊顿Hodgkinson预计推出了型钢梁，导致广泛使用钢架建设，工业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的面貌,英国北部领导的描述，〃黑暗魔鬼作坊〃的地方如曼彻斯特和西约克郡.水晶宫由约瑟夫paxton的重大展览，1851年,是一个早期的例子, 钢铁及玻璃施工；可能是一个最好的例子，就是1890年由William乐男爵延长和路易沙利文在芝加哥附近发展的高层钢结构摩天楼.早期结构采用混凝土作为行政手段的建筑表达（而非纯粹功利结构），包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近，劳埃德赖特的统一宫，建于1926 年瑞士巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第二哥特堂,.但无论原因为何，约有1900多位建筑师，在世界各地开始制定新的建筑方法,将传统的先例（比如哥特式）与新的技术相结合的可能性.路易沙利文和赖特在芝加哥工作,维克多奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔，安东尼高迪在巴塞罗那，奥托瓦格纳和查尔斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在维也纳，其中之一可以看作是一个新与旧的共同斗争.2现代主义风格由1920年代的最重要人物，在现代建筑里确立了自己的名声.三个是公认的柯布西耶在法国，密斯范德尔德罗和瓦尔特格罗皮乌斯在德国.密斯范德尔德罗和格罗皮乌斯为董事的包豪斯，其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和工艺和传统工业技术.赖特的建筑生涯中，也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术,特别是通过瓦斯穆特组合但他拒绝被归类与他们.赖特与格罗皮乌斯和Van der德罗对整个有机体系有重大的影响.在1932年来到的重要moma展览,是现代建筑艺术的国际展览，艺术家菲利普约翰逊. 约翰逊和合作者亨利-罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势，内容相似,有一个共同的目的, 巩固了他们融入国际化风格这是一个重要的转折点.在二战的时间包豪斯的代表人物逃到美国，芝加哥，到哈佛大学设计黑山书院.当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单一的住宅楼，在成为现代卓越的体制和商业建筑，是学校（专业领导）的唯一可接受的，设计解决方案，从约1932年至约1984 年.那些从事国际风格的建筑师想要打破传统建筑和简单的没有装饰的建筑物。
建筑类外文翻译+译文
Architecture in a Climate of ChangePage52-Page62Low energy techniques for housingIt would appear that,for the industrialised countries,the best chance of rescue lies with the built environment because buildings in use or in the course of erection are the biggest single indirect source of carbon emissions generated by burning fossil fuels,accounting for over 50 per cent of total emissions.If you add the transport costs generated by buildings the UK government estimate is 75 per cent.It is the built environment which is the sector that can most easily accommodate fairly rapid change without pain.In fact,upgrading buildings, especially the lower end of the housing stock,creates a cluster of interlocking virtuous circles. Construction systemsHaving considered the challenge presented by global warming and the opportunities to generate fossil-free energy,it is now time to consider how the demand side of the energy equation can respond to that challenge.The built environment is the greatest sectoral consumer of energy and,within that sector,housing is in pole position accounting for 28 per cent of all UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.In the UK housing has traditionally been of masonry and since the early 1920s this has largely been of cavity construction.The purpose was to ensure that a saturated external leaf would have no physical contact with the inner leaf apart from wall ties and that water would be discharged through weep holes at the damp-proof course level.Since the introduction of thermal regulations,initially deemed necessary to conserve energy rather than the planet,it has been common practice to introduce insulation into the cavity.For a long time it was mandatory to preserve a space within the cavity and a long rearguard battle was fought by the traditionalists to preserve this‘sacred space’.Defeat was finally conceded when some extensive research by the Building Research Establishment found that there was no greater risk of damp penetration with filled cavities and in fact damp through condensation was reduced.Solid masonry walls with external insulation are common practice in continental Europe and are beginning to make an appearance in the UK.In Cornwall the Penwith Housing Association has built apartments of this construction on the sea front, perhaps the most challenging of situations.The advantages of masonry construction are:● It is a tried and tested technology familiar to house building companies of all sizes.● It is durable and generally risk free as regards catastrophic failure–though not entirely.A few years ago the entire outer leaf of a university building in Plymouth collapsed due to the fact that the wall ties had corroded.● Exposed brickwork is a low maintenance system; maintenance demands rise considerably if it receives a rendered finish.● From the energy efficiency point of view,masonry homes have a relatively high thermal mass which is considerably improved if there are high density masonryinternal walls and concrete floors.Framed constructionVolume house builders are increasingly resorting to timber-framed construction with a brick outer skin,making them appear identical to full masonry construction.The attraction is the speed of erection especially when elements are fabricated off site. However,there is an unfortunate history behind this system due to shortcomings in quality control.This can apply to timber which has not been adequately cured or seasoned.Framed buildings need to have a vapour barrier to walls as well as roofs. With timber framing it is difficult to avoid piercing the barrier.There can also be problems achieving internal fixings.For the purist,the ultimate criticism is that it is illogical to have a framed building clad in masonry when it cries out for a panel,boarded,slate or tile hung external finish.Pressed steel frames for homes are now being vigorously promoted by the steel industry.The selling point is again speed of erection but with the added benefit of a guaranteed quality in terms of strength and durability of the material.From the energy point of view,framed buildings can accommodate high levels of insulation but have relatively poor thermal mass unless this is provided by floors and internal walls.Innovative techniquesPermanent Insulation Formwork Systems (PIFS) are beginning to make an appearance in Britain.The principle behind PIFS is the use of precision moulded interlocking hollow blocks made from an insulation material,usually expanded polystyrene.They can be rapidly assembled on site and then filled with pump grade concrete.When the concrete has set the result is a highly insulated wall ready for the installation of services and internal and exterior finishes.They can achieve a U-value as low as 0.11 W/m2K.Above three storeys the addition of steel reinforcement is necessary. The advantages of this system are:● Design flexibility; almost any plan shape is possible.● Ease and speed of erection;skill requirements are modest which is why it has proved popular with the self-build sector.Experienced erectors can achieve 5 m2 per man hour for erection and placement of concrete.● The finished product has high structural strength together with considerable thermal mass and high insulation value.Solar designPassive solar designSince the sun drives every aspect of the climate it is logical to describe the techniques adopted in buildings to take advantage of this fact as‘solar design’. The most basic response is referred to as‘passive solar design’.In this case buildings are designed to take full advantage of solar gain without any intermediate operations.Access to solar radiation is determined by a number of conditions:● the sun’s position relative to the principal facades of the building(solar altitude and azimuth);● site orientation and slope;● existing obstructions on the site;● potential for overshadowing from obstructions outside the site boundary.One of the methods by which solar access can be evaluated is the use of some form of sun chart.Most often used is the stereographic sun chart in which a series of radiating lines and concentric circles allow the position of nearby obstructions to insolation,such as other buildings,to be plotted.On the same chart a series of sun path trajectories are also drawn(usually one arc for the 21st day of each month); also marked are the times of the day.The intersection of the obstructions’outlines and the solar trajectories indicate times of transition between sunlight and shade. Normally a different chart is constructed for use at different latitudes (at about two degree intervals).Sunlight and shade patterns cast by the proposed building itself should also be considered.Graphical and computer prediction techniques may be employed as well as techniques such as the testing of physical models with a heliodon.Computer modelling of shadows cast by the sun from any position is offered by Integrated Environmental Solutions (IES) with its‘Suncast’program.This is a user-friendly program which should be well within normal undergraduate competence. The spacing between buildings is important if overshading is to be avoided during winter months when the benefit of solar heat gain reaches its peak.On sloping sites there is a critical relationship between the angle of slope and the level of overshading.For example, if overshading is to be avoided at a latitude of 50 N,rows of houses on a 10 north-facing slope must be more than twice as far apart than on 10 south-facing slope.Trees can obviously obstruct sunlight.However,if they are deciduous,they perform the dual function of permitting solar penetration during the winter whilst providing a degree of shading in the summer.Again spacing between trees and buildings is critical.Passive solar design can be divided into three broad categories:● direct gain;● indirect gain;● attached sunspace or conservatory.Each of the three categories relies in a different way on the‘greenhouse effect’as a means of absorbing and retaining heat.The greenhouse effect in buildings is that process which is mimicked by global environmental warming.In buildings,the incident solar radiation is transmitted by facade glazing to the interior where it is absorbed by the internal surfaces causing warming.However,re-emission of heat back through the glazing is blocked by the fact that the radiation is of a much longer wavelength than the incoming radiation.This is because the re-emission is from surfaces at a much lower temperature and the glazing reflects back such radiation to the interior.Direct gainDirect gain is the design technique in which one attempts to concentrate the majority of the building’s glazing on the sun-facing facade.Solar radiation is admitted directly into the space concerned.Two examples 30 years apart are the author’s housein Sheffield,designed in 1967 and the Hockerton Project of 1998 by Robert and Brenda Vale.The main design characteristics are:● Apertures through which sunlight is admitted should be on the solar side of the building, within about 30 of south for the northern hemisphere.● Windows facing west may pose a summer overheating risk.● Windows should be at least double glazed with low emissivity glass (Low E) as now required by the UK Building Regulations.● The main occupied living spaces should be located on the solar side of the building.● The floor should be of a high thermal mass to absorb the heat and provide thermal inertia,which reduces temperature fluctuations inside the building.● As regards the benefits of thermal mass,for the normal daily cycle of heat absorption and emission,it is only about the first 100 mm of thickness which is involved in the storage process.Thickness greater than this provides marginal improvements in performance but can be useful in some longer-term storage options.● In the case of solid floors,insulation should be beneath the slab.● A vapour barrier should always be on the warm side of any insulation.● Thick carpets should be avoided over the main sunlit and heatabsorbing portion of the floor if it serves as a thermal store.However,with suspended timber floors a carpet is an advantage in excluding draughts from a ventilated underfloor zone. During the day and into the evening the warmed floor should slowly release its heat, and the time period over which it happens makes it a very suitable match to domestic circumstances when the main demand for heat is in the early evening.As far as the glazing is concerned,the following features are recommended: ● Use of external shutters and/or internal insulating panels might be considered to reduce night-time heat loss.● To reduce the potential of overheating in the summer,shading may be provided by designing deep eaves or external louvres. Internal blinds are the most common technique but have the disadvantage of absorbing radiant heat thus adding to the internal temperature.● Heat reflecting or absorbing glass may be used to limit overheating.The downside is that it also reduces heat gain at times of the year when it is beneficial. ● Light shelves can help reduce summer overheating whilst improving daylight distribution.Direct gain is also possible through the glazing located between the building interior and attached sunspace or conservatory;it also takes place through upper level windows of clerestory designs.In each of these cases some consideration is required concerning the nature and position of the absorbing surfaces.In the UK climate and latitude as a general rule of thumb room depth should not be more than two and a half times the window head height and the glazing area should be between about 25 and 35 per cent of the floor area.Indirect gainIn this form of design a heat absorbing element is inserted between the incident solar radiation and the space to be heated;thus the heat is transferred in an indirectway.This often consists of a wall placed behind glazing facing towards the sun,and this thermal storage wall controls the flow of heat into the building.The main elements● High thermal mass element positioned between sun and internal spaces,the heat absorbed slowly conducts across the wall and is liberated to the interior some time later.● Materials and thickness of the wall are chosen to modify the heat flow.In homes the flow can be delayed so that it arrives in the evening matched to occupancy periods. Typical thicknesses of the thermal wall are 20–30 cm.● Glazing on the outer side of the thermal wall is used to provide some insulation against heat loss and help retain the solar gain by making use of the greenhouse effect.● The area of the thermal storage wall element should be about 15–20 per cent of the floor area of the space into which it emits heat.● In order to derive more immediate heat benefit,air can be circulated from the building through the air gap between wall and glazing and back into the room.In this modified form this element is usually referred to as a Trombe wall. Heat reflecting blinds should be inserted between the glazing and the thermal wall to limit heat build-up in summer.In countries which receive inconsistent levels of solar radiation throughout the day because of climatic factors (such as in the UK),the option to circulate air is likely to be of greater benefit than awaiting its arrival after passage through the thermal storage wall.At times of excess heat gain the system can provide alternative benefits with the air circulation vented directly to the exterior carrying away its heat,at the same time drawing in outside air to the building from cooler external spaces.Indirect gain options are often viewed as being the least aesthetically pleasing of the passive solar options,partly because of the restrictions on position and view out from remaining windows,and partly as a result of the implied dark surface finishes of the absorbing surfaces.As a result,this category of the three prime solar design technologies is not as widely used as its efficiency and effectiveness would suggest.Attached sunspace/conservatoryThis has become a popular feature in both new housing and as an addition to existing homes.It can function as an extension of living space,a solar heat store,a preheater for ventilation air or simply an adjunct greenhouse for plants.On balance it is considered that conservatories are a net contributor to global warming since they are often heated.Ideally the sunspace should be capable of being isolated from the main building to reduce heat loss in winter and excessive gain in summer.The area of glazing in the sunspace should be 20–30 per cent of the area of the room to which it is attached.The most adventurous sunspace so far encountered is in the Hockerton housing development which will feature later.Ideally the summer heat gain should be used to charge a seasonal thermal storage element to provide background warmth in winter.At the very least,air flow paths between the conservatory and the main building should be carefully controlled.Active solar thermal systemsA distinction must be drawn between passive means of utilising the thermal heat of the sun, discussed earlier,and those of a more‘active’nature Active systems take solar gain a step further than passive solar.They convert direct solar radiation into another form of energy.Solar collectors preheat water using a closed circuit calorifier.The emergence of Legionella has highlighted the need to store hot water at a temperature above 60 C which means that for most of the year in temperate climes active solar heating must be supplemented by some form of heating.Active systems are able to deliver high quality energy.However,a penalty is incurred since energy is required to control and operate the system known as the ‘parasitic energy requirement’.A further distinction is the difference between systems using the thermal heat of the sun,and systems,such as photovoltaic cells, which convert solar energy directly into electrical power.For solar energy to realise its full potential it needs to be installed on a district basis and coupled with seasonal storage.One of the largest projects is at Friedrichshafen.The heat from 5600 m2 of solar collectors on the roofs of eight housing blocks containing 570 apartments is transported to a central heating unit or substation.It is then distributed to the apartments as required.The heated living area amounts to 39 500 m2.Surplus summer heat is directed to the seasonal heat store which,in this case, is of the hot water variety capable of storing 12 000 m3.The scale of this storage facility is indicated by Figure 5.9.The heat delivery of the system amounts to 1915 MWh/year and the solar fraction is 47 per cent.The month by month ratio between solar and fossil-based energy indicates that from April to November inclusive,solar energy accounts for almost total demand,being principally domestic hot water.In places with high average temperatures and generous sunlight,active solar has considerable potential not just for heating water but also for electricity generation.This has particular relevance to less and least developed countries.环境变化影响下的建筑学房屋设计中的低能耗技术显而易见，在工业化国家，最好的营救机会依赖于建筑环境，因为不论是在使用的建筑或者是在建设的建筑，都是最大的、单一的、间接地由化石燃料的燃烧所引起的碳排放的源头，而这些站了所有排放的50%。
建筑毕业设计外文翻译---建筑材料—混凝土与砂浆
CONCRETE AND MORTAR1. Early History of Cement and ConcreteShelter from the very beginning of man/ existence, has demanded the application Of the best , available technology of the contemporary era. In the earliest ages, structures consisted of rammed earth, or stone blocks laid one on another without benefit of any bonding or cementing medium. Stability of the stone structures depended on the regular setting of the heavy stones , The earliest masonry probably consisted of sun-dried clay bricks, set in regular courses in thin layers of moist mud. When the moist mud dried, a solid clay wall resulted. Construction: of this kind was common in the dry desert areas of the world.Burnt gypsum as a cementing material was developed early in the Egyptian period and was apparently used in construction of some of the pyramids. Later the Greeks and Romans discovered methods of burning limestone to produce quicklime which was subsequently slaked for use in making mortar. Both the Greeks and the Romans learned that certain fine soil or earth, when mixed with the lime and the sand, produced a superior cementing material. The Greek material, a volcanic tuff from the island of Santorin , is still used in that part Of the world. The best of the materials used by the Romans was a tuff or ash from the vicinity of Pozzuoli near Mt. V esuvius, hence the name “pozzolan”used to identify a certain type of mineral admixture used in concrete today.The cement produced by the Romans was a hydraulic cement, that is, it had the capability of hardening under water. Many of the Roman structures were constructed of a form of concrete, using these materials, and stone masonry was bonded with a mortar similarly composed.During the Middle Ages of history, the art of making good mortar was nearly lost, the low point having been reached in about the llth century, when much inferior material was used. Quality of the lime started to improve at this time and in the 14th century or later the use of pozzolans was again practised.One of the most famous projects of the comparatively recent period was the construction of the new Eddystone Lighthouse off the coast of England in 1757--59. John Smeaton, the engineer and designer of the structure, investigated many materials and methods of bonding the stones for the building.Engineering and scientific development was beginning to move rapidly at this time, and many researchers in several countries were investigating cementing agents made from gypsum, limestoneand other natural materials. One discovery was a method of making a cement by burning a naturally occurring mixture of lime and clay. properties of the natural cement were very erratic because of variations in the proportions in the natural material, although use of this natural cement continued for many years.In 1824 Joseph Aspdin , a brickmason of Leeds, England, took out a patent on a material he called Portland cement, so called because concrete made with it was supposed to resemble the limestone quarried near Portland, England. Aspdin is generally credited with inventing a method of proportioning limestone and clay, burning the mixture at high temperature to produce clinkers, then grinding the clinkers to produce a hydraulic cement. His small kiln, producing about 16 tons of clinker at a time, required several days/or each burn. Expansion and development of cement manufacturing was slow for a number of years. About 1850, however, the industry had become well established not only in England, but also in Germany and Belgium.Shipments to the United States were started in 1868 and reached a peak about 1895, at which time production was well under way in the United States.Meanwhile the United States production of natural cement had been started early in the 19th century as a result of the demand for cement for construction of the Erie Canal and related works. Subsequent development of the rotary kiln led to large scale production of cement throughout the world.The use of concrete was expanded by the construction of railroads, bridges ,buildings and street pavements. Research in reinforcing concrete with steel rods had been started in France, and the year 1875 saw first use of reinforced concrete in the United States. Much'of the concrete at this time contained barely enough water to enable the concrete to be rammed into place by the application of much hand labor. There then ensued a period of wet concrete in which the concrete was flowed into place. Many users of concrete, however, realized the folly of wet mixes, and about 1920 Duff Abrams revealed the results of his research and observations. He stated that the quality of concrete was directly affected by the amount of water in relation to the amount of cement ; within reasonable limits, the quality of the concrete decreases as the water-cement ratio goes up. This has become one of the basic laws of concrete technology.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Concrete and Its Water-Cement RatioConcrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, sand, and crushed gravel or stone. The waterand cement form a cement paste in which the sand and stone or gravel are mixed. The sand and stone or gravel together make up the aggregate of a concrete mixture. The aggregate serves no structural function. It is merely ,a filler that adds low-cost bulk to the cement paste; it usually makes up about 75 percent of a given mass of concrete, by volume, although a poor aggregate can reduce the strength of a batch of concrete considerably, good aggregate adds only slightly to the strength of the cement.The two principal advantages of concrete as a construction material are its relative cheapness and the ease with which it can be handled and placed while it is in the plastic state.The principal structural advantages of concrete are its great compressive strength and its durability , Concrete can withstand very high compressive loads. This is what makes concrete so suitable for the foundations, walls, and columns of buildings, and for driveways and walks as well.The principal structural disadvantage of concrete is its poor tensile strength. That is, it cannot withstand pulling or bending loads without cracking or breaking. For this reason, steel rods, or reinforcement steel, are often embedded in concrete, the reinforcement steel providing the tensile strength the concrete lacks. Concrete with reinforcement steel embedded in it is reinforced concrete.In addition to its poor tensile strength, concrete, like most construction materials, expands in hot weather and when wet and contracts in cold weather and as it dries out. Unless these movements are allowed for during construction, the concrete will crack.And, contrary to common belief, solid concrete is not impervious to water. Some moisture will migrate into the best-made concrete. But if the concrete should be excessively porous ,which can happen if too much water has been used in mixing it, moisture can easily enter the concrete after it has cured. If this moisture should be present within the concrete when cold weather comes, the moisture may freeze, which may result in serious frost damage to the structure.Despite these limitations, concrete is an inherently strong and durable construction material. If the proportions of water, cement, and aggregate are carefully calculated and if the concrete is placed and allowed to cure according to simple but definite rules, it is possible to obtain from the concrete all the strength and durability that is inherent in it.The ratio of water to cement in a batch of concrete is the principal determinant of the concrete's final strength. At one time the instructions for preparing a batch of concrete would have contained proportions such as 1:2:4, indicating that 1 part of Portland cement to 2 parts of sand to 4 parts of gravel by volume were to be mixed together, after which sufficient water was to be added to obtain aworkable mixture. This procedure ignored entirely the importance of the water-cement ratio. It also resulted very often in the preparation or a very weak concrete, since the natural tendency is to add enough water to make placement of the concrete as easy as possible-the sloppier the better, as far as the workmen are concerned. This manner of specifying the proportions of concrete is obsolete and should never be followed.In theory, it takes only 3 gal of water to hydrate completely 1 cu ft of cement. (A sack of cement contains 1 cu ft exactly, and the sack weighs 94 lb). But this water-cement ratio produces a mixture that is too stiff to be worked. In practice, therefore, additional water, between 4 and 8 gal per sack of cement, is used to obtain a workable mixture.But the greater the proportion of water in a water-cement ratio, the weaker the final concrete will be. The additional water that is necessary to achieve a workable batch will only evaporate from the concrete as the concrete sets, and it will leave behind in the concrete innumerable voids. This is the reason there will always be some porosity in concrete. When an excessive amount of water has been used, there will be an excessive number of voids, which may cause the concrete to leak badly. If these voids should be filled with moisture when cold weather comes, they will cause the frost damage alluded to above.As a general rule, therefore, 6 gal of water per sack of cement should be the maximum amount used for making concrete; and the less the amount of water that is used, the stronger the concrete will be. Also included in the 6 gal is whatever surface moisture is contained in the sand that is part of the aggregate.3.MortarMortar is a mixture of a cementitious material (which may be portland cement or lime or both) and sand. When water is added to these ingredients, the result is a plastic substance that is used to bind together bricks, tiles, concrete blocks, and other kinds of masonry units. After the mortar has set, the masonry units are bound together by the ,mortar in such a way that they form a single structural unit.Mortar is closely related to other cementitious materials such as concrete, plaster, and stucco, but it would be a mistake to confuse mortar with these other materials or attempt to use them as a substitute for mortar; the properties required of each are distinctive and differ from the others.By a mistaken analogy with a chain and its weakest link, it is a common belief that for anymasonry construction to be strong, the mortar must be strong also. V ery often, for example, a person who is familiar with concrete will infer that mortar, being a cementitious material like concrete, should have properties similar to those of concrete and be mixed and used in much the same way. w Since, for example, concrete has, or should have, a high compressive strength, mortar should have a high compressive strength also. But the primary function of mortar is to bind the masonry units together, not to resist compressive loads or add to the strength of the masonry units.A great many tests have been made of brick walls built with mortars having a wide range of strength characteristics. ~ These tests show uniformly that a brick wall is strongest when the mortar used to bind the brick is weaker than the brick. Indeed, the mortar can be substantially weaker than the brick Without much affecting the overall strength of the construction. As long as the mortar is strong enough to resist the erosive effects of the weather and of freezing water, it is strong enough for use in the ordinary exterior wall.But suppose for the sake of argument that a brick wall has been built using a mortar that does have a compressive strength greater than that of the brick. ~Any stress this wall may be subjected to-the result of the settlement of the soil under the wall, say-will cause the brick to fracture along the line of greatest stress. This fracture will run in a single jagged crack right through the brick, from the top of the wall to the bottom.But when the mortar is weaker than the brick, as it should be, any stresses in the construction will be absorbed entirely by the mortar. The mortar will absorb these stresses in the form of a multitude of minute cracks invisible to the eye that leaves the basic strength of the construction unimpaired. The overall appearance of the wall and its structural integrity will be unchanged.Masonry constructions can, however, suffer from another type of failure. Sometimes stresses are relieved by a separation of the mortar from the brick. The result is a zig-zag crack through the mortar that follows the brick pattern. What has happened here is that the bond between the brick and the mortar was too weak, a consequence either of ignorance or poor workmanship, or both, since the last thing that should happen in a well-made masonry wall is for there to be a poor bond between the masonry units and the mortar. Either the mortar was incorrectly proportioned and mixed or it was improperly applied to the brick, or both,Freshly prepared mortar in which the cement, lime, and sand are accurately proportioned and mixed with the requited amount of water has a quality called workability or, sometimes, plasticity. Workability is as difficult to describe in words as the consistency of pancake batter or soft butter, butfresh mortar that doesn't have this quality will be incapable of bonding masonry units together as tightly as they should be, A workable mortar can be spread with a trowel smoothly, evenly, and without effort. The mortar has a cohesive quality that enables it to hold its shape and keeps it from falling of its own weight when it is troweled onto the side of a brick. A workable mortar has a give to it that enables a bricklayer to bed masonry units solidly into place. One can say that on a microscopic scale a workable mortar makes such intimate contact with the surface of a masonry unit that the bond between the mortar and the masonry unit is as strong as possible.建筑材料—混凝土与砂浆一、水泥与混凝土的早期历史自从人类开始存在时起，人的住处一直要求应用每个时代所能提供的最好的技术。
建筑学外文翻译
建筑学外文翻译河北建筑工程学院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系别: 建筑系专业: 建筑学班级: 建06-4姓名: 张双才学号: 13 号外文出处:书籍附件:1、外文资料翻译译文;2、外文原文。
指导教师评语:签字:年月日注:请将该封面与附件装订成册。
that is the tropical sea of trees for their shelter from the storm.兰达岛考斯塔酒店 Each unit is equipped with a residence in such an environment need everything: air conditioning, aheater, a bathrooms. After all of the facilities and sleek design,use the natural environment in harmonCosta Lanta y with the material, rather than the material used to decorate the environment. Plain colors and surface度假休闲建筑Resort buildings are not carved - a decorative concrete and wood, white canvas, and other translucent walls and roof 泰国Thailand materials. Simply put,Costa Lanta re-create the outdoor, natural living experience, as if every room is 建筑师Architect:Duangrit Bunnag a masterpiece of nature, not artificial.亚建协建筑奖2005/2006 ARCASIA AWARDS FOR ARCHITECTURE In order to better communication with nature, Costa Lanta has a quiet outdoor restaurant, independent of the space. New visitors immediately by its tall, trunk-like pillars to attract them with the perfect从建筑风格和布局两方面说，Costa Lanta的设计构想来源于Lanta岛的美丽风景。
建筑设计论文外文翻译-(2)
实用文档设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：Discussion on The Planning and Designof Commercial Buildings学生姓名：XXX学号：09******83专业：建筑学所在学院：XX学院指导教师： XX职称：副教授201X年XX月XX日实用文档原文：Discussion on The Planning and Designof Commercial BuildingsAbstract: the commercial building in residential buildings has become, most attract sb.'s attention, the largest building is influenced by the type of energy and landscape of the city planning, design of commercial buildings will face more problems. This paper discusses how to carry on planning and design of commercial buildings, the construction of a rational, reasonable, appropriate business building, so as to create a good social and economic benefits. Keywords: construction planning; commercial buildings; architectural designPrefaceComprehensive is the development trend of modern commercial buildings, architects in the design of commercial buildings and functions are changing, different positioning of planning, business characteristics and local cultural influence commercial building mode, which requires us to continuously improve our project products, create more in line with the business needs of the best plan and design works, and finally let investors and consumers feel a constant value, so that they feel superior combination of spatial continuous operation, let the customer feel shopping pleasure, feel the beauty of life and the world.mercial architectural schemeCommercial buildings are generally large investment, high risk, long cycle, the successful operation of returns, different commercial patterns determine different commercial building form, and commercial pattern is determined and market positioning, the positioning accuracy of the architect, to commercial building various functions, property, facilities should have full understanding and effective organization, and different commercial construction planning ideas to produce commercial architectural design works are different, economic benefits of investment has great difference. Good architectural planning has decided the success or failure of architectural design.1.Market survey of commercial building design must be based on the market survey results. Based on the characteristics and trend of foreign consumption, economic conditions, traffic conditions, the surrounding commercial pattern, city infrastructure, city development planning, full market research business situation, on the project itself, choose format, format portfolio, the distribution of industrial chain and area proportion, industry selection, distribution and area ratio to the shops, division, architectural form, area and the floor function, people oriented system, project environment and supporting facilities are set in advance. Provide design basis for the architect to design.2.Mode demand regardless of commercial building is rental, sale or rental run combination, the most important is to determine the main format, for commercial buildings,different types of decision model is different, its business scale, function flow, and so on are designed by itself to determine, different formats have different functional requirements, and design the use is required by the business decisions rather than the developer to advocate. The lack of directional design basis, the design appears to be universal, but shoot at random. Once the function with the shop owner conflict, the design must be from the beginning. Language planning can increase the early unnecessary cost and later investment difficulty. Therefore, architects should design according to different formats of different architectural space mode analysis and recommendations.3.In commercial buildings in the process of planning, commercial real estate is the key to grasp the global experts and architects. Commercial real estate planner requires multidisciplinary personnel coordination ability of organization, according to the project of regional history and culture characteristic, according to local consumer preferences, in particular, the design project of the overall concept, culture orientation and market orientation is determined. At present, the commercial real estate projects generally organized by developers to overall planning, the investment in the project needs and business management experts, business format store managers and retail marketing planner, planner, communication landscape planners, architects, etc. In the implementation of construction plan, still need to urban planner, computer talented person to participate, to form a complete construction plans. Neither side may be arranged to replace, the architectural design is inclusive and absorbing these opinions, solutions and professional values of materialized labor and can form a complete architectural planning and design.4.Sustainable development and the characteristics of commercial building is a public place, with the development of business, commercial buildings in 5-6 years will be to do a decoration, simple and durable quality, less as far as possible need to repair and maintenance, and at the same time, according to the different project environment and commercial content is flexible to adapt and ultimately the value of investors and consumers are continuous. Complete function, rich forms, and space is varied, characteristic, design must be the contemporary tendency of time again at the same time, in all sorts of culture and the differences between s resonate.mercial building designCommercial building design is for the purpose of the construction project to produce a good and lasting economic benefits, the architect in commercial building design is to realize project to achieve a dynamic model of investment return, is to complete a final acceptance by consumers and continuous use of building products. Prophase planning orientation, investment, operation and management, each situation is very complex, has brought great influence, architecture design is an important link. And architects for commercial architecture design is inclusive and absorbing these opinions, solutions and professional values of materialized labor and can form a complete works of architectural design.(1)Formats combination designThe composition of commercial complex is decided by the business itself industry value chain, what kind of business combination is better for business. Architects should accordingto the preliminary planning and positioning, the first investment, operation and management of the planning scheme, starting from the basic function and practical application of building, clear the relationship between the function, space, environment, in line with The Times to design not only requires a new breath, also requires a reasonable and clear arrangement of the whole space functional requirements, and actively guide the passenger flow, manufacturing flow, different articles require different forms of space and location, reasonable distribution area, the partition of floor paving segmentation and supporting facilities design can avoid all kinds of goods mixed Chen, mixed traffic situation, the architect should create rich, flexible, comply with the appropriate space to contain different aspects of business combination technology needs. Must do to make it a complex, the industrial chain, industrial chain out after the value chain came out, can produce all kinds of benefits.(2)Pattern designPlanning, design of commercial building in different commercial real estate development mode, have completely different results. Rent is not only sales, emphasizing on management and value-added shops, if considering concurrently, also consider the preferences and requirements of the buyer shops. Commercial buildings due to the different requirements for merchants function layout is different, also different brands to the layout of the same forms are different. By the limit of commercial buildings, or different development cycle, or running effect is different. Those who do not conform to the business law of commercial building design, although space modeling is rich, has implied the bad management of hidden trouble. Therefore, meet the demand of merchants, digest the negative influence of all kinds of changes, architects in the design of the flexible space combination, providing different pattern design, to the use of a variety of forms do fully consider function of balance and coordination. Commercial building itself the function of the combination is very complex, for commercial, residential, office each mixed complex project, the process will be more difficult. Commercial and apartment part often deployed in a low-end, office and hotel in the high-end. The advantages of this design can facilitate the building line layout; Low-end flat layer in the core tube location is advantageous to the toilet set up; High-end part of the landscape advantage is more advantageous to project high value products. But in the concrete project, but should also fully consider building itself the vertical transportation efficiency of the impact on business. In the design of architectural plane layout, space efficiency will approach combined with architectural form and structure. For example, many senior project adopted the practice of Angle, when the design according to the economy, it can increase economic returns of about 30%, but in the specific project be careful not to damage to the corner form.(3)The guidance system designStream of people, logistics, decision function layout reasonable guidance system is the key to the success of commercial building design. Make sure people line, logistics, inward and outward, channel form, to make the layout of the commercial function, consumer groups have a wide range of interest and today free time, thus providing rich architectural space, integrating shopping, entertainment, leisure and so on need comprehensive shopping mall is their needs. Rich function as much as possible to meet the requirements of the customers, but also satisfy the buyers (pavement investors, business investors) needs to provide convenient logistics channel. And express more interest in the construction details. And then to createnew business environment. Let the consumer feel the pleasure shopping consumption, feel the beauty of life and the world at the same time, create more economic benefits for store operators.(4)Green building and characteristicGreen building on the one hand can save energy, on the other hand the sustainable of benefits will far outweigh the prophase investment so as to achieve the value of overall implementation, green buildings gives the possibility of ability of sustainable development and alteration, when architects in the design of commercial buildings so there is no need to do best, do it right, and not have to do much more luxurious style reflected is the commercial buildings, stronger in proper. Commercial buildings tend to be the center of the city commercial culture, different cities have different style, therefore, the architects in the use of his style and technique, need deep understanding urban commercial culture characteristics, extract the essence of the regional culture, architectural design make commercial buildings should have cultural features, local feature, more want to highlight the characteristics of the formats, spatial characteristics, cultural characteristics used in commercial buildings, not only can sense the material shell, are showing strong commercial buildings.3.ConclusionModern commercial architecture planning and design major programs, including the investment purpose and the understanding of the business environment for investors, commercial content on the project, the location of the business environment of consumer behavior, commercial buildings, the understanding of the business concept research, commercial building project planning, design process and method of design, for project construction total plane design and auxiliary space design professional design, space form and form design, the project design space and form of management main body,property requirements,facilities and equipment requirements,architectural engineering and construction of the professional requirement.中文译文：浅谈商业建筑规划设计摘要：商业建筑现已成为除居住建筑以外，最引人注目的，对城市活力和景观影响最大的建筑类型，商业建筑规划设计将面临更广泛的问题。
(完整版)建筑学本科外文翻译毕业设计
以下文档格式全部为word格式，下载后您可以任意修改编辑。
本科毕业设计外文翻译题目：德黑兰城市发展学院: 城市建设学院专业: 建筑学学号:学生姓名:指导教师:日期: 二零一一年六月First Chapter：Development of the city of TehranAli MadanipourTehran :the making of a metropolis，First Chapter：Development of the city of Tehran ，Ali Madanipour，ISBN：eleven。
第一章：德黑兰市的发展阿里.马丹妮普尔德黑兰：一个大都市的建造，第一章：德Wiley出版社，1998，第五页到第十一页。
德黑兰市的发展全市已长成了一定的规模性和复杂性，以这样的程度，空间管理需要另外的手段来处理城市组织和不断发展的复杂性，并为城市总体规划做准备。
第二次世界大战后，在盟军占领国家的期间，有一个时期的民主化，在冷战时开始的政治紧张局势之后，它们互相斗争对石油的控制权。
这个时期已经结束于1953年，结果是由政变产生了伊朗王，那个后来担任了25年的行政君主的人。
随着高出生率和农村向城市迁移，德黑兰和其他大城市增长加剧甚至比以前更快地。
到1956年，德黑兰的人口上升到150万，到了1966至300万， 1976至450万，其规模也从1934年46平方公里到1976年的250平方公里。
从石油行业的收入增长创造的盈余资源，需要流通和经济的吸收。
50年代中期，特别是在工业化的驱动下德黑兰许多大城市有了新工作。
20世纪60年代的土地改革释放了大量来自农业的农村人口，这是不能吸收的指数人口增长。
这种新的劳动力被吸引到城市：到新的产业，到似乎始终蓬勃发展建筑界，去服务不断增长公共部门和官僚机构。
德黑兰的角色是国家的行政，经济，文化中心，它坚定而巩固地通往外面的世界。
德黑兰战后的城市扩张，是在管制、私营部门的推动，投机性的发展下进行的。
建筑类外文翻译范例
土木工程概论摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。
整个世界每天都在改变，而建筑也随科学的进步而发展。
力学的发现，材料的更新，不断有更多的科学技术引入建筑中。
以前只求一间有瓦盖顶的房屋，现在追求舒适，不同的思想，不同的科学，推动了土木工程的发展，使其更加完美。
关键词：土木工程；建筑；力学；材料土木工程是建造各种工程的统称。
它的原意是与“军事工程”相对应的。
在英语中，历史上土木工程、机械工程、电气工程、化工工程都属于Civil Engineering，因为它们都具有民用性。
后来，随着工程科学技术的发展，机械、电气、化工都已逐渐形成独立的科学，Civil Engineering就成为土木工程的专门名词。
至今，在英语中，Civil Engineering还包括水利工程、港口工程；而在我国，水利工程和港口工程也成为与土木工程十分密切的相对独立分支。
土木工程既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。
土木工程是一种与人们的衣、食、住、行有着密切关系的工程。
其中与“住”的关系是直接的。
因为，要解决“住”的问题必须建造各种类型的建筑物。
而解决“行、食衣”的问题既有直接的一面，也有间接的一面。
要“行”，必须建造铁路、道路、桥梁；要“食”，必须打井取水、兴修水利、进行农田灌溉、城市供水排水等，这是直接关系。
而间接关系则不论做什么，制造汽车、轮船也好，纺纱、织布、制衣也好，乃至生产钢铁、发射卫星、开展科学研究活动都离不开建造各种建筑物、构筑物和修建各种工程设施。
土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。
土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。
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淮阴工学院毕业设计外文资料翻译学院：建筑工程学院专业：建筑学姓名：张宇成学号：外文出处：Procedia Engineering 165( ) 315 – 325附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文通过开发公共地下空间为德黑兰市提供所需绿色空间与宏大建筑穆罕默德·迈赫迪Safaee马里安Ghafoori伊朗伊斯兰阿扎德大学（IAU），伊朗南德黑兰分部摘要：德黑兰市是曾经被花园和农场包围小都市;当前一天已经变成了巨大高度与其她建筑相比，建筑构造不合理，几乎失去了绿色。
自德黑兰市成为伊朗首都以来，人口增长迅速，汽车不断增长，以及变化了都市特点建设项目已通过去了200近年。
这使得德黑兰面临诸多短缺，如绿色空间，安静和灿烂氛围，也许已经建立了人们之间社会关系。
这个都市当前严重面临缺少绿色空间，导致缺少足够氧气，空气污染和生活质量下降和缺少都市生活，这些不利成果可以在灵魂，头脑和身体上看到公民。
在本文中强调是对地下空间发展社会因素，技术和构造条件。
这一案例表白，在德黑兰一种人口稠密老区域开发绿地。
因而，咱们不但要维持该区所需许多公共空间，例如商业场合，大厅，电影院，停车场，人行道等服务处所;咱们还可以在小朋友游乐场，人行道，有氧运动地面空间上免费，并且还形成许多景观。
此后，可以在这些开放空间周边形成许多住宅空间，享有美丽景色和景观。
因而，这将导致更多社会关系，动态，可持续都市生活和辉煌建筑。
在都市不同距离这些中心发展可以减少咱们已经提到悲观方面。
核心词：地下空间，精致建筑，辉煌建筑，绿地，空气污染，免费场地，德黑兰市。
1.简介德黑兰综共筹划缺少某些非常重要组件和细节在其设计和法规。
依照德黑兰市政府建筑规则和法规，住宅建筑面积比（FAR）规定为60％-70％，只有在确认和保存邻居权利状况下才容许向北延伸。
这项规定导致在相邻街区浮现了线性平行东西方建筑群，既没有创造一种美丽风景，也没有能力解决公民心理需要或保护她们隐私。
建于街道南边房屋，或此外阐明，邻近街区北边沿，分别面向街道和邻近街区院子向北和向南。
此外，由于迁移到德黑兰不受限制增长，都市对住房单元需求增长和土地价格高昂，建筑物FAR不受控制地增长，都市面临着缺少邻里中心缺陷。
只有有限数量街区有邻里中心，广场或开放空间，需要满足人们社交需求。
同步，都市广场是通过为她们提供交流和互动，娱乐和休闲，散步，吃饭和享有环境以及创造一种美丽和抱负空间和氛围空间，使人们精神放松地方。
虽然在伊朗，对于开放空间和公园数量已分别予以高度注重和注重，并且为此增长了近年开放空间和公园数量，但是为此目没有作出有效努力。
这种空间在伊朗都市几乎找不到。
尽管做了各种努力，伊朗都市广场大多变成了汽车来回来回地方。
创造这种空间重要障碍是德黑兰土地价格高，以及乐意避免社区构造变化，以防止居民流离失所。
使用地下公共空间将提供充分和有利机会，重组都市面料，并在地面上找到足够空间，以创造开放空间。
这将有助于在本地商业和贸易创造安全和气候空间，并为居民提供开放，宁静，绿色和行人和谐邻里中心地方。
2.德兰黑历史虽然自从德黑兰被指定为伊朗首都以来已通过去了两个世纪，都市即时发展不超过80年。
总来说，都市发展始于19世纪第三个十年，随着着无限制发展，农田和都市周边土地破坏，郊区和村庄和乡镇迅速增长，迅速合并与都市面料。
在过去几十年里，都市经历了迅速增长，并经历了迅速变化。
下表列出了伊朗记录中心提供关于德黑兰市在过去几十年中变化资料：3.德黑兰迅速增长后果为了将德黑兰变成当代首都，该市都市官员开始了大量变革和改革其构造。
这些重组和变化起初对许多公民来说似乎很奇怪，她们对此缺少进一步理解。
由于这种冲突以及老式和当代性之间对立，许多都市构造遇到问题或没有对的建立。
过去几年里为变化德黑兰外貌而实行主线变化产生了各种积极和悲观后果。
其中积极成果是都市娱乐和文化场合数量增长，建设当代化设施以及高速公路和隧道，大学和教诲环境发展，工业和工厂扩张和创造就业机会。
德黑兰当代化设施积累导致人们从村庄和其她省份无限制地迁移到都市，这自身导致了人口显着增长，并导致都市老建筑中使用有价值建筑作为建设值滑入忘却。
其中负面后果是德黑兰视觉上不吸引人建筑物数量增长，没有强烈和独特身份，破坏景观，增长环境污染，扰乱生态平衡，破坏树木和绿色空间，增长数量废弃低效织物，生活在都市边沿地区和郊区人数增长随着着都市化增长，由于每个社区高密度建筑物扰乱了人们隐私，减少了公民生活质量以及她们对她们住地方增长冷酷。
尽管德黑兰发展为德国人提供所有设施，它们在地区之间不平衡和不平衡分散以及某些地区不可用性以及大都市交通繁忙和高生产成本，使得公民无法充分和恰本地使用它们。
人们没有与这些设施建立深厚联系。
此外，在某些地区，这些设施未能照顾到所有客户需要。
德黑兰当前面临其她重要问题是其既有建筑解剖和构造。
违背法规或法律未能全面解决都市生活规定，给公民带来了许多心理和社会问题。
依照都市综共筹划，邻近街区中建筑物居民要么面向街道，要么面向邻近房屋街道，具备最小连接空间以建立彼此之间连接或经常看不到盼望景观。
此外，开放区域设计和建造具备最小绿色空间。
在德黑兰地区大多数地区，行人必要沿着狭窄路面行走，宽度为一二米，沿着路线不规则地凹进或突出建筑物，这导致了不安全壁龛和盲点。
虽然她们是安全，在她们建设中使用不恰当材料使她们几乎不可用在雨天。
无限制建筑也导致了曾经被称为“绿色都市之城”德黑兰都市，缺少绿色空间。
图1：德黑兰1785至1925期间图2：德黑兰线性平行建筑群一种模式德黑兰22个地区各有不同人均绿地面积。
可用记录学研究信息表白德黑兰人均绿地面积与都市地区公园数量之间显着差别。
大多数地区缺少绿色空间。
德黑兰人均绿地面积一览表白，10和7区别别为2米和3米，都市地区人均绿地面积最低。
然而，几年后，关于区号记录10，这是本研究重要主题，表白这一领域在这方面面临回归，并与1.8米，在都市人均绿色空间最低。
依照德黑兰记录年鉴，都市人均绿地面积如下：看一看关于德黑兰地区人均绿色空间记录数字很可观都市绿地马赛克网络分散与都市原则之间差别。
德黑兰市竭力把都市无用和荒芜土地变成绿色空间，以增长花园和公园。
依照德黑兰市数字和信息，该市区花园和公园数量如下：德黑兰22区人均绿地量与园林数量比较。
德黑兰人均绿地面积与园林数量之比较该市22个地区表白，“建议战略”不但无法有效，并且对居住在这些分散公园和花园附近区域公民也导致了许多问题。
4. 迅速发展问题当前，德黑兰与过去相比呈现出不同外貌。
德黑兰公共空间布满了并且由于公民生活方式变化和汽车使用无限制增长而受到汽车严重影响。
都市车辆和交通工具数量过多，导致交通拥堵，噪声污染，空气污染，视野受阻和缺少绿色景观。
德黑兰都市空间新设计未能导致创造有利开放空间和都市节点。
在大多数空间中，由于所创立都市空间和运送系统之间不成比例，不遵守法律和规则，路线数量局限性，交通繁忙和停车位局限性，德黑兰面临着空间被用于职能状况和目，并非她们独有。
分派给行人空间已经变成汽车来回地和停车场地方。
同步，任何都市都需要人们之间社会互动空间，并创造一种附着感和可爱性，提高其公民满意度，提高她们生活质量。
事实上，在德黑兰很少发现社区中心，这些社区中心是体现公民和公民生活场合，并为人们提供休息，互相沟通和放松机会。
尽管如此，压倒性数量汽车，都市交通文化差，导致汽车速度减少，以及由此引起某些问题，使得德黑兰事实上变成了一种停车场。
汽车对人类优越性以及由于其过度使用而导致不同类型污染使得更加必要是尽量多地将汽车帘布层与居住空间分开。
当前，满足人们改进生活质量需求是都市管理最重要责任。
与此同步，当代生活，都市化增长，大规模移民和人口增长使都市成为各种活动中心。
大都市中设施和服务积累和集中导致了向这些地方迁移增长以及在其中建造建筑物高密度。
由于德黑兰拥挤，密度和压力，都市绿色空间日益被毁坏。
这种状况由于经纪人贪婪，都市都市瓶颈以及未能全面颁布保障绿色空间保护和扩张法律法规而加剧。
与此同步，高密度社区需要在其内部拥有开放绿地，以便成为适合社交活动地方，为居民提供绿色景观，普通来说，作为绿色，清新和自然肺，可以拯救人们从环境污染引起各种心理问题。
但是，人口增长，以及因而需要为德黑兰增长人口提供住所，极大地推高了都市土地和房屋价格，并提高了对绿地需求。
高昂价格和繁琐所有权规则给那些谋求拥有土地人带来了各种问题进行装修作业或实行发展项目。
问题是如何解决这些问题？5. 德黑兰低效面料由于无组织努力带来问题，德黑兰大某些地区经历了许多变化发展都市以及不服从都市发展法律法规。
未能解决人类性质和需要以及实行发展项目背景文化，以及不注重建设可持续都市也在导致德黑兰变化方面发挥了作用。
在某些地区使用低质量建筑材料导致这些地区织物和解剖构造变得效率低下，使其经济价值下降并损害其功能。
在某些地区，由于建筑物效率低下，建筑物已被废弃。
这是由于这些建筑物不涉及可持续性元素。
德黑兰及其住宅当前建筑物没有解决空气污染，建筑物居民强制迁移，建筑物变形和街道和居民区拥挤增长等问题。
当前，都市建筑物不能满足居民某些需要。
人们面临生活空间短缺;由于大多数建筑物不能为她们提供她们应有生活水平和生活水平。
她们需要有足够和舒服地方睡觉，以及接待和服务她们客人，并但愿有私人和神秘空间，以及更多公共，私密性，满意度，感觉可爱性和自尊在她们房子。
此外，使都市景观看起来没有组织，不平衡，不和谐和毁容，德黑兰低效织物数量增长已导致集体记忆消失，减少社会互动和都市生活质量。
在过去几十年，特别是在1979年伊斯兰革命时期和在伊拉克强加战争八年（1980 - 88年）期间在德黑兰建造建筑物，往往没有具备高价值和相称重要意义。
在某些地区，由于其构造逐渐恶化，它们破坏了邻里外观，并减少了该地区效率和有利性。
低效面料是由于未能实行和实行综共筹划以及某些不利解剖，功能，环境，社会，经济和文化因素负面影响而产生一种疾病。
依照德黑兰市记录和信息，10,11和12区在都市其她地区新建面料中低效住宅布料比例最高。
下面图表分别表达了每个地区这一比例。
德黑兰低效都市面料中住宅单元数量与新建面料数量比例。
德黑兰低效面料具备隐藏能力和潜力，可用于加速发展都市。
这是，虽然，她们往往没有得到足够关注。
然而，通过制定恰当筹划来开发每种构造潜力，可以看到改造或重建对公共和集体空间恢复，重组或提高质量影响。
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