英语语言学Chapter8
语言学导论第八章
Chapter 8 Language and Society
sociolinguistics社会语言学 --- the study of the relation between language and society
Preliminaries: 1.Find out the differences between male and female languages. 2.Try to discover the distinctions between the language of the younger generation and that of the older generation in China. 3.Think of some examples of code-mixing in the speech of Cantonese.
nguage and age c.jargon: doctor’s language lawyer’s language computational language (Part of a conversation between a judge and a sailor) … The judge: You mean you came into this court as a witness and don’t know what plaintiff means? … The sailor: You mean you came into the court and don’t know where abaft the binnacle is?
speech community言语社区 --- a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms
语言学 Concepts of Chapter 8
Chapter 8Performative refers to sentences in the uttering of which one performs an action. They can not be said to be true or false. For instance,I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.In contrast, constative denotes sentences that describe or depict facts or states of affairs and so may be either true or false. For example, China has the biggest population in the world.Austin suggests three basic senses in which in saying something is doing something and three kinds of acts are performed simultaneously:1）Locutionary act: The act of saying something: it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology, namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.2）Illocutionary act:The act performed in saying something; its illocutionary force is identical with the speaker’s intention. (In other words, when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. Illocutionary force may be said to be equivalent to speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning, and may be translated into Chinese as 言外之意.3）Perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.According to Grice, conversational implicature refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or he knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.8.2.3 Characteristics of ImplicatureConversational implicatures have four distinct features:a. Calculability(可推导性) The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and hearers are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable. As previously pointed out, conversational implicatures can be inferred from the utterance on the basis of the cooperative principle and its maxims.b. Cancellability(可取消性) It can be cancelled, either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or, implicitly, by the co-text and context.A: Do you want some coffee?B: Coffee would keep me awake. (But any way, I’d like some.)c. Non-detachability（非可分离性）By non-detachability is meant that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. In other words, an implicature will not be detached, separated from the utterance as a whole, even though the specific words may be changed.A: Are you coming to the concert tomorrow?B1: There will be an exam soon.B2: Won’t there be an exam soon?B3: There will be an exam, won’t there?d. Non-Conventionality(非常规性)/Open-endedness(不确定性)An utterance may have different conversational implicatures depending on the different hypotheses made by the speaker and the hearer. For example, the metaphorical expression “Money is a lens in a camera”allows the following two interpretations from different points of view:(a) If we emphasize their resemblance in function, the sentence implicates “Money or greed for money can cause people to reveal their true feelings or characters, just like a lens in a camera can reflect and record images of people or things sharply and objectively”;(b) If we focus on the resemblance in value between “money” and “a lens in a camera”, the sentence implicates “Money is as valuable as a lens in a camera”.Implicature is indeterminate, which varies with the context.8.3.1Relevance Theory关联理论认为言语交际是一种明示—推理的认知活动。
Chapter8语言学
Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。
英语语言学概论第八章笔记
英语语言学概论第八章笔记Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics 社会语言学1.What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。
nguage variation 语言变异a)S peech community 言语社区In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are treated as members of social groups. The social group isolated for any given study is called speech community. A speech community thus defined as a group of people who form a community (which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.社会语言学研究中，说话者被当作是社会群体的成员。
英语语言学课件Chapter 8 Morphology-PPT课件
Morphemes
• “A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.” • Reopened: re- + open + -ed • Tourists: tour + -ist + -s
Free and Bound Morphemes
• Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words: open, tour • Bound morphemes: cannot normally stand alone, but typically attached to another form: re-, -ist, -ed, -s. • All affixes in Eng are bound • Stem: when used with bound morphemes, the basic word-form involved is technically known as the stem • Undress -ed • Prefix stem suffix • bound free bound
Free and Bound Morphemes
• This type of description is a partial simplification of the morphological facts of Eng. • Re- in words: receive, reduce, repeat • But –ceive, -duce- and –peat are not free morphemes • Bound stems and free stems (dress, care)
现代英语语言学理论 CHAPTER 8
Pragmatics may be defined as the study of meaning. The word meaning may have many different meanings. In semantics, meaning depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. Meaning depends more on the context.
8.2 Speech Act Theory
This theory originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin. In 1955, when he went to America to deliver the William James lectures, he revised the notes and changed the title from Words and Deeds to How to Do Things with Words, which was published posthumously in 1962.
8.1 Pragmatics
Or rather, you do know the speaker’s intention, but you want to use “What do you mean?” as a denial of what he has asserted. This kind of meaning is sometimes referred to as SPEAKER’S MEANING, UTTERANCE MEANING, or CONTEXTUAL MEANING. The discipline, which concentrates on this kind of meaning, is called PRAGMATICS.
自考本科英语语言学Chapter8LanguageAndSociety
Chapter 8 Language And Society1. Language is not only used to communicate meaning, but also used to establishand maintain social relationships.1. The relatedness between language and society2. The users of the same language in a sense all speak differently related to their语言和社会的关联social background.3. The structure of language vocabulary is different,reflects both the physical andsocial environments of a society.There are different words about snow in Eskimo.1.The scope of sociolinguistics 1. Speech community (linguistic community) : is widely used by sociolinguists to refer to社会语言学范围 2. Speech community and speech variety a community mainly based language. It’s generally defined as a group of people who言语社团和言语变体have the opportunity to interact with each other and there are exist various social groupsdefined not only by the speaker’s geographical background, but also by their educationalbackground, their occupation, gender, age, or ethnic affiliation.2. Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech usedby a speaker or a group of speakers. Linguistic features of a speech variety can be foundat the lexical, the phonological, the morphological, or the syntactical level of the languageThree types of speech variety: regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies1 Regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. (同一地理区域使用的)2.V arieties of language 2 sociolect: refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (特定社会阶层使用的)语言的各种变体 1. Dialectal varieties 3 language and gender.女性的语言比男性“更正确”原因在女性对自己身份更看重(more status-conscious)4 idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age5 language and age6 ethnic dialect; is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it’s mainly spoken by a lessprivileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination and segregation1. Field of discourse语场：指社会行为的类型，即正在进行的活动的领域和目的，包括谈话的主题。
语言学教程第二版第八章答案
语言学教程第二版第八章答案I. Read each of the following statements and questions carefully. Choose the letter A, B, C or D to complete the statement or to answer the question. (2.5* 20= 50 Scores)1. Linguistics is the scientific study of______. [单选题] *A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human languages in general(正确答案)D. the system of a particular language2. What function does the following dialogue have according to the functions of language?-- A nice day, isn’t it?--Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.[单选题] *A. Emotive.B. Phatic.(正确答案)C. Performative.D. Interpersonal.3. Language can be used to talk about language itself, to help listeners or readers to get clues about the logicial thoughts or attitudes etc of the speakers’ or the writers’. Such language function is called _____. [单选题] *A. phatic function.B. recreational function.C. emotive function.D. metalingual function.(正确答案)4. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______. [单选题] *A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptive(正确答案)D. linguistic5. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language froma ________ point of view. [单选题] *A. sociological…psychological(正确答案)B. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD. semantic…linguistic6. Which is the branch of linguistics that studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription? [单选题] *A. Phonetics(正确答案)B. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics7. The core branch of linguistics excludes ______. [单选题] *A. semanticsB. morphologyC. phoneticsD. psycholinguistics(正确答案)8. Of all the speech organs, the _____ is/are the most flexible. [单选题] *A. mouthB. lipsC. tongue(正确答案)D. vocal cords9. A _____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position. [单选题] *A. backB. centralC. front(正确答案)D. middle10. Open vowels don’t contain _______. [单选题] *A. [i](正确答案)B. [a]C. [a:]D. [ɔ]11. The naming theory was put forward by _______. [单选题] *A. Plato(正确答案)B. ChomskyC. Ogden RichardD. Firth12. “Male”and" female"are _________. [单选题] *A. stylistic antonymsB. relational antonymsC. gradable antonymsD. complementary antonyms(正确答案)13. “Can I borrow your bike?”_________“You have a bike”. [单选题] *A. is synonymous withB. presupposes(正确答案)C. entailsD. is inconsistent with14. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ________. [单选题] *A. primaryB. correctC. secondary(正确答案)D. stable15. The core branch of linguistics excludes ______. [单选题] *A. semanticsB. morphologyC. phoneticsD. psycholinguistics(正确答案)16. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language? [单选题] *A. Competence(正确答案)B. ParoleC. PerformanceD. Langue17. Unlike animal communication systems, human languag is _____. [单选题] *A. stimulus-free(正确答案)B. stimulus-drivenC. under immediate stimulus controlD. simulated by some occurrence of communal interest18. Among the three metafunctions of languages proposed by Halliday (1994), _____, the participatory function of langauge, enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context. [单选题] *A. ideational function.B. interpersonal function.(正确答案)C. textual function.D. perfomative function19. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______. [单选题] *A. displacement(正确答案)B. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission20. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct. [单选题] *A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B(正确答案)II. Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with a word or words, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. (2.5* 20= 50 Scores)21. D_____ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that langauge consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：uality)22. Language is p______ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：roductive)23. T______ function of language creates relevance to context and enables us to construct texts out of our utterances and writings. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：extual)24. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k______of the rules of his language. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：nowledge)25. Langue refers to the a______ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：bstract)26. P_______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：arole)27. S_______ is the father of modern linguistics. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：aussure)28. S________ is the study of the meaning of words and sentences. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：emantics)29. Linguistic study in the 19th century was primarily about the d_______ studies. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：iachronic)30. IPA indicates International Phonetics A______. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：lphabet)31. A c_____ is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：onsonant)32. E_______ is a relation of inclusion. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：ntailment)33. "There"and"their" are h_______. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：omophones)34. "Light"and"heavy are g_______ antonyms. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：radable)35. I________ function of language enacts social relationships. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：nterpersonal)36. The d_____ theory sees that the origin of language is from people’s response to the things around them by sounds. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：ing-dong)37. Human capacity for language has a g________ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：enetic)38. C_______ analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：omponential)39. P______ function of language can be used to maintain comfortable social relationship between speakers. [填空题] *_________________________________(答案：hatic)40. Lanauge is v________ as the primary medium for all languges is sound. [填空题] * _________________________________(答案：ocal)。
英语语言学八(8.2.3)
• (1) Calulability • (2) Cancellability • (3) Non-detachability • (4) Non-conventionality
•(1)Calculability
• The fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and listeners are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable. They can be worked out on the basis of some previous information. He also lists some necessary datas in his paper.
It means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. In other words,an implicature will not be detached, separated from the utterance as a whole, even thoue changed.
• He suggests there is a general pattern for the working out of a conversation implicature • That is--when somebody says something,which apparently does not make sense at superfical lever,the lever of what is said,you will not simply think that he is taking nonsense and stop thinking about it any more. • If you find there is something supporting your previous assumptions, you will take it as the real point the speaker is trying to get across.
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 8 Language and society
Chapter 8 Language and society语言和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核目标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应用：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应用：Halliday’s register theory一、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语言学是语言学中的一个次领域，它研究语言与社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。
语言学chapter 8 part two
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
1. The cooperative principle
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
they?
A: What do you think of the lecture? B: He’s a good cook.
Chapter 8 Language in UUAGES COLLEGE
4) Violation of the Maxim of Manner
relation
Be relevant.
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
manner
Be perspicuous.
1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity.
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Part Two
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
2）Cancellability or DEFEASIBILITY（可废除性) The presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts. So if any of them changes, the implicature will also change. 可取消性一般由两个因素引起：一是说话人在原先的话语 上附加一个分句来表明（或暗示）自己要取消（或废除） 原来说话的语用含义；二是话语在特定的语境中表明（或 暗示）说话人意欲取消（或废除）该话语中的语用含义。
英语语言学 第八章
dialects, sociolects and registers.
Varieties of language
Language: what the members of a particular society speak Variety: „a set of linguistic items with similar distribution‟ (Hudson): English, French, London English, the English of football commentaries…
蹩脚bilge船底污水引申为肮脏的下三滥的劣质的大兴dashy浮华的华而不实的引申为假的冒牌的劣质的sale二手货贱卖引申为垃圾货形容人的品质低劣瘪三begsir乞丐先生用来形容叫花子难民逃荒者等各式穷人后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一
• Language is not always used to
exchange information as is generally
each of them chooses to use is in
part determined by one’s social background. – When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about
our origin and our background.
language live.
1. The relations between language and society
----There are many indications of the interrelationship between language and society.
英语语言学：chapter 8 Language in use
conversational maxims is called the cooperative principle. ▪ Conversational maxim: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges.
she left.
▪ Sometimes the first Quality maxim is violated. ▪ Ex. ▪ 1. 一切反动派都是纸老虎。 ▪ 2. He is made of iron. ▪ 3. Every nice girl loves a sailor.
▪ Sometimes the Relation maxim is violated. ▪ Ex.: ▪ A: Can you fly to Edinburgh tomorrow? ▪ B: The pilots are on strike.
▪ 2. Violation of the maxims
▪ Lies are not implicatures proper. So the cases Grice discusses are all blatant, apparent violations. The speaker has shown it clearly that some maxims are violated, yet at a deeper level the CP can still be thought to be upheld.
英语语言学Chapter 8 Lanague in Use3.8 CHAPTER EIGHT
QUALITY Try to make your contribution on that is
true. 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack
COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE (CP) “Make your conversational contribution
such as is required , at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”(Grice 1975:45).
this summer, hasn’t it?
Violation of Manner maxims Example 1: violation of “avoid
obscurity” A: Let’s get the kids something. B: Okey, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M-S.
IMPLICATURE( 含 义 ) : the implied meaning
1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).
Disadvantages of felicity conditions There might be cases that one does not need
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society? 答：There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “ Good morning! ” , “ Hi! ” , “ How's your family? ” , “ Nice day today, isn Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoid giving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word in English for “ snow ” , there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos tomake distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. T o a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in English accents withoutpostvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correct than without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. 答：The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every language or language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say, language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, the much-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each other without feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure English because it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result, many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that the evaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointly determine idiolect?答：The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender and age. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way he/she talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized bya number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language? 答：First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercialcenter. Forexample, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Some government agenc y writes grammar books and dictionaries to ,fix? this variety and everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codified grammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen tolearn to use the correct language and to avoid ,incorrect? language. Therefore, the standard dialect is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own. 答：According to Halliday, “Languagevaries as its function varies; it differs in different situations. Th”e type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified as Field: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher —students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?答：(1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; th us “ passed ” is pronouncede[np]a,:dse],smk e[dneds[]m, and told[t??l].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is the deletion of the link verb“be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without thecopula verb: “They mine ”, “You crazy ”, “Her hands cold ”, and “That house big verb deletion is not a. In fac unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black English that has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions,e.g.(8 —2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 —3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make a positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English of theearlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have?答：Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “ simplified var”iety performs its functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?答：Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different role to play as situation changes.。
语言学 第八章
Chapter 8
Language and Society
8.2 Varieties of language
Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers 8.2.1. Dialectal varieties 8.2.1.1 Regional dialect : is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. The change from one dialect to another is very often a gradual process Reason:1 geographical barriers 2 loyalty to one’s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change
Speech Community:
For general linguistics: speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language For sociolinguistics: speech community is a group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes towards linguistic norms
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Ⅱ．Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1．P ________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication．2．What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered．3．The notion of c_______ is essential to the pragmatic study of language．4．If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u_______ ．5．The meaning of a sentence is a_______ ,and decontexualized．6．C_______ were statements that either state or describe,and were thus verifiable．7．P_______ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable．8．A l_______ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology．9．An i______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something．10．A c _______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action．11．An e_______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state．12．There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______ , the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner．13．P _______ is the study of language in relation to the mind．14．Psycholinguistics adopts an e_______ approach．15．The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called h_______ , one on he right and one on the left．16．The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular side of the brain is called l_______ ．17．Brain lateralization is g_______ programmed, but takes time to develop．18．According to Chomsky, c_______ is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language．19．The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period from about age two to puberty, which is called the c_______ period for first language acquisition．20．The strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two aspects: linguistic d_______ and linguistic relativism．21．Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background．This notion is called linguistic r_______ ．22．Langue comprehending is a complicated process that includes hearing and distinguishing the sound, comprehending the meaning and making r_______ ．23．Language production contains language f _______ and carrying our it24．According to the Cognitive Theory ,the development of the linguistic ability can’t precede that of the c _______ abilityIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the1. The study of _____ does NOT form the core of linguistics.A. syntaxB. PragmaticsC. MorphologyD. sociolinguistics2. If the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use, a branch of linguistic study called _____ come into being.A. syntaxB. SemanticsC. MorphologyD. pragmatics3. Which of the following statements is not the concern of psycholinguistics?A. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use languageB. It relates the social norms that determine the type of language to be used in a certain occasion.C. It pays more attention to the study of language acquisition in childrenD. It focuses on the way of processing the information we receive in the course of communication.4. Which of the following words is the entire arbitrary one?A. bookB. beautifulC. crashD. newspaper5. Which of the following items is not a design feature of human language？A. arbitrarinessB. competenceC. displacementD. productivity6. The difference between modern linguistics and traditional grammar are all of the following EXCEPT --_______A. descriptive vs. prescriptiveB. non Latin-based vs. Latin-based frameworkC. spoken vs. writtenD. competence vs. performance7. The term _____ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stage.A. synchronicB. comparativeC. diachronicD. historical comparative8. Which word is the absolute arbitrary one?A. carefulB. handbagC. crackD. table9. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics10. ______ is regarded as the “Father of modern linguistics”.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Whorf11. Competence refers to ________.A. the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageB. the actual realization of the language user’s knowledge of the rules in utterancesC. knowledge of meaning of words and sentencesD. what speakers can actually do with language12. The subject area on the borders of linguistics and literature has become known as _____ .A. anthropological linguisticsB. linguistic stylisticsC. neurolinguisticsD. mathematical linguistics13. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinction between________.A. prescriptive & descriptiveB. synchronic and diachronicC. speech and writingD. langue & parole14. _____ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. applied linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. anthropological linguistics15. Children can speak before they can read or write shows that ______.A. language is arbitraryB. language is productiveC. language is used for communicationD. language is basically vocal16. _____ means the lack of logical connection between the form of something and its expression in sounds.A. AmbiguityB. FuzzinessC. AbstractnessD. Arbitrariness17. Which of the following statements about language is NOT TRUE?A. Language means the system of pronunciation, grammar and vocabularyB. Language includes animal and artificial features of languageC. Language means a particular type or style of language used for a particular purposeD. Language refers to the common features of all human languages18. All human languages are organized on two levels: the sound level – meaningless, the grammatical level – meaningful. This means language has the design feature of _______.A. dualityB. changeableC. CreativeD. arbitrary19. ____ are two sub-branches of linguistics that study the units at the grammatical level.A. morphology and semanticsB. morphology and syntaxC. semantics and syntaxD. morphology and phonology20. ____ dictionary established a uniform standard for English spelling and word use.A. LongmanB. OxfordC. Webster’sD. Johnson’s21. Langue & Parole are a pair of important distinctions put forward by _______ .A. ChomskyB. LyonsC. SaussureD. Halliday22. Language has the feature of ____ in the sense that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.A. dualityB. interchangeabilityC. displacementD. productivity23. Linguistics gives priority to the spoken language instead of the written language because______.A. vocal sounds are derived from writing systemsB. spoken language precedes written language only in Indo-European languagesC. we have recording devices to study speech in modern timesD. speech precedes writing everywhere in the world24. The distinction between competence and performance is made by _____ in _______.A. F. de. Saussure; SwissB. Noam Chomsky; USAC. M. A. K. Halliday; UKD. L. Bloomfield; USA25. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic26. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness27. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable28. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above29. A historical study of language is a_______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative30. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a________ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. applied, pragmaticD. semantic, linguistic31. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language32. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas33. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______.A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission34. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。