TheSilentWay
The Silent Way
相关阅读书籍文章
左焕琪．英语课堂教学的新发展．上海：华东师范 大学出版社 ，2007 章兼中．国外外语教学法主要流派．上海：华东师 范大 学出版社 ，1983． 蔡巧娜．外语教学中的“默示法”．怀化学院学报， 2008 Jack C．Richards＆Theodore S．Rodgers．Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching．Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press．2008
沉默法的技巧
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
声音——颜色图 教师的沉默 同伴的更正 各种小棍 单词图表 自我更正手势
Basic Features of the Silent Way (沉默法的基本特点)
.语言学习的过程由静默思考到实际演练，不采用机 械的重复练习 学习过程中，学生是主角，教师只辅助而不干预学 习。教服从学，学大大超过教，充分调动学生的学 习积极性 借助特殊的辅助教具进行教学。教师在教学过程中 少说，学生多说、多活动 口语领先，读写随后 教师不直接纠正学生的错误，只是协助他们，通过 多次尝试错误而求得正确知识
The Origination of the Silent Way (沉默法的创立)
沉默法(the silent way)由英国数学家兼 心理学家凯莱布·加德尼奥（Caleb Gattegno）于20世纪70年代初创立的。 凯莱布·加德尼奥提倡外语学习需要学习 者自己去发现（Discovery）和创造 （Create），而非背诵（Remember） 和重复（Repeat）。教师在课堂中的角 Repeat 色只是辅助，因为太多的教学会干预学 习，有时甚至因为教师的错误示范而导 致学生的错误学习。教师在教学中借助 手势、彩色木条或彩色木块（Cuisenaire Rods）、音色对应图表（Sound-Color Chart）、彩色译音卡片（Fidel Charts）、 字词表（Word Charts）等教具引导学生 说话。此法也因为教师在课堂上使用特 殊教具且保持沉默而得名。
6The Silent Way汇总
Elements of the Silent Way: the use of color charts and the colored Cuisenaire rods（奎西奈彩色棒）.
I. Background
The learning hypotheses: (1) learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
III. Design: objectives
The general objective—to give beginning level students oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language. The general goal set for language learning is near-native fluency in the target language with correct pronunciation and mastery of the prosodic elements. The immediate objective—to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar.
(2) The silent way belongs to the hypothetical mode, viewing learning as a problem-solving, creative, discovering activity, in which the learner is a principal actor, not a bench-bound listener.
肢体语言在我们的生活中英语作文
肢体语言在我们的生活中英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Body Language: The Silent Way We CommunicateHave you ever noticed how your teacher knows when you're really paying attention in class, even if you don't say anything? Or how your parents can tell if you're feeling happy or upset, just by the look on your face? That's because we use body language all the time to communicate without words!Body language is the way we communicate through movements, gestures, and facial expressions. It's like a secret language that everyone understands, even if they don't realize it. We use body language to show our feelings and to understand how others are feeling too.One of the most important parts of body language is our facial expressions. Our faces can show lots of different emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, and fear. When we smile, it usually means we're feeling happy or friendly. But if we frown or look mad, it probably means we're upset about something.Our eyes are also a big part of body language. If someone is looking right at you while you're talking, it probably means they're listening carefully. But if their eyes are wandering around the room, it might mean they're bored or distracted. And you can tell a lot about how someone is feeling by the look in their eyes – they might look excited, worried, or angry.The way we move and hold our bodies is another type of body language. When people are relaxed and comfortable, they tend to have an open posture – their arms are uncrossed and they might lean back in their chair. But if someone is feeling anxious or threatened, they might cross their arms or hunch their shoulders to appear smaller and more closed off.Hand gestures are another way we use body language. We wave hello and goodbye, we point to show direction, we clap to show we're happy about something. And some people are really expressive with their hands when they talk, which can help get their point across.So why is body language so important? Well, it helps us understand each other's thoughts and feelings when words aren't enough. It's especially useful when you're talking to someone who doesn't speak the same language as you – byreading their body language, you might still be able to communicate a little bit.Body language is also really useful for telling if someone is being honest. Scientists have found that people tend to leak "microexpressions" on their faces when they're lying or hiding something, like a tiny frown or squinting of the eyes. That's why police officers are trained to read people's body language when questioning suspects.Our body language can also influence how others see us. If you have good posture and make eye contact when speaking, people are more likely to think you seem confident and trustworthy. But if you slouch, avoid eye contact, and fidget a lot, people might think you seem nervous or insecure.Of course, understanding body language isn't always easy. Different cultures can have different meanings for the same gestures. For example, in some places nodding your head means "yes", but in others it means "no"! And some people are just naturally more expressive with their body language than others.That's why it's important to pay close attention to all the different signals someone is sending with their body language, along with the actual words they're saying. The words might say one thing, but the body language tells a different story.So the next time you're talking to your friends, your parents, or your teacher, take a look at their body language. Are they focused on you or distracted? Do they seem happy and relaxed, or upset and tense? What is their face telling you about how they really feel? Reading body language can help you be a better listener and communicator.And don't forget about your own body language too! Make eye contact to show you're listening. Smile to look friendly and approachable. Keep an open posture so you don't seem closed off. Use your hands when you speak to get your point across more clearly. Good body language skills can help you make friends, ace your presentations, and get along better with teachers and family.So pay attention to all those secret signals we send without words. Because body language is the silent way we communicate every single day!篇2The Importance of Body Language in Our LivesHave you ever noticed how people move their hands, tilt their heads, or make different facial expressions when they talk? That's called body language, and it's like a secret code that cantell us a lot about what someone is really thinking or feeling, even if their words say something different.Body language is super important because it helps us communicate better. I learned all about it in school, and let me tell you, it's pretty cool! Imagine you're talking to your friend, and they say they're "fine", but their shoulders are slumped, and they're not making eye contact. Their body language is telling you that they might not be feeling as good as their words suggest.One of the first things I learned about body language is the importance of eye contact. When someone looks you straight in the eye while talking, it usually means they're interested in what you're saying and are paying attention. But if they keep looking away or down, it could mean they're bored, distracted, or even feeling uncomfortable.Then there are facial expressions. A smile can brighten up someone's whole face and make them look friendly and approachable. But a frown or a scowl can make someone seem angry or upset, even if they're not saying anything. It's amazing how much our faces can reveal about our emotions without us even realizing it!Hand gestures are another big part of body language. Have you ever noticed how some people move their hands a lot when they talk? That can help them express their ideas better or show their excitement about something. But if someone has their arms crossed or their hands tightly clenched, it might mean they're feeling defensive or closed off.Posture is also super important in body language. Standing up straight and tall can make you look confident and sure of yourself. But slouching or hunching over can make you seem insecure or uninterested. It's crazy how just the way we hold our bodies can send such powerful messages!Of course, body language isn't just about the things we do with our bodies – it's also about the things we don't do. For example, if someone is avoiding eye contact, fidgeting a lot, or constantly looking at the door, it could mean they're feeling uncomfortable or anxious and want to leave the situation.Learning about body language has really helped me become a better communicator. Now, when I'm talking to my friends or family, I pay attention to their body language as well as their words. If I notice they seem distracted or uncomfortable, I can ask if everything is okay or try to change the subject.Body language is also really important when it comes to first impressions. Have you ever met someone new and immediately got a good or bad feeling about them, even though they haven't said much yet? That's probably because you picked up on their body language without even realizing it!For example, if someone greets you with a warm smile, open posture, and friendly eye contact, you're likely to feel more comfortable around them right away. But if they avoid looking at you, seem tense or closed off, you might feel a bit uneasy or like they're not really interested in talking to you.Body language can even help us communicate with people who speak different languages. If you're visiting a foreign country and don't know the language, paying attention to people's body language can give you clues about what they might be trying to say or how they're feeling.Of course, body language can be different in different cultures, so it's important to be mindful of that. For example, in some cultures, making direct eye contact is seen as rude or disrespectful, while in others, it's a sign of honesty and respect.Overall, body language is an amazing tool that can help us understand each other better, build stronger relationships, and communicate more effectively. It's like having a secretsuperpower that allows us to read between the lines and pick up on all the little signals that people send out without even realizing it.So, the next time you're talking to someone, pay close attention to their body language. Are they leaning in and making eye contact, or are they crossing their arms and looking away? The way they move and hold themselves can tell you a lot about how they're really feeling, even if their words don't match up.And remember, your body language is just as important as theirs. So stand up straight, make eye contact, and smile – you never know who might be reading your secret code!篇3The Importance of Body Language in Our Daily LivesHave you ever noticed how sometimes people say one thing with their words, but their body seems to be saying something completely different? That's because we humans communicate not just with the words that come out of our mouths, but also through our body language. Body language is like a secret code that our bodies use to express thoughts and feelings without us even realizing it sometimes!What exactly is body language? It refers to all the little movements, gestures, and positions that our bodies make. Things like eye contact, facial expressions, hand motions, posture, and the way we position ourselves. Our bodies are constantly sending out signals, whether we mean to or not. Pretty cool, right?The crazy thing is, we start using body language practically from the moment we're born! You might have seen how babies move their arms and legs a certain way when they're hungry or sleepy. As we get older, our body language gets more complicated. We start to mimic the body language of the people around us without even thinking about it.Body language plays a huge role in our daily communication and interactions with others. Often, it ends up being even more important than the words we say! Let me give you some examples of how body language impacts our lives:At SchoolImagine you're giving a presentation in front of your class. Even if you've memorized every word perfectly, your body could be giving off signals that undermine your message. Avoiding eye contact, hunching over, and fidgeting can make you seemunconfident or disinterested. Good posture, gesturing naturally, and making eye contact helps engage your audience.With FriendsYou've probably had an experience where a friend said they were "fine", but their slumped shoulders, frown, and lack of eye contact showed they were actually upset about something. Reading their body language allowed you to see past their words. Crossed arms or standing far away can signal that someone feels closed off, while a relaxed stance shows they're comfortable around you.At HomeEven with your family members who you're closest with, body language matters. If your parents are standing with their hands on their hips and frowning, you can tell they're feeling frustrated before they even say anything! Paying attention to their body language clues you in to their mood. And your own body language sends signals too - slouching on the couch might make you seem disinterested in what they're saying.With TeachersTeachers use body language constantly as they're trying to command the attention of a whole classroom. An authoritativestance with their arms crossed can show they mean business. Smiling, nodding along, and making eye contact makes them seem more approachable if you need help. Reading their body language helps you understand how to behave.Making FriendsWhen you first meet someone new, their body language is key! Someone who avoids eye contact, hunches over, or crosses their arms seems closed off and unfriendly. You're naturally going to be drawn to people whose open stance, eye contact, and animated gesturing makes them seem warm and outgoing.As you can see, being aware of the body language of those around you, as well as managing your own body language, is crucial for effective communication and navigating social situations. Our bodies are constantly sending out signals whether we realize it or not!Of course, different cultures also have different norms when it comes to body language. An American teen might greet their friends with a casual hand gesture, while a Japanese student would bow formally to their teacher. It's important to understand these differences so we don't send the wrong signals.Beyond just communication, scientists have found that our body language can actually influence our mind and emotions too! Powerful, confident postures have been shown to increase feelings of confidence, while slumped positions can reinforce feelings of sadness. Crazy, right? It works the other way around too - if you're feeling anxious, adopting a relaxed body posture can trick your mind into feeling more calm.So next time you're talking to someone, I challenge you to be extra aware of what signals their body language is sending. And pay attention to your own body too! What kind of message are you portraying through your posture, hand gestures and facial expressions? Remember, our bodies have their own secret language that we need to learn to speak fluently.The better we can read body language in ourselves and others, the better we'll be able to communicate effectively in all areas of our lives. So start practicing your secret body code today! It's one of the most important languages we'll ever learn.。
THESILENTWAY默示教学法
THESILENTWAY默示教学法THE SILENT WAY 默示教學法(SW)歷史背景與淵源SW是由Caleb Gattegno在觀察一位歐洲學者進行數學教學後研發出來的教學法。
它最主要的學習理論包括了：（1）學習者若能自己去察覺(discover)、發現、及創造(create) ，將遠比覆誦(repeat)、熟背(remember)來的好--- 普通的教學通常可分為講述模式（expository mode）和假設模式（hypothetical mode）。
講述模式中所有的教學內容、型態、進度全權由教師來掌控，假設模式的教學則讓學生在實驗、摸索、嘗試中參與學習，加強了學習將度，增進內在的自信與成就感。
Gattegno認為SW可以讓學習者獲得假設模式的上課效果；（2）SW所使用的教具，如依顏色來分類的彩色木條(colored cuisenaire rods)和發音卡(Fidel pronunciation charts)，是心理學中所說可以幫助學生學習和記憶的輔助媒介(associate mediator)；（3）SW採用實驗心理學中〝解決問題〞（problem-solving）的方法來進行語言教學，也就是教師不再多遍地重述教學內容，而要求學生專心主動地去觀察、摸索出L2的各層風貌。
教學觀Gattegno認為，語言為一結構性的組合體，所以教學上可以將發音、文法等元素加以抽離於社會情境下來介紹。
這也就是為何他會採用彩色笨子等教具來進行教學的原因。
此外，Gattegno也非常強調學習者要學好L2的兩大特質：（1）沈默（silence）---沈默使學生能專注於所學的標的物上，進而產生組織、統合的能力。
學習中常見的覆誦（repetition）反而會攪擾心思運作的狀態；（2）意識狀態（awareness）---Gattegno非常重視心理學中〝如何學好學習〞（learning to learn）這門學問。
the silent way英语教学法
the silent way英语教学法The Silent Way是一种英语教学法，它最主要的理论包括学习者若能自己去察觉、发现及创造，比覆诵、熟背来得好。
这种教学法的目标是给初学者口语和听力的支持以掌握目的语，包括语法的基本知识，近似母语的流畅度和正确的语音。
1．理论基础：The Silent Way的理论基础主要源自于语言学和心理学。
它强调了语言学习的自主性和自我发现的过程。
这种教学方法认为，当学习者被给予机会去自我探索和发现语言的规则和模式时，他们的学习效果会更好。
2．教学方法：在The Silent Way中，教师会尽量减少在课堂上说话，相反，他们会通过手势、面部表情、肢体语言等非语言方式来与学习者进行交流。
这种教学方式强调了学习者需要尽可能地积极参与到语言的学习过程中去。
3．教学重点：The Silent Way的教学重点主要放在口语和听力技能的培养上。
教师会提供大量的听力材料和口语练习，以帮助学习者提高他们的语言流利度和准确性。
4．教学过程：The Silent Way的教学过程通常包括以下几个步骤：首先，教师会用非语言的方式介绍一个新的语言点或概念；然后，他们会给学习者提供一些练习材料，以帮助他们理解和掌握这个新的语言点；最后，教师会通过测试和反馈来检查学习者的学习效果。
5．教学特点：The Silent Way的教学特点包括：鼓励学习者自主学习、重视语言的实用性和功能性、强调语法和词汇的教学、使用真实、自然的语言材料、鼓励学习者通过上下文来理解语言的意义和用法。
6．评估和反馈：在The Silent Way中，评估和反馈是非常重要的环节。
教师会定期进行测试和评估，以检查学习者的学习进度和效果。
同时，他们也会根据学习者的表现和反馈来调整教学策略和方法。
总的来说，The Silent Way是一种非常注重学习者自主性和实践性的语言教学方法。
它强调了学习者需要有机会去自我探索和发现语言的规则和模式，同时也重视教师的角色，他们需要为学习者提供足够的学习资源和引导。
Thesilentway沉默法ppt课件ppt
通过静默和自我觉察，使个体更加了解自己的内心世界，提高自我认知和自我管理能力。
强调实践和体验
不同于其他理论课程，thesilentway沉默法强调学员的实践和体验，让学员在实践中学习和成长。
thesilentway沉默法的原则和特点
02
应用领域
提高学生的专注力和学习效率
通过教授学生如何排除干扰并专注于学习任务，沉默法可以帮助学生在学习过程中保持专注，提高学习效率和成绩。
意识觉察
情绪调节
专注力
自我认知
学习识别和调节负面情绪，以更有效地管理情绪。
培养专注力，使注意力集中在当前任务上，减少分心的干扰。
通过反思和自我观察，了解自己的行为模式和信念，进而调整自己的态度和行为。
家庭教育
家长可以使用thesilentway沉默法来改善与孩子的沟通，帮助他们更好地处理情绪和解决冲突。
详细描述
提高工作效率、增强团队凝聚力、提升员工士气
商业领域是thesilentway沉默法的另一个应用领域。通过运用thesilentway沉默法，企业可以提高员工的工作效率和团队凝聚力，同时提升员工的士气和忠诚度。一些企业已经
教育领域
培养学生的思考能力
沉默法强调通过思考来解决问题，而不是简单地依靠直觉或快速反应。这有助于培养学生的思考能力和创造力。
改善学生的情绪和压力管理
沉默法注重自我意识和情绪管理，通过教授学生如何平静下来和自我调节情绪，可以帮助学生更好地应对学习和生活中的压力和负面情绪。
提高员工的工作效率
01
沉默法可以帮助员工排除干扰，提高专注力和工作效率，从而提高整个团队的生产力和绩效。
促进身心健康
健康和医疗领域
沉默法可以辅助康复治疗，帮助患者更好地应对疼痛、焦虑和抑郁等问题，提高康复治疗效果。
人文主义
Total Physical Response 全身反应法
Background: Total physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical activity. TPR is linked to the “trace theory” of memory (记 忆痕迹) in psychology, which holds that the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled. (记忆联系越是经常和强烈，该记忆的联想和回忆越 是容易)
Procedures: (1) Learner and Knower agree to language learning (2) Learner presents to the knower a message he or she wishes to deliver to another. (3) Knower listens and other learners overhear. (4) Knower restates learner’s message in L2. (5) Learner repeats the L2 message form to its addressee. (6) Learner replays (from tape or memory) and reflects upon the messages exchanged during the language class.
(2)TESOL(教学法approaches)
A. Grammar-translation Approach(语法翻译法）
The aim is to develop students’ competence in reading literary works, so students must master voc & structure in order to translate works. Students must recite everything and do translation exercises. ( Xu Guozhang’s English)
Other Approaches Related to CL
French immersion (浸泡式教学) Segmentation(碎片式教学) Integrated Reading (整体阅读法) Using the peers as teacher of the poor students（同伴互教式学习法） Task-based Learning （任务学习法） Project Learning (项目学习法) Cooperative learning (合作式学习法) Tribal Learning (部落式学习法)
Material design: works in the original; exercises for grammar; words both in Chinese and English versions.
Teacher’s and students’ functions:
T: authority who imparts knowledge, organizer of the class. Ss: do whatever teacher asks them to do, passive in learning.
The Silent Way
Aims and goals
• The general goal of the Silent Way is to help beginninglevel students gain basic fluency in the target language, with the ultimate aim being near-native language proficiency and good pronunciation. • An important part of this ability is being able to use the language for self-expression; students should be able to express their thoughts, feelings, and needs in the target language.
Teaching techniques
• Just as the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in the Silent Way. From the beginning levels, students do 90 percent or more of the talking. Being silent moves the focus of the classroom from the teacher to the students,and can encourage cooperation among them. It also frees the teacher to observe the class. • Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to self-correct; they can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures.
沉默教学法(英语)
Some uses of colored rods
This is a chart containing a certain number of different coloured rectangles; each colour corresponds to a sound in the language.
A. Students learn to take responsibility for their own learning by becoming aware of an decontrolling how they use certain learning strategies in class. B. The teacher accepts the students’ comments in a nondefensive manner. C. This will give him direction for where to work on next.
Techniques and Principles: 2. Student‟s roles:
A. Make use of what they know B. Free themselves of any obstacles that would interfere with giving their utmost attention to the learning task
The Silent Way
What is the Silent Way ?
It is the name of a language teaching method devised by Dr. Caleb Gattegno.
Background
英语沉默教学法
英语沉默教学法 -CAL-FENGHAI-(2020YEAR-YICAI)_JINGBIAN英语沉默教学法 (The Silent Way)2011-02-26 21:05英语沉默教学法 (The Silent Way)是西方人本主义教学法中一个较有特色的流派,为美国心理学家兼数学家凯莱布·加特尼奥(有人也译成卡帝格罗） (Caleb Gattegno)所创立。
是基于结构主义的基本理论于上世纪 60 年代产生在美国的现代教学法,成熟于七十年代。
该教学法认为，外语教师在课堂上应该尽量少说话，而鼓励让学生多开口多说话。
沉默教学法理论设定了 3 条基本假设：其一，让学习者自己去发现或创造，而不是去背诵和复述那些指定他们学习的东西，这样会有利他的学习。
其二，如有一些物体的帮助，学习也会变得容易些。
其三，通过利用解决问题的方法来学习语言，会使学习变得容易些。
沉默教学法遵循一个原则：那就是成功的学习需要学习者对语言学习的投入。
首先是有沉思的意识，然后是积极主动地试用。
沉思可以给大脑最多的机会去从语言中获得信息；沉思可以允许并强迫学习者对所学材料付出最多的注意力和进行最佳的加工处理。
在课堂里利用沉思意味着学生从教师那里获得更多的利益。
沉默教学法认为；沉思是最好的学习工具。
学习者在沉思的时候注意力集中在要完成的学习任务上，精力集中在完成任务的潜在手段上。
沉思可以使学习效用最大化。
沉默法教学的模式是运用结构主义的模式解释目标语言。
将单词视为一组声音，约定俗成地与特定的意义相对应，然后通过语法组成句子---语义单位。
在教学活动中，将语言与其社会环境相分离，教师通过虚拟的语言场景来组织教学活动。
句子是教学的基本单位。
教师强调的是命题意义，而不是它的交际价值。
学生学习目标语的结构形态，并通过归纳的办法学习语法规则。
沉默教学法其总体目标是通过对语言类基本要素的训练，培养初学者的听说能力。
英语教学要求发挥学生在课堂上的主体地位，而教师则主要是起到主导作用 .教学目标是培养学习者使用目标语的基本成分，进行听说的能力的培养。
silent way英语教学法——沉默法
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To teach To test
To get out of the way
Process
Using nonverbal clues to get across meanings
Testing follows immediately and might better be termed elicitation and shaping of student prodection. (as silent as possible)
Demands:
• Influence over each other's learning They are expected to interact with each other and suggest alternatives to each other.
Work cooperatively rather than competitively.
Silently monitors learners' interactions with each other and may even leave the room while learners struggle with their new linguistic tools.
Sensitivity
Independent learners:
• Independent learners are those who are aware that they must depend on their own resources and realize that they can use "the knowledge of their own language to open up some things in a new language" or that they can "take their knowledge of the first few words in the new language and figure out additional words by using that knowledge."
The Silent Way
教学应从属于学习。 学习者负责自己的学习。
Teaching/Learning Process
Students begin with sounds, introduced through association of sounds in native language to a sound-color chart（音色对应表）.
for the individual. It saves time and energy for both teachers students. The self-esteem of the students will be increased and this
will enhance learning.
Aims
To use language for self-expression; to develop independence from the teacher; to develop inner criteria for correctness.
Roles
Teaching should be subordinated to learning. Teachers should give students only what they absolutely need to promote their leaning. Learners are responsible for their own learning.
Role of students’s native language
Although translation is not used at all, the native language is considered a resource because of the overlap that is bound to exist between the two language. The teacher should take into account what the students already know.
各种教学法及其优缺点
各种教学法及其优缺点1 the grammar-translation method优点：注重培养阅读能力和写作翻译能力缺点：忽视听说训练，不能培养学生运用英语思维进行英语交际的能力，语法规则的学习脱离了语言的实际应用，过多的使用机械记忆使课堂教学沉闷，单调乏味，忽视学生的学习兴趣，学习效果事倍功半认识：语法翻译法主要要求学生背诵，学习效率低，没有顾及英语学习听说训练，不利于学生全面发展，是一种比较传统的学习方法。
2 the direct method优点;直接法重视口语教学，强调英语思维，能够培养学生较强的口头语言交际能力。
缺点：忽视本族语的正面作用，容易造成理解上的错误和时间上的浪费，将外国语的学习和本族语的学习等同起来，忽视语法的作用，过早强调活用语言，机械的模仿，记忆语言，容易造成囫囵吞枣式的僵化学习。
认识：直接法直接学习外语，不借助母语进行组织教学，在听说的基础上再进行读写，比语法翻译法更进一步。
3 audio-lingual method优点：听说法的优势是通过句型操练熟练掌握一定数量的句式，有利于语言表达习惯的养成，在有限范围内，能流利的听说英语，语调比较准确自然。
缺点：听说法的训练过于机械，脱离实际，忽视语言文化和语言情景等交际要素，造成大量无意义的表达。
熟练掌握并流利表达的句式不能在实际生活中有效运用，教学过程中有错必纠的方法使学生失去学习热情，影响他们的学习积极性。
认识：听说法的学习策略是听说领先，读写跟上。
其学习训练方式较多样化，符合学生要求，如果注重句式在生活上的灵活运用会更好。
4 the situational language teaching优点：便于使学生获得感性材料，把理论与实际联系起来。
有利于调动学生的非智力因素，使学生注意力集中，学到的知识易于掌握巩固。
缺点：完全排除母语，不利于对语言材料的彻底理解。
过分强调整体结构的感知，使学生对语言项目缺乏清楚的认识。
认识：情景交际法能让学生更加容易理解所学内容，能够身临其境的学习外语，是一种比较可靠的教学方法，但需要准备的材料多，操作较麻烦。
沉默教学法
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Approach: Theory of language
Theory of language: a structural approach. Gattegno's view of language: 1. Language is groups of sounds arbitrarily associated with specific meanings and organized into sentences or strings of meaningful units by grammar rules. 2. Language “as a substitute for experience, so experience is what gives meaning to language”. 3. Language is separated from its social context and through artificial situations represented by rods.
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Approach: Theory of language
4. Learning a L is to grasp its “spirit” — the way each language is composed of phonological and suprasegmental elements that combine to give the language its unique sound system and melody. The learner must gain a “feel” for this aspect.
Chapter Six
默示教学法.
•步驟五 老師來回指拼字發音對應表與 字彙表，讓學生唸blue，唸出音[blu]。 老師指藍色木條(rod)、藍色衣服、藍色 卡片，要學生唸blue。 •步驟六 重複步驟，教red, yellow等顏 色。
結論
• 相較於其他教學法中教師的強勢主導作風以及 嚴禁學生犯錯的方式，SW將學習環境轉換成一 個可以讓學生有時間去咀嚼、反芻而後有自發 表現的機會空間。 • L2的學習者，雖然其後天條件上已經不能以 「時間」來換取「實力」 ，但若在課程的安排 上可以多給學生一些安靜觀察(和傳統的「大聲 覆誦」相反)以及熱烈參與的時間(如英語說故事 比賽、話劇比賽等)，就算初期錯誤連連，但學 生在親身體驗到「語言」(包括其所正在學習的 標的語)就是「力量」後，一定會更有學習動機， 進而提升自己的語言實力。
• (2) SW所使用的教具，如依顏色來分類 的彩色木條(colored cuisenaire rods)和 發音卡(Fidel pronunciation charts)，是 心理學中所說可以幫助學生學習和記憶的 輔助媒介(associate mediator) 。 • (3) SW採用實驗心理學中〝解決問題〞 (problem-solving)的方法來進行語言教學， 也就是教師不再多遍地重述教學內容，而 要求學生專心主動地去觀察、摸索出 Second Language(L2)的各層風貌。
THE SILENT WAY
默示教學法
組別:第6組 指導教師:溫宏悅 組員:陳佳伶 9813147 陳敏容 9813148 賴妍靜 9813149 黃妤婷 9813151
歷史背景與淵源
• THE SILENT WAY 默示教學法 (SW) 是由Caleb Gattegno在觀察一位歐洲學 者進行數學教學後研發出來的教學法。
《语言教学的流派第二版》自己整理的笔记
第一章A brief history of language teaching第二章The nature of approaches and methods前两章很简单，详见前面中文导读第三章The oral approach and situational languageteachingThe oral approach (situational languageteaching) is a grammar-based method inwhich principles of grammatical and lexicalgradation are used and new teaching pointsare presented and practiced throughmeaningful situation-based activities.一、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and A.S.Hornby.2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control二、The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching The main characteristics of the approach were as follows: 1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach(1). Language learning as habit formation(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.(4). Writing derives from speech.—a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns(2) Situation: the manner of presenting and practicing sentence patternssentence patterns and a drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patternscommands(2) Have no control over the content of learning、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figuresThe teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentencepatterns to their automatic use in speech, reading and writing.Revision ( to prepare for new work if necessary) Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Reading of material on the new structure, or written exercisesChoral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second languageteaching which (a) emphasizes the teaching ofspeaking and listening before reading andwriting (b) uses dialogues and drills. (c)discourages use of the mother tongue in theclassroom (d) often makes use of contrastiveanalysis. The audiolingual method wasprominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especiallyin the United States, and has been widely usedin many other parts of the world.一、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.二、Approach1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、Design、accurate correct sentences in writing.Long-range objectives ：To develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speakers haveDrills --Various kinds of drills : repetition, inflection, replacement…Models the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningMonitors and corrects the learners’ performanceTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations （both in language and language learning）and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar第五章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learningmethod based on the coordination of speechand action. This method of learning wasdeveloped by James Asher, a professor ofpsychology at San Jose State University,California.一、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first languageacquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach aforeign language at an introductory level二、Approachstructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions andnonabstractions)<Bio-program>the central role of comprehension in languagelearninglanguage can be internalized as wholes or chunksReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreignlanguage learning )According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. Theprincipals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to firstlanguage learning and should reflect the samenaturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed,speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities,while the left hemisphere watches and learns.三、Designbeginning levelSpecific instructional objectives are not elaborated.employed in TPR classesA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeAttention to both the global meaning of language and the finer details of its organizationImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsReading and writing activitiesA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentMonitor and evaluate their own progressActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents givingfeedbackCautions: illusion of simplicity; having too narrow atolerance for errorsNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages.Student kits that focus on specific situations(supporting materials)四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by those who emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition.It represents a useful techniques and is compatible with other approaches to teaching.第六章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teachingdeveloped by Gattegno which makes use ofgesture, mime, visual aids, wall charts, and inparticular Cuisiniere rods (wooden sticks ofdifferent lengths and colors) that the teacheruses to help the students to talk. The methodtakes its name from the relative silence of theteacher using these techniques.一、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.二、ApproachGattegno views language as a substitute forexperience.By the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachVocabulary as a central dimensionArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、Designstudents oral and aural facilityAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of thelanguageTeach learners how to learn a languagevocabularyresponses to commands, questions and visual cuesautonomy and responsibility.Learners exert a strong influenc e over each other’s learning.Playing varying rolesSilent Way.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentTeacher likes the complete dramatist.The colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonFidel chartConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance,the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第七章Community Language Learning社团语言学习法It is a method of second and foreign language teaching developed by CharlesCurran. CLL is an application of counselinglearning(咨询学习法)to second and foreignlanguage teaching and learning. It usestechniques developed in group counseling tohelp people with psychological and emotionalproblems. The method makes use of grouplearning in small or large groups. Thesegroups are the “Community”. The methodplaces emphasis on the learners’ personalfeelings and their reactions to languagelearning. Learners say things which theywant to talk about, in their native language.The teacher (known as “Counselor”)translates the learners’ sentences into theforeign language, and the learner then repeatsthis to other members of the group.一、Background1、Rogerian counseling——Charles A. Curren2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation二、ApproachLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interactionbetween equals, interaction betweenunequalsinteraction between learners and knowers,interaction between learners.view, the behavioral view)The whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention and reflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、Designnot defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to thelearner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageSpecific objectives are not addressed.Topic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility：teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learnerGoal: attenting near-native like mastery of the target language.with conventional ones.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection and observation, Listening, Free conversationbecome counselors to other learnersFive stagesSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentNote two “asides” in the discussion of learning security.A textbook is not considered a necessary component.Materials may be developed by the teacher as thecourse develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、the description of some typical activities in CLLclassed3、 a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class covered Conclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.自己想法：学校英语角活动Question for discussion:社团学习法把语言学习过程比作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个比喻合适吗？为什么？第八章SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗示法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by the Bulgarian Lozanov. It makesuse of dialogues, situations and translation topresent and practise language, and inparticular, makes use of music, visual images,and relaxation exercises to make learningmore comfortable and effective.一、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning二、Approachwhole meaningful texta language to be its vocabulary and the grammar rules for organizing vocabularysix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concertpseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern三、Designdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly increased access to understanding and creative solutions of problemstime duration——30 dayseach unitthe whole courseeach unitThe mental state of the learner is critical to success,expected teacher behaviorsneeds three to six months training in acting, singing, and psychotherapeutic techniquesDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music 四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts.The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussed The third par t: the séance or concert session Conclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify and validate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗示法强调音乐的作用，那么音乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作用？谈谈你们的看法。
the silent way
BackgroundThe Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible. Elements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of color charts and the colored Cuisenairerods, grew out of Gattegno‟s previous experience as an educational designer of reading and mathematics programs. The Silent Way shares a great deal with other learning theories and educational philosophies. Very broadly put, the learning hypotheses underlying Gattegno‟s work could be stated as follows: 1.Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.2.Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.3.Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.Let us consider each of these issues in turn.1.The Silent Way belongs to a tradition that views learning as a problem-solving, creative, discovering activity, in which the learner is a principal actor rather than a bench-bound listener (Bruner 1966). Bruner discusses the benefits derived from “discovery learning” under four headings: (a) the increase in intellectual potency, (b) the shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards, (c) the learning of heuristics by discovering, and (d) the aid to conserving memory (Bruner 1966: 83). Gattegno claims similar benefits from learners taught via the Silent Way.2.The rods and the color-coded pronunciation charts (called Fidel charts)provide physical foci for student learning and also create memorableimages to facilitate student recall. In psychological terms, these visual devices serve as associative mediators for student learning and recall.3.The Silent Way is also related to a set of premises that we have called“problem-solving approaches to learning.” These premises are suc cinctly represented in the words of Benjamin Franklin:Tell me and I forget,teach me and I remember,involve me and I learn.Approach: Theory of language and learningGattegno takes an openly skeptical view of the role of linguistic theory in language teaching methodology. He feels that linguistic studies “may be a specialization, [that] carry with them a narrow opening of one's sensitivity and perhaps serve very little towards the broad end in mind” (Gattegno 1972: 84). Considerable discussion is devoted to the importance of grasping the “spirit" of the language, and not just its component forms. By the “spirit” of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language is composed of phonological and suprasegmental elements that combine to give the language its unique sound system and melody. The learner must gain a “feel” for this aspect of the target language as soon as possible.By looking at the material chosen and the sequence in which it is presented in a Silent Way classroom, it is clear that the Silent Way takes a structural approach to the organization of language to be taught. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching, and the teacher focuses on propositional meaning, rather than communicative value. Students are presented with the structural patterns of the target language and learn the grammar rules of the language through largely inductive processes. Gattegno sees vocabulary as a central dimension of language learning and the choice of vocabulary as crucial. The most important vocabulary for the learner deals with the most functional and versatile words of the language, many of which may not have direct equivalents in the learner‟s native language. This “functional vocabulary” provides a key, says Gattegno, to comprehending the “spirit” of the language.In elaborating a learning theory to support the principles of Silent Way, like many other method proponents Gattegno makes extensive use of his understanding of first language learning. He recommends, for example, that the learner needs to “return to the state of mind that characterizes a baby‟s learning - su rrender” (Scott and Page 1982:273).Having referred to these processes, however, Gattegno states that the processes of learning a second language are “radically different” from those involved in learning a first language. The second language learner is unlike the fi rst language learner and “cann ot learn another language in the same way because of what h e now knows” (Gattegno 1972:11).The “natural” or “direct” approaches to acquiring a second language are thus misguided, saysGattegno, and a successful second language approach will “replace a …natural‟ approach by one that is very …artificial‟ a nd, for some purposes, strictly controlled” (1972: 12).The “artificial approach” that Gattegno proposes is based on the prin ciple that successful learning involves commitment of the self to language acquisition through the use of silent awareness and then active trial. Gattegno‟s repeated emphasis on the primacy of learning over teaching places a focus on the self of the learner, on the learner‟s priorities and commitments. The self, we are told, consists of two systems - a learning system and a retaining system. The learning system is activated only by way of intelligent awareness. “The learner must constantly test his powers to abstract, analyze, synthesize and inte grate” (Scott and Page 1982: 273). Silence is considered the best vehicle for learning, because in silence students concentrate on the task to be accomplished and the potential means to its accomplishment. Repetition (as opposed to silence) “consumes time and encourages the scattered mind to remain scattered” (Gattegno 1976: 80). Silence, as avoidance of repetition, is thus an aid to alertness, concentration, and mental organization.Awareness is educable. As one learns “in awareness,” one‟s powers of aware ness and one‟s capacity to learn become greater. The Silent Way thus claims to facilitate what psychologists call “learning to learn.” Again, the process chain that develops awareness proceeds from attention, production, self-correction, and absorption. S ilent Way learners acquire “inner criteria,” which play a central role “in one‟s education throughout all of one‟s life” (Gattegno 1976: 29). These inner criteria allow learners to monitor and self-correct their own production. It is in the activity of self-correction through self-awareness that the Silent Way claims to differ most notably from other ways of language learning. It is this capacity for self-awareness that the Silent Way calls upon, a capacity said to be little appreciated or exercised by first language learners.Design: Objectives, syllabus, learning activities, roles of learners, teachers, and materialsThe general objective of the Silent Way is to give beginning-level students oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language. The general goal set for language learning is near-native fluency in the target language, and correct pronunciation and mastery of the prosodic elements of the target language are emphasized. An immediate objective is to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar.Gattegno discusses the following kinds of objectives as appropriate for a language course at an elementary level (Gattegno 1972: 81-83). Students should be able tocorrectly and easily answer questions about themselves, their education, their family, travel, and daily events;speak with a good accent;give either a written or an oral description of a p icture, “including the existing relationships that concern space, time and numbers”;answer general questions about the culture and the literature of the nativespeakers of the target language;perform adequately in the following areas: spelling, grammar (production rather than explanation), reading comprehension, and writing.The Silent Way adopts a basically structural syllabus, with lessons planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary. Gattegno does not, however, provide details as to the precise selection and arrangement of grammatical and lexical items to be covered. But language items are introduced according to their grammatical complexity, their relationship to what has been taught previously, and the ease with which items can be presented visually.The following is a section of a Peace Corps Silent Way Syllabus for the first 10 hours of instruction in Thai. It was used to teach American Peace Corps volunteers being trained to teach in Thailand. At least 15 minutes of every hour of instruction would be spent on pronunciation. A word that is italicized can be substituted for by another word having the same function.Lesson vocabula ry1. Wood color red. Wood, red, green, yellow, brown.pink, white, orange. black, coloring the numbers 1-10 one,two,…ten3.Wood color red two pieces.4.Take (pick up) wood color take(pick up)red two pieces.5.Take wood color red two give, object pronounsPieces give him6.Wood red where? Where,on,under,near,far,over,Wood red on table next to,here,there 7.Wood color red on table, is Question-forming rulesit? Yes,No. Yes, on.Not on.8.Wood color red long. Adjectives of comparisonWood color green longer.Wood color orange longest.9.Wood color green taller.Wood color red,is it?10.Review. Students use stru c-tures taught in new situa-tions, such as comparing theheights of students in theclass.(Joel Wiskin, personal communication) Learning tasks and activities in the Silent Way have the function of encouraging and shaping student oral response without direct oral in-struction from or unnecessary modeling by the teacher. Basic to themethod are simple linguistic tasks in which the teacher models a word, phrase, or sentence and then elicits learner responses. Learners then goon to create their own utterances by putting together old and new information. Charts, rods, and other aids may be used to elicit learner responses. Teacher modeling is minimal, although much of the activitymay be teacher-directed. Responses to commands, questions, andvisual cues thus constitute the basis for classroom activities.Learners are expected to develop independence, autonomy, and re-sponsibility. Independent learners are those who are aware that they must dep end on their own resources and realize that they can use “the knowledge of their own language to open up some things in a new language” or that they can “take their knowledge of the first few words in the new language and figure out additional words by using that knowledge” (Ste vick 1980: 42). The absence of correction and repeated modeling from the teacher requires the students to develop “inner criteria” and to cor rect themselves. The absence of explanations requires learners to make generalizations, come to their own conclusions, and formulate whatever rules they themselves feel they need.Learners have only themselves as individuals and the group to rely on, and so must learn to work cooperatively rather than competitively. They need to feel comfortable both correcting one another and being corrected by one another.Teacher silence is, perhaps, the unique and, for many traditionally trained language teachers, the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way. Teachers are exhorted to resist their long-standing commitment to model, remodel, assist, and direct desired student responses. Stevick defines the Silent Way teacher‟s tasks as (a) to teach, (b) to test, and (c) to get out of the way (Stevick 1980: 56). Although this may not seem to constitute a radical alternative to standard teaching practice, the details of the steps the teacher is expected to follow are unique to the Silent Way. By “teach ing” is meant the presentation of an item once, typically using nonverbal dues to get across meanings. Testing follows immediately and might better be termed elicitation and shaping of student production, which, a gain, is done in as silent a way as possible. Finally, the teacher silently monitors learners‟ interactions with each other and may even le ave room while learners struggle with their new linguistic tools.The teacher uses gestures, charts, and manipulatives in order to elicit and shape student responses and so must be both facile and creative as a pantomimist and puppeteer. In sum, the Silent Way teacher, like the complete dramatist, writes the script, chooses the props, sets the mood models the action, designates the players, and is critic for the performance. Silent Way materials consist mainly of a set of colored rods, color- codedpronunciation and vocabulary wall charts, a pointer, and reading/ writing exercises, all of which are used to illustrate the relationships between sound and meaning in the target language. The materials are designed for manipulation by the students as well as by the teacher, independently and cooperatively, in promoting language learning by direct association.The pronunciation charts, called “Fidels,” have been devised for a number of languages and contain symbols in the target language for all of the vowel and consonant sounds of the language. The symbols are color- coded according to pronunciation; thus, if a language possesses two different symbols for the same sound, they will be colored alike.Just as the Fidel charts are used to visually illustrate pronunciation, the colored Cuisenaire rods are used to directly link words and structures with their meanings in the target language, thereby avoiding translation into the native language. The rods vary in length from 1 to 10 centimeters, and each length has a specific color. The rods may be used for I naming colors, for size comparisons, to represent people, build floor I plans, constitute a road map, and so on. Use of the rods is intended to promote inventiveness, creativity, and interest in forming communicative utterances on the part of the students, as they move from simple to more complex structures.ProcedureA Silent Way lesson typically follows a standard format. The first part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation. Depending on student level, the class might work on sounds, phrases, even sentences designated on the Fidel chart. At the beginning stage, the teacher will model the appropriate sound after pointing to a symbol on the chart. Later, the teacher will silently point to individual symbols and combinations of utterances, and monitor student utterances. The teacher may say a word and have students guess what sequence of symbols compromised the word.The pointer is used to indicate stress, phrasing, and intonation, Stress can be shown by touching certain symbols more forcibly than others when pointing out a word. Intonation and phrasing can be demonstrated by tapping on the chart to rhythm of the utterance.After practice with the sounds of the language, sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary are practiced. The teacher models an utterance while creating a visual realization of it with the colored rods. After modeling the utterance, the teacher will have a student attempt to produce the utterance and will indicate its acceptability. If a response is incorrect, the teacher will attempt to reshape the utterance or have another student present the correct model. After a structure is introduced and understood, the teacher will create a situation in which the students can practice the structure through the manipulation of the rods. Variations on the structural theme will be elicited from the class using the rods and charts.The sample lesson that follows illustrates a typical lesson format. The language being taught is Thai, for which this is the first lesson.1.Teacher empties rods onto the table.2.Teacher picks up two or three rods of different colors, and aftereach rod is picked up says: [mai].3.Teacher holds up one rod of any color and indicates to a studentthat a response is required. Student says: [m ai]. If response isincorrect, teacher elicits response from another student, who then models for the first student.4.Teacher next picks up a red rod and says: [mai sii daeng].5.Teacher picks up a green rod and says: [mai sii khiaw].6.Teacher picks up either a red or green rod and elicits responsefrom student. If response is incorrect, procedure in step 3 isfollowed (student modeling).7.Teacher introduces two or three other colors in the same manner.8.Teacher shows any of the rods whose forms were taught previouslyand elicits student response. Correction technique is throughstudent modeling, or the teacher may help student isolate errorand self- correct.9.When mastery is achieved, teacher puts one red rod in plain viewand says: [mai sii daeng nung an].10.Teacher then puts two red rods in plain view and says: [mai siidaeng song an].11.Teacher places two green rods in view and says: [mai sii khiawsong an].12.Teacher holds up two rods of a different color and elicits studentresponse.13.Teacher introduces additional numbers, based on what the classcan comfortably retain. Other colors might also be introduced. 14. Rods are put in a pile. Teacher indicates, through his or her ownactions, that rods should be picked up, and the correct utterance made. All the students in the group pick up rods and makeutterances. Peer-group correction is encouraged.15. Teacher then says:[kep mai sii daeng song an].16. Teacher indicates that a student should give the teacher the rodscalled for. Teacher asks other students in the class to give him or her the rods that he or she asks for. This is all done in the target language through unambiguous actions on the part of the teacher.17. Teacher now indicates that the students should give each othercommands regarding the calling for of the rods. Rods are put at the disposal of the class.18. Experimentation is encouraged. Teacher speaks only to correct anincorrect utterance, if no peer-group correction is forthcoming.(Joel Wiskin, personal communication)ConclusionDespite the philosophical and sometimes almost metaphysical quality of much of Gattegno's writings, the actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. Working from what is a rather traditional structural and lexical syllabus, the method exemplifies many of the features that characterize more traditional methods, such as Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism, with a strong focus on accurate repetition of sentences modeled initially by the teacher and a movement through guided elicitation exercises to freer communication. The innovations in Gattegno‟s method derive primarily from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed on learners to figure out and test their hypotheses about how the language works, and the materials used to elicit and practice language.Bibliogra phy and fur ther r eadingArnold, F. 1981, College English: A Silent-Way Approach. Nara, Japan: Dawn Press.Blair, R. W. (ed.). 1982. Innovative Approaches to Language Teaching. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.Borasi, R., and B. Agor. 1990. What can mathematics educators learn from second language instruction? Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics.17(3/4):1-27.Bower,G.H.,and D. Winzenz. 1970. Comparison of associative learning strat-egies. pychonomk Sciences 20: 119-120.Bruner,J.1966. On Knowing: Essays for the Left Hand. New York: Atheneum. Cheery,D.1944. Learning with rods: One accou nt. Master‟s thesis, School for International Training, Brattleboro, Vermont.Craik, F.I.M.1973.A levels of analysis view of memory.In P. Pliner, L. Krames, and T. Alloway (eds.), Communication and Affect: Language and Thought.New York: Academic Press.Diller, K. C. 1978. The Language Teaching Controversy.Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.Gattegno, C. 1972. Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. 2nd ed. New York: Educational Solutions.Gattegno,C. 1976. The Common Sense of Teaching Foreign Languages.New York: Educational Solutions.Harbon, L. 1997. Constructivism in the language classroom. Babel32(3): 12-15Lantolf, J. 1986. Silent Way in a university setting: An applied research report.Canadian Modern Language Review43(1): 34-58.Rossner, R. 1982. Talking shop: A conversation with Caleb Gattegno, inventor of the Silent Way.ELT Journal36(4): 237-41.Scott, R., and M. Page. 1982. The subordination of teaching to learning: A seminar conducted by Dr. Caleb Gattegno. ELT Journal36(4): 273-274. Selman, M. 1977. The Silent Way: Insights for ESL. TESL Talk8: 33-6. Stevick, E. W. 1976. Memory, Meaning and Method: Some Psychological Perspectives on Language Learning.Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. Stevick, E. W. 1980.Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways.Rowley, Mass.:Newbury House.Stevick, E. W. 1990. Humanism in Language Teaching.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Stevick, E. W. 1998. Working with Teaching Methods: What‟s at Stake? Boston, Mass.: Heinie&Heinle.Thompson, G. J. 1980. The Silent Way: Interpretation and application. Master‟s thesis, University of Hawaii.Varvel, T. 1979. The Silent Way: Panacea or pipedream? TESOL Quarterly 13(4): 483-494.。
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Definition
The Silent Way is the pedagogical（教学的） approach created by Caleb Gattegno for teaching foreign languages
The objective is for students to work as autonomous（自主的 ） language learners.
教学应从属于学习。 学习者负责自己的学习。
Teaching/Learning Process
Students begin with sounds, introduced through association of sounds in native language to a sound-color chart（音色对应表）.
During the process of teaching, the teacher has to be silent as much as they could, but the learner has to be encouraged to produce as much language as possible
Teachers then set up situations, often using Cuisenaire rods（古氏积木） to focus students’ attention on structure. Students interact as the situation required.
Teachers see students’ errors as clues to where the target language is unclear, and they adjust instruction accordingly.
Students are urged to take responsibility for their learning. Additional learning is thought to take place during sleep.
Dealing with Feelings:
Teachers mintor students ’feelings and actively try to prevent their feelings from interfering with their learning.Students express their feelings during feedback sessions after class.
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
The teacher is silent much of the time, but very active setting up situations, listening to students, speaking only to give clues, not to model speech. Student-student interaction is encouraged.
Aspects of language the approach emphasises
All four skill 4 areas (reading, writing, speaking, listening )worked on from beginning; pronunciation especially, because sounds are basic and carry the melody of the language. structural patterns are practised in meaningful interactions. Syllabus develops according to learning abilities and needs. reading and writing exercises reinforce oral learning.
View of Language,Culture:
Language and culture are inseparable,and each language is seem to be unique despite structural similarities with other language.
Aims
To use language for self-expression; to develop indepner criteria for correctness.
Roles
Teaching should be subordinated to learning. Teachers should give students only what they absolutely need to promote their leaning. Learners are responsible for their own learning.
Role of students’s native language
Although translation is not used at all, the native language is considered a resource because of the overlap that is bound to exist between the two language. The teacher should take into account what the students already know.